Environmental impact of bitcoin

Short description: none

Bitcoin mining facility in Quebec, Canada

The environmental impact of bitcoin has been characterized in the literature as significant, particularly due to its energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and electronic waste. Bitcoin mining, the process by which bitcoins are created and transactions are finalized, is energy-consuming and results in carbon emissions,[1] as 48% of the electricity used in 2025 was generated through fossil fuels while 52% was generated through sustainable energy sources.[2] Moreover, bitcoins are mined on specialized computer hardware resulting in electronic waste.[3] Scholars argue that bitcoin mining could support renewable energy development by utilizing surplus electricity from wind and solar.[4] As of 2025[update], several empirical studies report an association between higher bitcoin-mining electricity use and worse environmental-sustainability indicators.[5][6][7] Bitcoin's environmental impact has attracted the attention of regulators, leading to incentives or restrictions in various jurisdictions.[8]

## Contents

* 1 Greenhouse gas emissions
* 1.1 Mining as an electricity-intensive process
* 1.2 Bitcoin mining energy mix
* 1.3 Environmental effects of electricity use
* 1.4 Proposed mitigation strategies and debate
* 1.5 Methane emissions
* 1.6 Comparison to other payment systems
* 2 Electronic waste
* 3 Noise pollution
* 4 Water footprint
* 5 Land footprint
* 6 Health and local air pollution
* 7 Regulatory responses
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 9.1 Works cited

## Greenhouse gas emissions

### Mining as an electricity-intensive process

Electricity consumption of the bitcoin network since 2016 (annualized). The upper and lower bounds are based on worst-case and best-case scenario assumptions, respectively. The red trace indicates an intermediate best-guess estimate.

Bitcoin mining is a highly electricity-intensive proof-of-work process.[1][9] Miners run dedicated software to compete against each other and be the first to solve the current 10 minute block, yielding them a reward in bitcoins.[10] A transition to the proof-of-stake protocol, which has better energy efficiency, has been described as a sustainable alternative to bitcoin's scheme and as a potential solution to its environmental issues.[9] Bitcoin advocates oppose such a change, arguing that proof of work is needed to secure the network.[11]

Bitcoin mining's distribution makes it difficult for researchers to identify the location of miners and electricity use. It is therefore difficult to translate energy consumption into carbon emissions.[12] As of 2025[update], a non-peer-reviewed study by the Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance (CCAF) estimated that bitcoin consumed 138 TWh (500 PJ) annually, representing 0.5% of the world's electricity consumption and resulting in annual greenhouse gas emissions of 39.8 Mt CO
2, representing 0.08% of global emissions and comparable to Slovakia's emissions.[2]

### Bitcoin mining energy mix

Until 2021, most bitcoin mining was done in China.[10] Chinese miners relied on cheap coal power in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia during late autumn, winter and spring, migrating to regions with overcapacities in low-cost hydropower (like Sichuan and Yunnan) between May and October.[13] After China banned bitcoin mining in June 2021, its mining operations moved to other countries.[10] By August 2021, mining was concentrated in the U.S. (35%), Kazakhstan (18%), and Russia (11%) instead.[14] The shift from coal resources in China to coal resources in Kazakhstan increased bitcoin's carbon footprint, as Kazakhstani coal plants use hard coal, which has the highest carbon content of all coal types.[13] Despite the ban, covert mining operations gradually came back to China, reaching 21% of global hashrate as of 2022[update].[15]

As of 2025[update], a CCAF report based on a survey of 49 bitcoin-mining firms (about 48% of network hashrate at the time of data collection) reported their electricity mix as renewables (43%), natural gas (38%), nuclear (10%), and coal (9%).[2] Research by the nonprofit tech company WattTime estimated that US miners consumed 54% fossil fuel-generated power.[11] In 2023, Jamie Coutts, a crypto analyst writing for Bloomberg Terminal, said that renewables represented about half of global bitcoin mining sources.[16]

### Environmental effects of electricity use

A study in Scientific Reports found that from 2016 to 2021, each US dollar worth of mined bitcoin caused 35 cents worth of climate damage, compared to 95 for coal, 41 for gasoline, 33 for beef, and 4 for gold mining.[17] A 2025 paper published in Nature Communications found that the 34 largest U.S. bitcoin mines consumed 32.3 TWh of electricity from Aug 2022 to July 2023, 33% more than Los Angeles. Fossil fuel power plants generated 85% of the increased electricity demand from these mines.[18]

The European Securities and Markets Authority and the European Central Bank suggested that using renewable energy for mining may limit the availability of clean energy for the general population.[1][19][20]

A 2025 study in Scientific Reports of ten major cryptocurrency-producing countries (2019–2022) found that Bitcoin mining's electricity use was linked to worse environmental sustainability. A larger share of renewables softened but did not eliminate these effects during the study period, and the impact on water use was limited.[5] A 2025 peer-reviewed study in Sustainable Development that used monthly data from 2015–2023 and DARDL/KRLS methods reported an association between higher Bitcoin-mining electricity use and worse environmental sustainability in an SDG-framed measure; the authors characterized this as a risk factor for sustainability goals.[6] A 2025 life-cycle assessment in ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering quantified Bitcoin's carbon, water, and land footprints, concluding that the network's resource consumption poses sustainability challenges and highlighting the need for technological advances and cleaner energy sources.[7]

### Proposed mitigation strategies and debate

Reducing the environmental impact of bitcoin is possible by mining only using clean electricity sources.[21] Bitcoin mining representatives argue that their industry creates opportunities for wind and solar companies,[22] leading to a debate on whether bitcoin could be an ESG investment.[23]

According to a 2023 ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering paper, bitcoin mining may offer opportunities to support greenhouse-gas reduction and the renewable-energy transition, by using otherwise-curtailed renewable-energy and acting as a flexible electricity load.[24] A 2023 review published in Resource and Energy Economics also concluded that bitcoin mining could increase renewable capacity but that it might increase carbon emissions and that mining bitcoin to provide demand response largely mitigated its environmental impact.[25] Two studies from 2023 and 2024 led by Fengqi You concluded that mining bitcoin off-grid during the precommercial phase (when a wind or solar farm is generating electricity but not yet integrated into the grid) could bring additional profits and therefore support renewable energy development and mitigate climate change.[4][26] Another 2024 study by Fengqi You published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America showed that pairing green hydrogen infrastructure with bitcoin mining can accelerate the deployment of solar and wind power capacities.[27][28] A 2024 study published in Heliyon simulated that a solar-powered bitcoin mining system could achieve a return on investment in 3.5 years compared to 8.1 years for selling electricity to the grid, while preventing 50,000 tons of CO2 emissions annually.[29] The authors note that proof-of-stake cryptocurrencies cannot provide these incentives.[29][30]

### Methane emissions

Bitcoin has been mined via electricity generated through the combustion of associated petroleum gas (APG), which is a methane-rich byproduct of crude oil drilling that is sometimes flared or released into the atmosphere.[31] Methane is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 28 to 36 times greater than CO
2.[8] By converting more of the methane to CO
2 than flaring alone would, using APG generators reduces the APG's contribution to the greenhouse effect, but this practice still harms the environment.[8] In places where flaring is prohibited this practice has allowed more oil drills to operate by offsetting costs, delaying fossil fuel phase-out.[8] Commenting on one pilot project with ExxonMobil, political scientist Paasha Mahdavi noted in 2022 that this process could potentially allow oil companies to report lower emissions by selling gas leaks, shifting responsibility to buyers and avoiding a real reduction commitment.[32] According to a 2024 paper published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, bitcoin mining can finance methane mitigation of landfill gases. [33]

### Comparison to other payment systems

In 2018 Nature Climate Change published a study on projections of Bitcoin growth authored by Camilo Mora and fellow researchers from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. The paper considered the potential effects on global CO2 emissions should Bitcoin eventually replace other cashless transactions, finding that the associated energy consumption of Bitcoin usage could potentially produce enough CO2 emissions to lead to a 2°C increase in global mean average temperature within 30 years under certain assumptions.[34][35] Several subsequent papers contested the researchers' assumptions.[34][36][37][38] Mora and fellow publishers of the original article defended their paper.[34][39]

In a 2023 study published in Ecological Economics, researchers from the International Monetary Fund estimated that the global payment system represented about 0.2% of global electricity consumption, comparable to the consumption of Portugal or Bangladesh.[40] For bitcoin, energy used is estimated around 500 kWh per transaction, compared to 0.001 kWh for credit cards (not including consumption from the merchant's bank, which receives the payment).[40] However, bitcoin's energy expenditure is not directly linked to the number of transactions. Layer 2 solutions, like the Lightning Network, and batching, allow bitcoin to process more payments than the number of on-chain transactions suggests.[40][41] For instance, in 2022, bitcoin processed 100 million transactions per year, representing 250 million payments.[40]

OECD notes that a direct comparison between blockchains, which are an infrastructure technology, and the energy consumption of financial sector activity may not be an appropriate comparison.[42]

## Electronic waste

For broader coverage of this topic, see Electronic waste § Cryptocurrency e-waste.

The total active mining equipment in the bitcoin network and the related electronic waste generation, from July 2014 to July 2021

Bitcoins are usually mined on specialized computing hardware, called application-specific integrated circuits, with no alternative use beyond bitcoin mining.[3] Due to the consistent increase of the bitcoin network's hashrate, one 2021 study estimated that mining devices had an average lifespan of 1.3 years until they became unprofitable and had to be replaced, resulting in significant electronic waste.[3] This study estimated bitcoin's annual e-waste to be over 30,000 tonnes (comparable to the small IT equipment waste produced by the Netherlands) and each transaction to result in 272 g (9.6 oz) of e-waste.[3] A 2024 systematic review criticized this estimate and argued, based on market sales and IPO data, that bitcoin mining hardware lifespan was closer to 4–5 years.[43] According to the CCAF, e-waste is significantly lower, estimated at 2,300 tonnes in 2024 as 87% of hardware is recycled, sold or repurposed.[2]

## Noise pollution

Field measurements around several large U.S. bitcoin mines show steady background sound in nearby residential areas commonly in the mid-30s to low-50s dBA, with higher levels closer to the mining facility. A 2024 consultant study commissioned by Hood County, Texas, measured background levels ranging from 35–53 dBA and recorded a maximum around 59 dBA at two neighborhood locations, while measurements near the site ranged 60–65 dBA.[44] Separately, a 2022 Washington Post investigation that logged ~19,750 one-minute readings outside homes near a North Carolina cryptomine found sound levels above 55 dBA in 98% of readings and above 60 dBA in over 30% of readings.[45] Mitigation approaches reported by operators and consultants include acoustic barriers, equipment enclosures, optimized fan controls, and immersion cooling; however, effectiveness and adoption vary by site.[46][47]

## Water footprint

According to a 2023 non-peer-reviewed commentary, bitcoin's water footprint reached 1,600 gigalitres (5.7×1010 cu ft) in 2021, due to direct water consumption on site and indirect consumption from electricity generation.[48] The author notes that this water footprint could be mitigated by using immersion cooling and power sources that do not require freshwater such as wind, solar, and thermoelectric power generation with dry cooling.[48]

As of 2025[update], an investigation by The Texas Observer reported that a bitcoin mining facility in Corpus Christi, Texas, used approximately 127,500 gallons of fresh water per day, based on municipal billing data.[49]

## Land footprint

A 2023 study in Earth's Future estimated the global land-use footprint attributable to bitcoin mining in 2020–2021 at 1,870 km2 (720 sq mi), about 1.4 times the area of Los Angeles.[50]

## Health and local air pollution

A 2025 study in Nature Communications found that the demand from 34 large U.S. bitcoin mines increased PM2.5 pollution and exposed about 1.9 million people to ≥0.1 μg/m3 additional PM2.5, sometimes far from the mines.[18] A 2024 review in Environmental Research linked proof-of-work mining to higher air pollution and potential health risks, and calling for mitigation and better data.[51] A 2024 JAMA Viewpoint described potential community hazards from cryptocurrency mining, including air and noise pollution, and recommended protections for vulnerable groups.[52] One 2020 paper found that, in 2018, each US$1 of bitcoin created was associated with about US$0.49 in combined health and climate damages in the United States (US$0.37 in China).[53] A 2024 analysis estimated the climate and health damages from U.S. mining during 2019–2021 exceeded the value of coins generated in many geographic hotspots.[54]

## Regulatory responses

China's 2021 bitcoin mining ban was partly motivated by its role in illegal coal mining and environmental concerns.[55][56]

In September 2022, the US Office of Science and Technology Policy highlighted the need for increased transparency about electricity usage, greenhouse gas emissions, and e-waste.[57] In November 2022, the US Environmental Protection Agency confirmed working on the climate impacts of cryptocurrency mining.[58] In the US, New York State banned new fossil fuel mining plants with a two-year moratorium, citing environmental concerns,[8] while Iowa, Kentucky, Montana, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, and Wyoming encourage bitcoin mining with tax breaks.[8][59] Texas incentives aim to cut methane emissions from flared gas using bitcoin mining.[59] In January 2024, the US Energy Information Administration launched a mandatory survey of cryptocurrency miner energy use but suspended it one month later after it was successfully challenged by miners before the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas.[60]

In Canada, due to high demand from the industry and concerned that their renewable electricity could be better used, the provinces Manitoba and British Columbia paused new connections of bitcoin mining facilities to the hydroelectric grid in late 2022 for 18 months while Hydro-Québec increased prices and capped usage for bitcoin miners.[61]

In October 2022, due to the global energy crisis, the European Commission invited member states to lower the electricity consumption of crypto-asset miners and end tax breaks and other incentives benefiting them.[62]

## See also

* Environmental impact of artificial intelligence
* Environmental impact of computers

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Huang, Jon; O'Neill, Claire; Tabuchi, Hiroko (3 September 2021). "Bitcoin Uses More Electricity Than Many Countries. How Is That Possible?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/09/03/climate/bitcoin-carbon-footprint-electricity.html.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Cambridge Digital Mining Industry Report: Global Operations, Sentiment, and Energy Use - CCAF publications" (in en-GB). https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/faculty-research/centres/alternative-finance/publications/cambridge-digital-mining-industry-report/.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 de Vries, Alex; Stoll, Christian (December 2021). "Bitcoin's growing e-waste problem". Resources, Conservation and Recycling 175. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105901. ISSN 0921-3449. Bibcode: 2021RCR...17505901D. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344921005103. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lal, Apoorv; Zhu, Jesse; You, Fengqi (2023-11-13). "From Mining to Mitigation: How Bitcoin Can Support Renewable Energy Development and Climate Action" (in en). ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11 (45): 16330–16340. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c05445. ISSN 2168-0485. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c05445. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Radulescu, Magdalena; Si Mohammed, Kamel; Nassani, Abdelmohsen A.; Dascalu, Nicoleta (2025-03-10). "Evaluating the environmental effects of bitcoin mining on energy and water use in the context of energy transition" (in en). Scientific Reports 15: 8230. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-92314-z. PMC 11894042. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-92314-z.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Çelik, Ali; Özırmak, Metehan (2025). "Understanding the Association Between Bitcoin Mining and Environmental Sustainability in Light of the Sustainable Development Goals Through the DARDL and KRLS Methods". Sustainable Development 33 (5): 6505–6527. doi:10.1002/sd.3471. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sd.3471. Retrieved 11 November 2025.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Sial, N. R.; Qyyum, M. A.; Lal, A.; You, F. (2025). "Assessing the Environmental Footprint of Bitcoin: A Comprehensive Analysis of Water, Land, and Carbon Impacts". ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 13 (27): 10326–10338. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c00225. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c00225. Retrieved 12 November 2025.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Stoll, Christian; Klaaßen, Lena; Gallersdörfer, Ulrich; Neumüller, Alexander (June 2023). ﻿Climate Impacts of Bitcoin Mining in the U.S.﻿ (Report). Working Paper Series. MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep51839. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Wendl, Moritz; Doan, My Hanh; Sassen, Remmer (15 January 2023). "The environmental impact of cryptocurrencies using proof of work and proof of stake consensus algorithms: A systematic review". Journal of Environmental Management 326 (Pt A). doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116530. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 36372031. Bibcode: 2023JEnvM.32616530W. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030147972202103X. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 de Vries et al. 2022, p. 498.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Dance, Gabriel J. X.; Wallace, Tim; Levitt, Zach (2023-04-10). "The Real-World Costs of the Digital Race for Bitcoin" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/09/business/bitcoin-mining-electricity-pollution.html.
12. ↑ Neumueller, Alexander (31 August 2023). "Bitcoin electricity consumption: an improved assessment" (in en-GB). https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/2023/bitcoin-electricity-consumption.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 de Vries et al. 2022, p. 499.
14. ↑ de Vries et al. 2022, Data S1.
15. ↑ Akhtar, Tanzeel; Shukla, Sidhartha (17 May 2022). "China Makes a Comeback in Bitcoin Mining Despite Government Ban" (in en). Bloomberg News. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-05-17/china-makes-a-comeback-in-bitcoin-mining-despite-government-ban.
16. ↑ Coutts, Jamie Douglas (2023-09-14). "Bitcoin and the Energy Debate: Bitcoin's Energy Narrative Reverses as Sustainables Exceed 50%". Bloomberg Terminal.
17. ↑ Jones, Benjamin A.; Goodkind, Andrew L.; Berrens, Robert P. (29 September 2022). "Economic estimation of Bitcoin mining's climate damages demonstrates closer resemblance to digital crude than digital gold" (in en). Scientific Reports 12 (1): 14512. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-18686-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 36175441. Bibcode: 2022NatSR..1214512J.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Guidi, Gianluca; Dominici, Francesca; Steinsultz, Nat; Dance, Gabriel; Henneman, Lucas; Richardson, Henry; Castro, Edgar; Bargagli-Stoffi, Falco J. et al. (2025-03-26). "The environmental burden of the United States' bitcoin mining boom". Nature Communications 16: 2970. doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58287-3. PMID 40140387. PMC 11947435. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11947435/. Retrieved 2025-10-23.
19. ↑ Szalay, Eva (19 January 2022). "EU should ban energy-intensive mode of crypto mining, regulator says". Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/8a29b412-348d-4f73-8af4-1f38e69f28cf.
20. ↑ Gschossmann, Isabella; van der Kraaij, Anton; Benoit, Pierre-Loïc; Rocher, Emmanuel (11 July 2022). "Mining the environment – is climate risk priced into crypto-assets?" (in en). Macroprudential Bulletin (European Central Bank) (18). https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/financial-stability/macroprudential-bulletin/html/ecb.mpbu202207_3~d9614ea8e6.en.html. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
21. ↑ de Vries et al. 2022, pp. 501–502.
22. ↑ Yaffe-Bellany, David (March 22, 2022). "Bitcoin Miners Want to Recast Themselves as Eco-Friendly". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/22/technology/bitcoin-miners-environment-crypto.html.
23. ↑ Mundy, Simon; Yoshida, Kaori (2023-12-12). "COP28: The struggle to say 'fossil fuels' out loud". https://www.ft.com/content/b26b5af8-0cf1-424b-bafc-d2ce4760a28c.
24. ↑ Velický, Matěj (27 February 2023). "Renewable Energy Transition Facilitated by Bitcoin" (in en). ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11 (8): 3160–3169. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c06077. ISSN 2168-0485.
25. ↑ Bruno, August; Weber, Paige; Yates, Andrew J. (August 2023). "Can Bitcoin mining increase renewable electricity capacity?". Resource and Energy Economics 74. doi:10.1016/j.reseneeco.2023.101376. ISSN 0928-7655. Bibcode: 2023REEco..7401376B.
26. ↑ Lal, Apoorv; Niaz, Haider; Liu, J. Jay; You, Fengqi (2024-02-01). "Can bitcoin mining empower energy transition and fuel sustainable development goals in the US?" (in en). Journal of Cleaner Production 439. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140799. Bibcode: 2024JCPro.43940799L. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652624002464.
27. ↑ Lal, Apoorv; You, Fengqi (2024-04-02). "Climate sustainability through a dynamic duo: Green hydrogen and crypto driving energy transition and decarbonization" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121 (14). doi:10.1073/pnas.2313911121. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 38527203. Bibcode: 2024PNAS..12113911L.
28. ↑ "Crypto, green hydrogen form 'dynamic duo' to thwart climate change" (in en). https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2024/03/crypto-green-hydrogen-form-dynamic-duo-thwart-climate-change.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Hakimi, Ali; Pazuki, Mohammad-Mahdi; Salimi, Mohsen; Amidpour, Majid (2024-11-30). "Renewable energy and cryptocurrency: A dual approach to economic viability and environmental sustainability" (in English). Heliyon 10 (22). doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39765. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 11693900. https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(24)15796-9.
30. ↑ Kuang, Wei (2025-06-18). "Greening crypto portfolios: the diversification and safe haven potential of clean cryptocurrencies" (in en). Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 12 (1): 850. doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04910-z. ISSN 2662-9992. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-025-04910-z.
31. ↑ Lorenzato, Gianni; Tordo, Silvana; Howells, Huw Martyn; Berg, Berend van den (2022-05-20) (in en). Financing Solutions to Reduce Natural Gas Flaring and Methane Emissions. World Bank. pp. 98–104. ISBN 978-1-4648-1850-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=TU9uEAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 21 November 2023.
32. ↑ Calma, Justine (4 April 2022). "Why fossil fuel companies see green in Bitcoin mining projects / And why it's risky business". The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2022/5/4/23055761/exxonmobil-cryptomining-bitcoin-methane-gas.
33. ↑ Rudd, Murray A.; Jones, Matthew; Sechrest, Daniel; Batten, Daniel; Porter, Dennis (2024-08-28). "An integrated landfill gas-to-energy and Bitcoin mining framework" (in en). Journal of Cleaner Production. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143516. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652624029652.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Clark, Corrie E. (2026-04-22). "Cryptocurrency Mining and the Electricity Sector". Congressional Research Service. https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R48914.
35. ↑ Mora, Camilo; Rollins, Randi L.; Taladay, Katie; Kantar, Michael B.; Chock, Mason K.; Shimada, Mio; Franklin, Erik C. (November 2018). "Bitcoin emissions alone could push global warming above 2°C" (in en). Nature Climate Change 8 (11): 931–933. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0321-8. ISSN 1758-6798. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0321-8.
36. ↑ Masanet, Eric; Shehabi, Arman; Lei, Nuoa; Vranken, Harald; Koomey, Jonathan; Malmodin, Jens (September 2019). "Implausible projections overestimate near-term Bitcoin CO2 emissions" (in en). Nature Climate Change 9 (9): 653–654. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0535-4. ISSN 1758-6798. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0535-4.
37. ↑ Houy, Nicolas (September 2019). "Rational mining limits Bitcoin emissions" (in en). Nature Climate Change 9 (9): 655–655. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0533-6. ISSN 1758-6798. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0533-6.
38. ↑ Dittmar, Lars; Praktiknjo, Aaron (September 2019). "Could Bitcoin emissions push global warming above 2 °C?" (in en). Nature Climate Change 9 (9): 656–657. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0534-5. ISSN 1758-6798. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0534-5.
39. ↑ Mora, Camilo; Rollins, Randi L.; Taladay, Katie; Kantar, Michael B.; Chock, Mason K.; Shimada, Mio; Franklin, Erik C. (September 2019). "Mora et al. reply" (in en). Nature Climate Change 9 (9): 658–659. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0538-1. ISSN 1758-678X. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0538-1.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 Agur, Itai; Lavayssière, Xavier; Villegas Bauer, Germán; Deodoro, Jose; Martinez Peria, Soledad; Sandri, Damiano; Tourpe, Hervé (October 2023). "Lessons from crypto assets for the design of energy efficient digital currencies" (in en). Ecological Economics 212. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2023.107888. Bibcode: 2023EcoEc.21207888A. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921800923001519. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
41. ↑ Heinonen, Henri T.; Semenov, Alexander; Veijalainen, Jari; Hamalainen, Timo (14 July 2022). "A Survey on Technologies Which Make Bitcoin Greener or More Justified". IEEE Access 10: 74792–74814. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3190891. Bibcode: 2022IEEEA..1074792H.
42. ↑ ﻿Environmental impact of digital assets: Crypto-asset mining and DLT consensus mechanisms﻿ (Report). OECD Business and Finance Policy Papers. OECD Publishing. 2022. doi:10.1787/8d834684-en. https://doi.org/10.1787/8d834684-en.
43. ↑ Sai, Ashish Rajendra; Vranken, Harald (2024). "Promoting rigor in blockchain energy and environmental footprint research: A systematic literature review". Blockchain: Research and Applications 5 (1). doi:10.1016/j.bcra.2023.100169. ISSN 2096-7209.
44. ↑ ﻿Noise Review: Marathon Digital Holdings Bitcoin Mine, Hood County, Texas﻿ (Report). HGC Noise Vibration Acoustics. 2024-11-01. https://hoodcountytx.documents-on-demand.com/document/446290f6-6aa7-ef11-a428-000c29a59557/2024.11.01 Cryptocurrency Mine Sound Level Investigation. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
45. ↑ Williams, Kevin (2022-08-31). "A neighborhood's cryptocurrency mine: 'Like a jet that never leaves'". The Washington Post (interactive). https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/interactive/2022/cryptocurrency-mine-noise-homes-nc/.
46. ↑ Williams, Kevin (2022-08-31). "A neighborhood's cryptocurrency mine: 'Like a jet that never leaves'". The Washington Post (interactive). https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/interactive/2022/cryptocurrency-mine-noise-homes-nc/.
47. ↑ ﻿Noise Review: Marathon Digital Holdings Bitcoin Mine, Hood County, Texas﻿ (Report). HGC Noise Vibration Acoustics. 2024-11-01. https://hoodcountytx.documents-on-demand.com/document/446290f6-6aa7-ef11-a428-000c29a59557/2024.11.01 Cryptocurrency Mine Sound Level Investigation. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 de Vries, Alex (November 29, 2023). "Bitcoin's growing water footprint". Cell Reports Sustainability 1. doi:10.1016/j.crsus.2023.100004.
49. ↑ Bernd, Candice (2025-11-10). "Crypto's Cryptic Texas Takeover". The Texas Observer. https://www.texasobserver.org/crypto-energy-grid-texas-bitcoin-water/.
50. ↑ Chamanara, Sanaz; Ghaffarizadeh, Arman; Madani, Kaveh (24 October 2023). "The environmental footprint of bitcoin mining across the globe: Call for urgent action". Earth's Future 11 (10). doi:10.1029/2023EF003871. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023EF003871.
51. ↑ Tayebi, Shali; Amini, Heresh (2024-07-01). "The flip side of the coin: Exploring the environmental and health impacts of proof-of-work cryptocurrency mining". Environmental Research 252. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.118798. PMID 38555086. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0013935124007023.
52. ↑ Willis, Mary D.; Casey, Joan A.; Buonocore, Jonathan J. (2024-09-26). "Potential Health Hazards of Cryptocurrency Mining: Protecting Health in a "Digital Oil Boom"". JAMA 332 (16): 1329–1330. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.15917. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2824114.
53. ↑ Goodkind, Andrew L.; Jones, Benjamin A.; Berrens, Robert P. (2020). "Cryptodamages: Monetary value estimates of the air pollution and human health impacts of cryptocurrency mining". Energy Research & Social Science 59. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2019.101281. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629619302701.
54. ↑ Goodkind, Andrew L.; Berrens, Robert P.; Jones, Benjamin A. (2024). "Estimating the climate and health damages of Bitcoin mining in the US: Is Bitcoin underwater?". Applied Economics Letters 31 (6): 555–560. doi:10.1080/13504851.2022.2140107. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13504851.2022.2140107.
55. ↑ "China's Crypto Mining Crackdown Followed Deadly Coal Accidents" (in en). Bloomberg.com. 2021-05-26. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-05-26/china-s-crypto-mining-crackdown-followed-deadly-coal-accidents.
56. ↑ Zhu, Mingzhe (2023-04-15). "The 'bitcoin judgements' in China: Promoting climate awareness by judicial reasoning?" (in en). Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law 32 (1): 158–162. doi:10.1111/reel.12496. ISSN 2050-0386. https://hal.science/hal-04043981/document.
57. ↑ OSTP (8 September 2022), Climate and Energy Implications of Crypto-Assets in the United States, White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/09-2022-Crypto-Assets-and-Climate-Report.pdf, retrieved 28 December 2022
58. ↑ Lee, Stephen (21 November 2022). "EPA Acknowledges Plans to Look at Crypto Energy Usage, Emissions" (in en). https://news.bloomberglaw.com/environment-and-energy/epa-acknowledges-plans-to-look-at-crypto-energy-usage-emissions.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Bologna, Michael J.. "Texas Offers New Tax Benefit to Attract Bitcoin Miners" (in en). https://news.bloombergtax.com/daily-tax-report-state/texas-offers-new-tax-benefit-to-attract-bitcoin-miners.
60. ↑ "EIA to temporarily suspend bitcoin miner survey after lawsuit -court document". February 23, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/technology/eia-temporarily-suspend-bitcoin-miner-survey-after-lawsuit-court-document-2024-02-23/.
61. ↑ Paas-Lang, Christian (Mar 18, 2023). "Crypto at a crossroads: Some provinces are wary of the technology's vast appetite for electricity". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/crypto-mining-electricity-provinces-1.6780907.
62. ↑ Dekeyrel, Simon; Fessler, Melanie (2023-09-27). "Digitalisation: an enabler for the clean energy transition" (in en). Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law 42 (2): 185–209. doi:10.1080/02646811.2023.2254103. ISSN 0264-6811. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02646811.2023.2254103. Retrieved 11 December 2023.

### Works cited

* de Vries, Alex; Gallersdörfer, Ulrich; Klaaßen, Lena; Stoll, Christian (16 March 2022). "Revisiting Bitcoin's carbon footprint". Joule 6 (3): 498–502. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2022.02.005. ISSN 2542-4351. Bibcode: 2022Joule...6..498D.

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