Evolutionary economics

Short description: Subject inspired by evolutionary biology

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Evolutionary economics is a school of economic thought that is inspired by evolutionary biology. Although not defined by a strict set of principles and uniting various approaches, it treats economic development as a process rather than an equilibrium and emphasizes change (qualitative, organisational, and structural), innovation, complex interdependencies, self-evolving systems, and limited rationality as the drivers of economic evolution.[1] The support for the evolutionary approach to economics in recent decades seems to have initially emerged as a criticism of the mainstream neoclassical economics,[2] but by the beginning of the 21st century it had become part of the economic mainstream itself.[3][4]

Evolutionary economics does not take the characteristics of either the objects of choice or of the decision-maker as fixed. Rather, it focuses on the non-equilibrium processes that transform the economy from within and their implications, considering interdependencies and feedback.[1][5] The processes in turn emerge from the actions of diverse agents with bounded rationality who may learn from experience and interactions and whose differences contribute to the change.[1]

## Contents

* 1 Roots
* 1.1 Early ideas
* 1.2 Medieval and early modern times
* 1.3 Economic development, natural state, and social evolution
* 2 Emergence as a separate field of study
* 2.1 An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change and beyond
* 3 Recent developments
* 3.1 Unified growth theory
* 4 Criticism
* 5 Related fields
* 5.1 Evolutionary psychology
* 5.2 Evolutionary game theory
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 8.1 Journals

## Roots

### Early ideas

From peace and harmony... (Lucas Cranach the Elder, The Golden Age, 1530) ... to war and sorrow (Virgil Solis, The Iron Age, 1581)

The idea of human society and the world in general as subject to evolution has been following mankind throughout its existence. Hesiod, an ancient Greek poet thought to be the first Western written poet regarding himself as an individual,[6] described five Ages of Man—the Golden Age, the Silver Age, the Bronze Age, the Heroic Age, and the Iron Age—following from divine existence to toil and misery. Modern scholars consider his works as one of the sources for early economic thought.[7][8][9] The concept is also present in the Metamorphoses by Ovid, an ancient Roman poet. His Four Ages include technological progress: in the Golden Age, men did not know arts and craft, whereas by the Iron Age people had learnt and discovered agriculture, architecture, mining, navigation, and national boundaries, but had also become violent and greedy. This concept was not exclusive to the Greek and Roman civilizations (see, for instance, Yuga Cycles in Hinduism, the Three Ages of Buddhism, Aztecs’ Five Suns), but a common feature is the path towards misery and destruction, with technological advancements accompanied by moral degradation.

### Medieval and early modern times

Medieval views on society, economics and politics (at least in Europe and Pax Islamica) were influenced by religious norms and traditions. Catholic and Islamic scholars debated on the moral appropriateness of certain economic practices, such as interest.[10][11] The subject of changes was thought of in existential terms. For instance, Augustine of Hippo regarded time as a phenomenon of the universe created by God and a measure of change, whereas God exists outside of time.[12]

A major contribution to the views on the evolution of society was Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes. A human, according to Hobbes, is a matter in motion with one's own appetites and desires. Due to these numerous desires and the scarcity of resources, the natural state of a human is a war of all against all:[13]

> "In such condition, there is no place for Industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain; and consequently no Culture of the Earth; no Navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by Sea; no commodious Building; no Instruments of moving, and removing such things as require much force; no Knowledge of the face of the Earth; no account of Time; no Arts; no Letters; no Society; and which is worst of all, continual feare, and danger of violent death; And the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short."

In order to overcome this natural anarchy, Hobbs saw it necessary to impose an ultimate restraint in the form of a sovereign.

### Economic development, natural state, and social evolution

See also: Finance:The Wealth of Nations

Adam Smith (1723–1790)

A landmark work in many senses, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith was also one to offer a description of economic development throughout the history of mankind—as well as insights into the nature of this development. In Book III (Of the different Progress of Opulence in different Nations), Smith constantly underlines the importance of the natural order of things, which economic improvements follow, and shows the feedback chain that allows economies to progress further, based on what has been achieved. This falls in line with the notion of natural rights shared by other Age of Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke and Montesquieu.

A somewhat different view relates to the names of prominent socialists of the 19th century, who viewed economic and political systems as products of social evolution (in contrast to the notions of natural rights and morality). In his book What is Property?, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon noted:[14]

> "Thus, in a given society, the authority of man over man is inversely proportional to the stage of intellectual development which that society has reached."

The approach was also employed by Karl Marx. In his view, over the course of history superior economic systems would replace inferior ones. Inferior systems were beset by internal contradictions and inefficiencies that made them impossible to survive in the long term. In Marx's scheme, feudalism was replaced by capitalism, which would eventually be superseded by socialism.[15]

## Emergence as a separate field of study

Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929) is considered by many as the "father" of evolutionary economics.

The term "evolutionary economics" might have been first coined by Thorstein Veblen.[1] Veblen saw the need for taking into account cultural variation in his economic approach; no universal "human nature" could possibly be invoked to explain the variety of norms and behaviours that the new science of anthropology showed to be the rule rather than an exception.[16] He also argued that social institutions are subject to selection process[17] and that economic science should embrace the Darwinian theory.[18][19][20][1]

Veblen's followers quickly abandoned his evolutionary legacy.[16][21] When they finally returned to the use of the term "evolutionary", they referred to development and change in general, without its Darwinian meaning.[1] Further researchers, such as Joseph Schumpeter, studied entrepreneurship and innovation using this term, but not in the Darwinian sense.[2][22] Another prominent economist, Friedrich von Hayek, also employed the elements of the evolutionary approach, especially criticizing "the fatal conceit" of socialists who believed they could and should design a new society while disregarding human nature.[23] However, Hayek seemed to see the Darwin theory not as a revolution itself, but rather as an intermediary step in the line of evolutionary thinking.[1] There were other notable contributors to the evolutionary approach in economics, such as Armen Alchian, who argued that, faced with uncertainty and incomplete information, firms adapt to the environment instead of pursuing profit maximization.[24]

### An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change and beyond

Geoffrey Hodgson, recognised as one of the leading figures of modern critical institutionalism, Emeritus Professor in Management, Loughborough University

The publication of An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change by Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter in 1982 marked a turning point in the field of evolutionary economics. Inspired by Alchian's work about the decision-making process of firms under uncertainty and the behavioural theory of the firm by Richard Cyert and James March,[25][1] Nelson and Winter constructed a comprehensive evolutionary theory of business behavior using the concept of natural selection. In this framework, firms operate on the basis of organizational routines, which they evaluate and may change while functioning in a certain selection environment.[26] Since then, evolutionary economics, as noted by Nicolai Foss, has been concerned with "the transformation of already existing structures and the emergence and possible spread of novelties."[27] Economies have been viewed as a complex system, a result of causal interactions (non-linear and chaotic) between different agents and entities with varied characteristics.[28] Instead of perfect information and rationality, Herbert Simon's concept of bounded rationality[29] has become prevailing.

By the 1990s, as put by Geoffrey Hodgson,[1]

> "it was possible to write of an international network or 'invisible college' of 'evolutionary economists' who, despite their analytical differences, were focusing on the problem of analyzing structural, technological, cultural and institutional change in economic systems... They were also united by their common dislike of the static and equilibrium approaches that dominated mainstream economics."

## Recent developments

Andrew W. Lo, a Hong Kong-born Taiwanese-American economist and academic, MIT Sloan professor

The role of evolutionary forces in the process of economic development over the course of human history has been further explored during the past decades. For example, Paul Rubin extensively described how apparent anomalies in decision-making, such as violations of the maximization principle, a zero-sum way of thinking, or a dislike of competition and free trade, may be a result of the human brain evolution.[30][31] Another concept Rubin and his colleagues viewed through the lenses of evolutionary analysis is the utility function, which may essentially be represented as the fitness evolutionary function.[32]

Elements of evolutionary approach have also appeared in financial economics. Around 2004, Andrew Lo proposed the adaptive market hypothesis—an extension of the efficient market hypothesis that treats financial market agents as "species" who exist in some environment (e.g., the number of competitors, profit opportunities) and behave accordingly.[33][34] This hypothesis does not deny that efficient financial market equilibria may exist, but it necessarily suggests that other states may emerge and evolve due to adaption and natural selection. Although quite recent, Lo's hypothesis has already been empirically tested with regard to a number of cases, such as the analysis of influence of religious holidays and political regimes on financial markets in Islamic countries[35] or the evolution of Bitcoin market.[36]

### Unified growth theory

Known for his unified growth theory, Oded Galor employs principles that may belong to evolutionary economics.

A considerable contribution to the understanding of economies as constantly evolving systems was provided by Oded Galor and his colleagues. A pioneer of the unified growth theory, Galor depicts economic growth and development throughout human history as a continuous process driven by technological progress and the accumulation of human capital as well as by the accumulation of those biological, social and cultural features that favour further development.

According to Galor's model, technological advancements in the early eras of the mankind (during the Malthusian epoch, with limited resources and near-subsistence levels of income) would lead to increases in the size of population, which in turn would further accelerate technological progress due to the production of new ideas and the increase in demand for them. At some point technological advancements would require higher levels of education and generate the demand for educated labour force. After that, an economy would move into a new phase characterised by demographic transition (given that investment into less children, although more costly, would yield higher returns) and sustained economic growth.[37] The process is accompanied by improvements in living standards, the position of the working class as necessary in order to complement technological progress (contrary to Marx and his followers, who predicted its further impoverishment), and the position of women, paving the way for further social and gender equality improvements.[5][38] Interdependent, these elements facilitate each other, creating a unified process of growth and development, although the pace may be different for different societies.

In The Journey of Humanity: The Origins of Wealth and Inequality (2022) Galor provides some statements that further solidify his evolutionary approach:[38]

> “Consider… two large clans: the Quanty and the Qualy… Suppose that Quanty households bear on average four children each, of whom only two reach adulthood and find a reproductive partner. Meanwhile, Qualy households bear on average only two children each, because their budget does not allow them to invest in the education and health of additional offspring [sic!], and yet, thanks to the investment that they do make, both children not only reach adulthood and find a reproductive partner but they also find jobs in commercial and skill-intensive occupations… Now suppose the society in which they live is one where technological development boosts the demand for the services of blacksmiths, carpenters and other trades who can manufacture tools and more efficient machines. This increase in earning capacity would place the Qualy clan at a distinct evolutionary advantage. Within a generation or two, its families are likely to enjoy higher incomes and amass greater resources.”

## Criticism

The emergence of modern evolutionary economics was welcomed by the critics of the neoclassical mainstream.[4][1] However, the field, especially the approach by Nelson and Winter, has also drawn critical attitude from other heterodox economists. A year after An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change was published, Philip Mirowski expressed his doubts that this framework represented genuine evolutionary economics research (i.e., in the vein of Veblen) and not just a variant of neoclassical methodology, especially since the authors admitted their framework could include neoclassical orthodoxy.[39] Some Veblenian institutionalists claim this framework is only a "protective modification of the neoclassical economics and is antithetical to Veblen's evolutionary economics."[40] Another possible shortcoming (recognized by the proponents of modern evolutionary economics) is that the field is heterogenous, with no convergence on an integrated approach.[1]

## Related fields

### Evolutionary psychology

Main article: Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in psychology that examines cognition and behaviour from a modern evolutionary perspective.[41][42] It seeks to identify human psychological adaptations with regards to the ancestral problems they evolved to solve. In this framework, psychological traits and mechanisms are either functional products of natural and sexual selection or non-adaptive by-products of other adaptive traits. Economic concepts can also be viewed through these lenses, as demonstrated by Paul Rubin, among others.[30][31][32]

### Evolutionary game theory

Main article: Evolutionary game theory

Evolutionary game theory is the application of game theory to evolving populations in biology. It defines a framework of contests, strategies, and analytics into which Darwinian competition can be modelled. It originated in 1973 with John Maynard Smith and George R. Price's formalisation of contests, analysed as strategies, and the mathematical criteria that can be used to predict the results of competing strategies.[43]

Evolutionary game theory has helped to explain the basis of altruistic behaviours in Darwinian evolution. It has in turn become of interest to sociologists, anthropologists, philosophers, and economists.[44]

## See also

* Adaptive market hypothesis
* Behavioural economics
* Complexity economics
* Cultural economics
* Heterodox economics
* Institutional economics
* Mainstream economics
* Neoclassical economics
* Non-equilibrium economics
* Ecological model of competition
* Population dynamics
* Creative destruction
* Innovation system
* Evolutionary psychology
* Evolutionary socialism
* Universal Darwinism
* Association for Evolutionary Economics
* European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy
* Andrew W. Lo
* Geoffrey Hodgson
* Oded Galor
* Paul H. Rubin
* Richard R. Nelson
* Sidney G. Winter
* Thorstein Veblen

## References

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 Hodgson, G. M. (2012). Evolutionary Economics, in Fundamental Economics, edited by Mukul Majumdar, Ian Wills, Pasquale Michael Sgro, John M. Gowdy, in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, EOLSS Publishers, Paris, France, [1]. Archived from [2] on April 24, 2023.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Hodgson, G. M. (1993). Economics and Evolution: Bringing Life Back Into Economics. Cambridge, UK and Ann Arbor, MI: Polity Press and University of Michigan Press.
3. ↑ Friedman, D. (1998). Evolutionary Economics Goes Mainstream: A Review of the Theory of Learning in Games. Journal of Evolutionary Economics. 8(4), pp. 423–432. Archived from [3] on March 8, 2022.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Hodgson, G. M. (2007). Evolutionary and Institutional Economics as the New Mainstream? Evolutionary and Institutional Economics Review, 4(1), pp. 7–25. Archived from [4] on July 9, 2020.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Galor, O. (2005). From Stagnation to Growth: Unified Growth Theory. In P. Aghion and S. Durlauf (eds.), Handbook of Economic Growth, Vol. 1A, pp. 224–235.
6. ↑ Barron, J. P., Easterling, P. E. (1989). Hesiod. In Easterling, P. E., Knox, B. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature. Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
7. ↑ Gordon, B. J. (1975). Economic Analysis Before Adam Smith: Hesiod to Lessius. Palgrave Macmillan, p. 3.
8. ↑ Rothbard, M. N. (1995). Economic Thought Before Adam Smith: Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought, Vol. 1. Cheltenham, UK.
9. ↑ Brockway, G. P. (2001) The End of Economic Man: An Introduction to Humanistic Economics, 4th edition. W. W. Norton & Company, p. 128.
10. ↑ Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica. New York: English Dominican Fathers, 1981. Part II, Q78, A1. Archived from [5] on March 29, 2023.
11. ↑ Institute of Islamic Banking and Finance (2023). Riba. Archived from [6] on June 4, 2023.
12. ↑ Augustine of Hippo. Confessions, Book XI. Project Gutenberg. Archived from [7] on April 19, 2023.
13. ↑ Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Chapter XIII. Project Gutenberg. Archived from [8] on January 3, 2023.
14. ↑ Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph (1994). What is Property? Project Gutenberg. Archived from [9] on April 5, 2023.
15. ↑ Gregory, P. R., Stuart, R. C. (2005). Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century, Seventh Edition. South-Western College Publishing.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Hodgson, G. M. (2004). The Evolution of Institutional Economics: Agency, Structure and Darwinism in American Institutionalism. London and New York: Routledge.
17. ↑ Camic, C., Hodgson, G. M. (eds.) (2011). Essential Writings of Thorstein Veblen. London and New York: Routledge.
18. ↑ Veblen, T. B. (1898). Why Is Economics Not an Evolutionary Science? The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 12(3), pp. 373–97.
19. ↑ Veblen, T. B. (1899). The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions. New York: Huebsch. Archived from [10] on November 22, 2021.
20. ↑ Veblen, T. B. (1919). The Place of Science in Modern Civilisation and Other Essays. New York: Huebsch. Project Gutenberg. Archived from [11] on June 5, 2023.
21. ↑ Rutherford, M. H. (2011). The Institutionalist Movement in American Economics, 1918–1947: Science and Social Control. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
22. ↑ Witt, U. (2002). How Evolutionary is Schumpeter's Theory of Economic Development? Industry and Innovation, 9(1/2), pp. 7–22.
23. ↑ Hayek, F. A. (1988). The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism. In William W. Bartley III (ed.), The Collected Works of Friedrich August Hayek, Vol. I. London: Routledge. Archived from [12] on March 24, 2023.
24. ↑ Alchian, A. A. (1950). Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory. Journal of Political Economy, 58(2), pp. 211–22. Archived from [13] on May 1, 2018.
25. ↑ Cyert, R. M., March, J. G. (1963). A Behavioral Theory of the Firm. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
26. ↑ Nelson, R. R., Winter, S. G. (1982). An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Archived from [14] on March 23, 2023.
27. ↑ Foss, N. J. (1994). Realism and Evolutionary Economics. Journal of Social and Evolutionary Systems, 17(1), pp. 21–40.
28. ↑ Saviotti, P. P. (1996). Technological Evolution, Variety and the Economy. Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
29. ↑ Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of Man: Social and Rational. Mathematical Essays on Rational Human Behavior in a Social Setting. New York: Wiley.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Rubin, P. H. (2002). Darwinian Politics: The Evolutionary Origin of Freedom. Rutgers University Press.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Rubin, P. H. (2008). Folk Economics. Southern Economic Journal, 70(1), pp. 157–171. Archived from [15] on January 29, 2025.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Rubin, P. H. Capra, C. M. (2011). The Evolutionary Psychology of Economics. In Roberts, S. C. (ed.), Applied Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford University Press.
33. ↑ Lo, Andrew W. (2004). The Adaptive Markets Hypothesis: Market Efficiency from an Evolutionary Perspective. Journal of Portfolio Management, 5(30), pp. 15–29. Archived from [16] on January 29, 2025.
34. ↑ Lo, Andrew W. (2017). Adaptive Markets: Financial Evolution at the Speed of Thought. Princeton University Press.
35. ↑ Shahid, M. N., Sattar, A. (2017). The Behavior of Calendar Anomalies, Market Conditions, and Adaptive Market Hypothesis: Evidence from Pakistan Stock Exchange. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 11(2), pp. 471–504. Archived from [17] on January 29, 2025.
36. ↑ Khuntia, S., Pattanayak, J. K. (2018). Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Evolving Predictability of Bitcoin" Economics Letters. 167, pp. 26–28.
37. ↑ Galor, O. (2011). Unified Growth Theory. Chapter 5. Princeton University Press, 2011.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Galor, O. (2022). The Journey of Humanity: The Origins of Wealth and Inequality. Penguin Random House, 2022.
39. ↑ Mirowski, P. (1983). An Evolutionary Theory of Economics Change: A Review Article. Journal of Economic Issues, 17(3), pp. 757–768.
40. ↑ Jo, Tae-Hee (2020). A Veblenian Critique of Nelson and Winter's Evolutionary Theory. MPRA Paper No. 10138. Archived from [18] on May 15, 2021.
41. ↑ Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., Wegner, D. M. (2010). Psychology. Macmillan, p. 26.
42. ↑ Longe, J. L. (2016). The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (3rd ed.). Gale Research Incorporated, pp. 386–388.
43. ↑ Maynard Smith, J., Price, G. R. (1973). The Logic of Animal Conflict. Nature. 246(5427), pp. 15–18. Archived from [19] on June 6, 2023.
44. ↑ Michihiro, K. (1997). Evolutionary game theory in economics. In Kreps, D. M., Wallis, K. F. (eds.). Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Theory and Applications. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 243–277.

## Further reading

* Veblen, T. B. (1898). Why Is Economics Not an Evolutionary Science? The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 12(3), pp. 373–97.
* Veblen, T. B. (1899). The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions. New York: Huebsch. Archived from [20] on November 22, 2021.
* Nelson, R. R., Winter, S. G. (1982). An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Archived from [21] on March 23, 2023.
* Hodgson, G. M. (2004) The Evolution of Institutional Economics: Agency, Structure and Darwinism in American Institutionalism. London and New York: Routledge.
* Hodgson, G. M. (2012). Evolutionary Economics, in Fundamental Economics, edited by Mukul Majumdar, Ian Wills, Pasquale Michael Sgro, John M. Gowdy, in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, EOLSS Publishers, Paris, France, [22]. Archived from [23] on April 24, 2023.
* Rubin, P. H. (2002). Darwinian Politics: The Evolutionary Origin of Freedom. Rutgers University Press.
* Lo, Andrew W. (2017). Adaptive Markets: Financial Evolution at the Speed of Thought. Princeton University Press.
* Oded Galor (2022). The Journey of Humanity: The Origins of Wealth and Inequality. Penguin Random House.

### Journals

* Journal of Economic Issues, sponsored by the Association for Evolutionary Economics.
* Journal of Evolutionary Economics, sponsored by the International Josef Schumpeter Society.
* Journal of Institutional Economics, sponsored by the European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy.

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* Paul Krugman
* Thomas Piketty
* more

International
organizations|

* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
* Economic Cooperation Organization
* European Free Trade Association
* International Monetary Fund
* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
* World Bank
* World Trade Organization

* Category
* Index
* Lists
* Outline
* Publications
Business and economics portal

* v
* t
* e

Schools of economic thought

Pre-modern|

* Ancient schools
* Medieval Islamic
* Scholasticism

Early modern|

* Cameralism
* Mercantilism
* Physiocrats
* School of Salamanca

Modern|

* American (National)
* Anarchist
* Mutualism
* Austrian
* Birmingham
* Classical
* Ricardian
* English historical
* French Liberal
* Georgism
* German historical
* Malthusian
* Marginalism
* Marxian
* Neoclassical
* Lausanne
* Socialist

20th and
21st century|

* Behavioral
* Buddhist
* Capability approach
* Carnegie
* Chartalism
* Modern Monetary Theory
* Chicago
* Constitutional
* Disequilibrium
* Ecological
* Evolutionary
* Feminist
* Freiburg
* Institutional
* Keynesian
* Neo- (neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis)
* New
* Post-
* Circuitism
* Monetarism (Market)
* Neo-Malthusian
* Neo-Marxian
* Neo-Ricardian
* New classical
* Rational expectations theory
* Real business-cycle theory
* New institutional
* New neoclassical synthesis
* Organizational
* Public choice
* Regulation
* Saltwater/freshwater
* Stockholm
* Structuralist
* Supply-side
* Thermoeconomics
* Virginia
* Social credit

Related|

* History of economic thought
* History of macroeconomic thought
* Economics
* Political economy
* Mainstream economics
* Heterodox economics
* Post-autistic economics
* Degrowth
* World-systems theory
* Economic systems

Template:Thorstein Veblen

* v
* t
* e

Evolutionary psychology

* History

Processes|

* Altruism
* Coevolution
* Evolutionarily stable strategy
* Kin selection
* Natural selection
* Sexual selection
* Social selection

Areas|

* Psychological development
* Morality
* Religion
* Depression
* Educational psychology
* Evolutionary aesthetics
* Music
* Darwinian literary studies
* Evolution of emotion

Biologists/
Neuroscientists|

* John Crook
* Charles Darwin
* Richard Dawkins
* Jared Diamond
* W. D. Hamilton
* Peter Kropotkin
* Gordon Orians
* Jaak Panksepp
* Margie Profet
* Giacomo Rizzolatti
* Randy Thornhill
* Robert Trivers
* Carel van Schaik
* Claus Wedekind
* Wolfgang Wickler
* David Sloan Wilson
* E. O. Wilson
* George C. Williams
* Richard Wrangham

Anthropologists|

* Jerome H. Barkow
* Robert Boyd
* Napoleon Chagnon
* Gregory Cochran
* Robin Dunbar
* Daniel Fessler
* Mark Flinn
* Henry Harpending
* John D. Hawks
* Joseph Henrich
* Ruth Mace
* Daniel Nettle
* Stephen Shennan
* Donald Symons
* John Tooby
* Pierre van den Berghe

Behavioral economists/
Political scientists|

* Samuel Bowles
* Ernst Fehr
* Herbert Gintis
* Dominic D. P. Johnson
* Gad Saad

Literary theory/
Aesthetics|

* Joseph Carroll
* Denis Dutton

Psychologists/
Cognitive scientists|

* Simon Baron-Cohen
* Justin L. Barrett
* Jay Belsky
* David F. Bjorklund
* Paul Bloom
* Pascal Boyer
* Joseph Bulbulia
* David Buss
* Josep Call
* Anne Campbell
* Peter Carruthers
* Leda Cosmides
* Martin Daly
* Daniel Dennett
* Paul Ekman
* Anne Fernald
* Aurelio José Figueredo
* David C. Geary
* Gerd Gigerenzer
* Jonathan Haidt
* Judith Rich Harris
* Stephen Kaplan
* Douglas T. Kenrick
* Simon M. Kirby
* Robert Kurzban
* Michael T. McGuire
* Geoffrey Miller
* Darcia Narvaez
* Randolph M. Nesse
* Steven Neuberg
* David Perrett
* Steven Pinker
* Paul Rozin
* Mark Schaller
* David P. Schmitt
* Todd K. Shackelford
* Roger Shepard
* Peter K. Smith
* Dan Sperber
* Anthony Stevens
* Frank Sulloway
* Michael Tomasello
* Mark van Vugt
* Andrew Whiten
* Glenn Wilson
* Margo Wilson

Research centers/
organizations|

* Center for Evolutionary Psychology
* Human Behavior and Evolution Society
* Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
* Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences
* New England Complex Systems Institute

Related subjects
and articles|

* The Adapted Mind
* The Evolution of Human Sexuality
* Evolutionary Psychology
* Evolution and Human Behavior
* Biosocial criminology
* Criticism of evolutionary psychology
* Evolutionary anthropology
* Evolutionary medicine
* Evolutionary linguistics
* Evolutionary neuroscience
* Evolutionary psychology and culture
* Group selection
* Human evolution
* Memetics
* Primatology
* Sociobiology
* Sociocultural evolution

Lists|

* Evolutionary psychologists
* Evolutionary psychology research groups and centers
* Bibliography of evolution and human behavior

* Evolutionary psychology
* Psychology portal
* Evolutionary biology portal

* v
* t
* e

Macroeconomics

Basic concepts|

* Aggregate demand
* Aggregate supply
* Business cycle
* Deflation
* Demand shock
* Disinflation
* Effective demand
* Expectations
* Adaptive
* Rational
* Financial crisis
* Growth
* Inflation
* Demand-pull
* Cost-push
* Interest rate
* Investment
* Liquidity trap
* Measures of national income and output
* Microfoundations
* Money
* Endogenous
* Money creation
* Demand for money
* Liquidity preference
* Money supply
* National accounts
* SNA
* Nominal rigidity
* Price level
* Recession
* Shrinkflation
* Stagflation
* Supply shock
* Saving
* Unemployment

Policies|

* Fiscal
* Monetary
* Commercial
* Central bank

Models|

* IS–LM
* AD–AS
* Keynesian cross
* Multiplier
* Accelerator
* Phillips curve
* Arrow–Debreu
* Harrod–Domar
* Solow–Swan
* Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans
* Overlapping generations
* General equilibrium
* DSGE
* Endogenous growth
* Matching theory
* Mundell–Fleming
* Overshooting
* NAIRU

Related fields|

* Econometrics
* Economic statistics
* Monetary economics
* Development economics
* International economics

Schools|

| Mainstream|

* Keynesian
* Neo-
* New
* Monetarism
* New classical
* Real business-cycle theory
* Stockholm
* Supply-side
* New neoclassical synthesis
* Saltwater and freshwater

|

Heterodox|

* Austrian
* Chartalism
* Modern Monetary Theory
* Disequilibrium
* Marxian
* Post-Keynesian
* Circuitism
* Market monetarism

Notable macroeconomists|

* François Quesnay
* Adam Smith
* Thomas Robert Malthus
* Karl Marx
* Léon Walras
* Georg Friedrich Knapp
* Knut Wicksell
* Irving Fisher
* Wesley Clair Mitchell
* John Maynard Keynes
* Alvin Hansen
* Michał Kalecki
* Gunnar Myrdal
* Simon Kuznets
* Joan Robinson
* Friedrich Hayek
* John Hicks
* Richard Stone
* Hyman Minsky
* Milton Friedman
* Paul Samuelson
* Lawrence Klein
* Edmund Phelps
* Robert Lucas Jr.
* Edward C. Prescott
* Peter Diamond
* William Nordhaus
* Joseph Stiglitz
* Thomas J. Sargent
* Paul Krugman
* N. Gregory Mankiw

See also|

* Macroeconomic model
* Publications in macroeconomics
* Economics
* Applied
* Microeconomics
* Political economy
* Mathematical economics

Category

* v
* t
* e

Microeconomics

Major topics|

* Aggregation
* Budget set
* Consumer choice
* Convexity and non-convexity
* Cost
* Average
* Marginal
* Opportunity
* Social
* Sunk
* Transaction
* Cost–benefit analysis
* Deadweight loss
* Distribution
* Economies of scale
* Economies of scope
* Elasticity
* Equilibrium
* General
* Exchange
* Externality
* Firms
* Goods and services
* Goods
* Service
* Household
* Income–consumption curve
* Information
* Indifference curve
* Intertemporal choice
* Market
* Market failure
* Market structure
* Competition
* Monopolistic
* Perfect
* Duopoly
* Monopoly
* Bilateral
* Monopsony
* Oligopoly
* Oligopsony
* Pareto efficiency
* Preferences
* Price
* Production
* Profit
* Public goods
* Rationing
* Rent
* Returns to scale
* Risk aversion
* Scarcity
* Shortage
* Substitution effect
* Surplus
* Social choice
* Supply & demand
* Uncertainty
* Utility
* Expected
* Marginal
* Wage

Subfields|

* Behavioral
* Business
* Computational
* Statistical decision theory
* Econometrics
* Engineering Economics
* Civil engineering economics
* Evolutionary
* Experimental
* Game theory
* Industrial organization
* Institutional
* Labor
* Law
* Managerial
* Mathematical
* Microfoundations of macroeconomics
* Operations research
* Optimization
* Welfare

See also|

* Economics
* Applied
* Macroeconomics
* Political economy

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Institutional economics

Institutional economists|

* Werner Abelshauser
* Clarence Edwin Ayres
* Joe S. Bain
* Shimshon Bichler
* Robert A. Brady
* Daniel Bromley
* Ha-Joon Chang
* John Maurice Clark
* John R. Commons
* Richard T. Ely
* Robert H. Frank
* John Kenneth Galbraith
* Walton Hale Hamilton
* Orris C. Herfindahl
* Albert O. Hirschman
* Geoffrey Hodgson
* János Kornai
* Simon Kuznets
* Hunter Lewis
* Jesse W. Markham
* Wesley Clair Mitchell
* Gunnar Myrdal
* Jonathan Nitzan
* Warren Samuels
* François Simiand
* Herbert A. Simon
* Frank Stilwell
* George W. Stocking Sr.
* Lars Pålsson Syll
* Thorstein Veblen
* Edward Lawrence Wheelwright
* Erich Zimmermann

New institutional economists|

* Daron Acemoglu
* Armen Alchian
* Masahiko Aoki
* Steven N. S. Cheung
* Ronald Coase
* Harold Demsetz
* Avner Greif
* Claude Ménard
* Douglass North
* Mancur Olson
* Elinor Ostrom
* Oliver E. Williamson

Behavioral economists|

* George Ainslie
* Dan Ariely
* Nava Ashraf
* Ofer Azar
* Douglas Bernheim
* Samuel Bowles
* Sarah Brosnan
* Colin Camerer
* David Cesarini
* Kay-Yut Chen
* Rachel Croson
* Werner De Bondt
* Paul Dolan
* Stephen Duneier
* Catherine C. Eckel
* Armin Falk
* Urs Fischbacher
* Herbert Gintis
* Uri Gneezy
* David Halpern
* Charles A. Holt
* David Ryan Just
* Daniel Kahneman
* Ariel Kalil
* George Katona
* Jeffrey R. Kling
* George Loewenstein
* Graham Loomes
* Brigitte C. Madrian
* Gary McClelland
* Matteo Motterlini
* Sendhil Mullainathan
* Michael Norton
* Matthew Rabin
* Howard Rachlin
* Klaus M. Schmidt
* Eldar Shafir
* Hersh Shefrin
* Robert J. Shiller
* Uwe Sunde
* Richard Thaler
* Amos Tversky
* Robert W. Vishny
* Georg Weizsäcker

Key concepts and ideas|

* Accelerator effect
* Administered prices
* Barriers to entry
* Bounded rationality
* Conspicuous consumption
* Conspicuous leisure
* Conventional wisdom
* Countervailing power
* Effective competition
* Herfindahl index
* Hiding hand principle
* Hirschman cycle
* Instrumentalism
* Kuznets cycles
* Market concentration
* Market power
* Market structure
* Penalty of taking the lead
* Satisficing
* Shortage economy
* Structure–conduct–performance paradigm
* Technostructure
* Theory of two-level planning
* Veblen goods
* Veblenian dichotomy

Related fields|

* Cultural economics
* Development economics
* Economic sociology
* English historical school of economics
* Evolutionary economics
* Evolutionary psychology
* French historical school
* Historical school of economics
* Legal realism
* Microeconomics
* Post-Keynesian economics

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