Planned liberalism

Short description: Cameroonian historical economic policy

Planned liberalism is an economic policy followed in Cameroon since the 1960s that aims to merge the best concepts of capitalism and socialism.[1][2] Abel Eyinga see it more as an African Dirigisme[3] while Pierre Chauleur saw it more as a humane variant of socialism.[4] It had characteristics of a planned economy,[5] economic nationalism and crony capitalism.[6] Another view is that planned liberalism is neo-keynesian.[7]

## Contents

* 1 Planned liberalism in Cameroon
* 1.1 During Ahmadou Ahidjo's Presidency
* 1.2 During Paul Biya's Presidency
* 2 Other countries
* 3 Notes
* 4 References

## Planned liberalism in Cameroon

### During Ahmadou Ahidjo's Presidency

In 1965, Cameroon changed from its previous economic philosophy, African socialism, under the guidance of its first president, Ahmadou Ahidjo. Under planned liberalism, the state began regulating and managing natural resources and guiding foreign investment into specific economic sectors or geographic areas. In the process, the government has partnered with foreign firms to set up various parastatal enterprises (They can be considered as government-affiliated entities designed to meet commercial and state capitalist objectives[8][9]). Meanwhile, it has encouraged private enterprise and investment and the operation of market forces.[10] Capitalism had led to economic development worldwide, but also to a growing gap between rich and poor. Socialism attempted to tackle economic inequality through a planned economy, but this model did not lead to a direct improvement in the lot of citizens. Liberal planning, according to Ahidjo, led to direct prosperity. Ahidjo said that "there was no longer an absolute gap between the two formulas" (i.e., Marxist socialism and Western capitalism),[11] Ahmadou Ahidjo himself was a anti-communist.[12] Cameroonians were encouraged to start their own (modern) companies so that a private sector would emerge, and the country opened its doors to foreign investors who were encouraged to invest their money in mixed companies (half private, half government ownership). However, when the economy declined in the 1970s and 1980s, the government decided to privatize the mixed companies. The intention was that the former state share would then end up in the hands of Cameroonians (economic nationalism). It is a strongly interventionist and has a nationalist doctrine. An important political aspect of liberal planning was that Western investments increased, but at the same time the non-aligned foreign policy could be continued. Full identification with the West was thus not possible. Because liberal planning was mainly seen as an economic model and not as a political model, the Ahidjo government did not consider it necessary to democratize the Republic of Cameroon.

Abel Eyinga traces the theory of liberal planning to Gaullist economic doctrine and sees liberal planning as "the African equivalent of 'participation'."[3] According to him, the concept of liberal planning first emerged around 1965 in Gabon, where the concept—possibly elaborated differently than later in Cameroon—was embraced as an economic ideology.[3]

To develop, with a view to the future, all the resources of the country, the President of the Republic of Cameroon at that time has set himself the objective of self-centred development and the doctrine of "planned liberalism", which he defines as follows: "We intend to submit, henceforth, our international economic relations to our objectives of internal development, that is to say, we intend to promote a truly integrated economy, characterised by effective control of the principal factors of development." It is, at bottom, a humane socialism which seeks its path in a pragmatic manner.[4]

President Ahmadou Ahidjo El Hadj explained this choice at the time by declaring: "The most dynamic factor in our start is, we believe, our choice for liberalism in economic matters; liberalism, thanks to which the prospect of legitimate profit encourages initiative and thanks to which freedom fertilizes the imagination. But, it is a question of an ordered, selective, non-anarchic liberalism; one that finds its fulfillment within the previously defined framework of the Plan. In economic matters and particularly in matters of investment, we believe more in the favorable psychological effects of freedom and confidence than in the results of actions due to constraint. In the current national and global situation, this policy of liberalism is without a doubt the best for our country and consequently the most in accordance with the interest of our people. It represents the happy conjunction between the ideal of development towards which we tend and reality. It expresses this realism from which we cannot depart in our action. We therefore say out loud that private investments, national or foreign, will always be welcome in Cameroon and will find the guarantee of their full profitability in the operations of our investment code, precisely designed in the spirit of our liberal option. Let us also say that this, however, does not exclude the possibility, or even the necessity, of a public or mixed sector, an instrument in the hands of the government to drive, control or guide the entire national economy while at the same time safeguarding the fundamental interests of the State."[13]

However, the adaptation of the traditional economy to a modern pace of development that the president seeks cannot be achieved by the action of the State alone, given the financial means at its disposal. It will therefore be done in line with a " planned liberalism ", that is to say by the refusal of the anarchic surge of uncontrolled initiatives combined with a desire to direct and contain the pressure of creative activities. To achieve this, the government will turn to the private sector, whose action it considers must be the most dynamic agent of development. The major options are indicated within the framework of a flexible and adaptable plan, outlining the paths to desirable economic balances.[4]

A. Ahidjo said about planned liberalism: "We wish (...) to lay the foundations for a social democracy which rejects every idea of alienation of man, even if this alienation carries within it the promise of a better life for our children and grandchildren. We are therefore in favour of liberalism, a modern, planned liberalism, that is, one that is kept in check by state regulation. We therefore regard private ownership of the means of production and their utilisation for private profit as a sign of progress."[14]

Kamé Samuel a main "ideologue" of Ahmadou Ahidjo, did not hesitating to quote Hitler and Goebbels or to refer enthusiastically to the "Nazi Youth" and to the "UNR organizations during the military coup in Algiers". The French ambassador to Cameroon, Jean-Pierre Bénard, in a report addressed to his hierarchy, recognizes that "Mr. Kamé does not hide his preferences for a fascist-style policy". This is also the opinion of Paul Audat, a colonial administrator who was close to Kamé "He is a student who became a fascist. A single-party fascist, a supporter of the absolute power of the head of state, who was always very virulent against the UPC." If Kamé Samuel influenced planned liberalism is not known.[12]

Critics claim that planned liberalism has failed due to widespread corruption, overwhelming government bureaucracy, almost no development of the country[15] and ill-advised government backing of certain foreign investors. These faults became evident during the economic crisis of the mid-1980s. Cameroon under Paul Biya has since increasingly turned to privatisation of state-owned industries to stimulate its economy.[16]

### During Paul Biya's Presidency

Paul Biya the second and current President created a similar ideology with the name Communitarian liberalism, the difference between planned liberalism and communitarian liberalism is that communitarian liberalism is more supportive of privatization,[16] but the idea of a third way is still part of the ideology.[17]

While the National Union for Democracy and Progress embraces economic liberalism and anti-socialism[18] they also advocate for planned liberalism.[19][20]

## Other countries

During the rule of dictator Juvénal Habyarimana (1973–1994), Rwanda adopted an economic policy referred to as "liberal planning" ("Libéralisme planifié")[21][22] Liberal planning as an economic ideology was proclaimed at the third congress of the ruling Mouvement Révolutionnaire Nationale pour le Développement (MRND) in 1980[23] and involved a six-year development plan (1980–1986) aimed at foreign (Western) investors, self-sufficient food production, better use of human resources, and improved living conditions.[24] In 1988, state-owned enterprises were privatized as part of the liberal planning policy.[25]

Ivory Coast under Félix Houphouët-Boigny from 1960 until 1978 embraced something similar to planned liberalism, afterwards he embraced economic liberalism.[26][27][28][29][30] The Democratic Party of Ivory Coast claims to be an economic liberal which excludes state intervention in economic activities. However, the PDCI accommodates state capitalism, but after independence it is only considered as a transitional phase, while waiting for Ivorian capitalists to be trained. They embraced state capitalism from 1960 until 1970s.[31][32][33][34] Under his government, Ivory Coast took the course of liberal free market economy after 1978.

Senegal under Léopold Sédar Senghor embraced from 1975 on something similar to planned liberalism, even though it was more of a mixed economy.[35]

The First Republic of Madagascar under Philibert Tsiranana (1959–1972) economic policies were pursued that were very similar to liberal planning.[36]

Guinea under Lansana Conté embraced planned liberalism from 1985 until 1986 while also advocating for economic liberalism policies.[37]

Gabon under Omar Bongo from 1978 until 1987 tried to adopt planned liberalism,[38][39][40] before embracing economic liberalism again like in the 1960s and 1970s.[41] From 1987 until 1990 after stopping to advocate for planning liberalism, the government still embraced statist economics, before embracing free markets and capitalism.[42] Omar Bongo developed the philosophy that was referred to as Rénovation (Renovation), the main objective of which was to combat tribalism and regionalism and to create a national identity. Foreign entrepreneurs were attracted and an attempt was made to create an indigenous middle class. It then became clear that Rénovation had mainly led to predatory capitalism and therefore the slogan Rénover la Rénovation (Renovate the Renovation) was raised. Predatory capitalism had to be countered by means of a "directed liberalism" ("libéralisme dirigé") in which the role of the state in economic life was strengthened. The president believed that "directed liberalism" was essentially a form of capitalism but would result in a kind of socialism. He probably meant that as many people as possible would be given the opportunity to benefit from the expected economic growth. Directed and planned liberalism (libéralisme dirigé et planifié) that was also applied in other countries of French-speaking Africa as an alternative to liberal capitalism and state socialism. Since 1976, the policy of the country had been oriented towards Le Progressisme Démocratique et Concerté (Democratic and Coordinated Progressivism), although it has never really become clear what this actually entailed, except that according to Omar Bongo it was a philosophy that was in line with "African traditions" and embraced a kind of "community humanism", as well as a continuation of economic liberalism after 1990 again.[40]

Morocco in the late 1970s until the mid-1980s tried to adopt an economic system similar to the one of planned liberalism.[43][44]

## Notes

Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (October 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

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1. ↑ Ibid.
2. ↑ E. Bongmba: The Dialectics of Transformation in Africa , Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2006, p. 56 [ISBN missing]
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 A. Eyinga: "Gaullist Afrika: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo, cap. From African Socialism to Liberal Planning", Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria 2002 (herdruk van het origineel uit 1978), p. 137
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Chauleur, Pierre (August 1, 1976). "Un " libéralisme planifié " pour associer le secteur privé aux efforts de développement". https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1976/08/CHAULEUR/33871#partage.
5. ↑ Kum, George Fuh and Jude Kawzu Kum. "Understanding Agro-pastoral shows in a Planned Economy (1973–1987): The Case of Cameroon". Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and sSocial Sciences 5 No. 7 (2017): 770–778
6. ↑ KahjumTakor, Nixon; FuhKum, George. "Incubation of the Economic Crisis in Post-Colonial Cameroon 1960–1987: An Experience in State Capitalism". https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijhsse/v5-i8/8.pdf.
7. ↑ "Race to the Bottom: La banqueroute du «libéralisme communautaire» et de la psyché nationale au Cameroun / The Bankruptcy of the “Communal Liberalism” and the National Psyche in Cameroon. | Espace d'Expression du Comité de Libération des Prisonniers Politiques (CL2P)". https://engojoeldidier.wordpress.com/2018/03/03/race-to-the-bottom-la-banqueroute-du-liberalisme-communautaire-et-de-la-psyche-nationale-au-cameroun-the-bankruptcy-of-the-communal-liberalism-and-the-national-psyche/.
8. ↑ Shepelev, Denis Viktorovich; Shepeleva, Dina Viktorovna (2018). "Legal Aspects of Profit Making by State-Owned Enterprises". Current Issues of the State and Law 2 (5): 47–55. doi:10.20310/2587-9340-2018-2-5-47-55. ISSN 2587-9340.
9. ↑ Profiles of Existing Government Corporations, pp. 1–16
10. ↑ DeLancey and DeLancey 6, 221.
11. ↑ Willard R. Johnson: The Cameroon Federation: Political Integration in a Fragmentary Society , Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ 1970, p. 311 [ISBN missing]
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Thomas Deltombe, Manuel Domergue and Jacob Tatsita, Kemerun!, La Découverte, 2019
13. ↑ "Libéralisme Panifié et Développment Autocentré". July 19, 1976. https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1976/07/19/liberalisme-planifie-et-developpement-autocentre_2950643_1819218.html.
14. ↑ Cameroon Times , vol. 5, no. 117, December 1965 (quoted in: Willard R. Johnson: The Cameroon Federation: Political Integration in a Fragmentary Society , Princeton University Press, New Jersey 1970, p. 311)
15. ↑ "Politique publique des transports et construction de la Nation au Cameroun sous le libéralisme planifié (1960–1985)". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354521294.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 DeLancey and DeLancey 221.
17. ↑ "LE LIBÉRALISME COMMUNAUTAIRE DE PAUL BIYA UNE IDÉE DE L'ÉTAT ET DE L'UNITÉ NATIONALE". https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9782140302206_A49336114/preview-9782140302206_A49336114.pdf.
18. ↑ "Cameroon • Africa Elects". https://africaelects.com/cameroon/.
19. ↑ "Afrique Express | Santé et Nature". http://www.afrique-express.com/archive/CENTRALE/cameroun/cameroungvts/camergvt1297.htm.
20. ↑ Milton H. Krieger and Joseph Takougang, African State and Society in the 1990s: Cameroon's Political Crossroads(2000), Westview Press, pages 143–145.
21. ↑ "The International Coffee Economy and the Production of Genocide in Rwanda". https://pol.illinoisstate.edu/downloads/conferences/2006/Coffee--Isaac_Kamola.pdf.
22. ↑ J. Habyarimana: Discours, messages et entretiens , 1982, p. 328
23. ↑ Mugesera, A. (April 8, 1983). "Le liberalisme planifie rwandais: une approche théorique". Zaïre-Afrique: économie, culture, vie sociale 23 (180): 597–607. https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=189617381.
24. ↑ United Nations Economic and Social Council Meeting Record March 22, 1984, p. 11
25. ↑ Karake Karenzi: POLITICAL PATRONAGE AND PRIVATIZATION OF PUBLIC ENTERPRISES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF KENYA AND RWANDA , University of Nairobi, Masters thesis 2004, p. 52
26. ↑ "Lynne Rienner Publishers | Ivoirien Capitalism African Entrepreneurs in Cote d Ivoire". https://www.rienner.com/title/Ivoirien_Capitalism_African_Entrepreneurs_in_Cote_d_Ivoire.
27. ↑ Forrest, Tom (April 13, 2023). The African Bourgeoisie. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 307–342. doi:10.1515/9781685855819-016. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781685855819-016/html?lang=de&srsltid=AfmBOormUcW7Z8zU74vbj3MgsturpSMP_ODDouyeph-kv77cdo9iPb7y.
28. ↑ Nyongo, P. Anyang (1978). "Liberal models of Capitalist Development in Africa: Ivory Coast". Africa Development / Afrique et Développement 3 (2): 5–20.
29. ↑ Aka Anghui, Bra Kanon, Félix Houphouët-Boigny and others: L'économie ivorienne, Bulletin de l'Afrique noire Paris 1976 (no page numbering)
30. ↑ "Cote D'Ivorie – Economie". https://www.afrique-planete.com/cote_ivoire/economie.htm.
31. ↑ Francis Wodie, "Political life in Ivory Coast from 1945 to 1969", Algerian Review of Legal and Political Sciences, vol. 6, no. 3, September 15, 1969, pp. 821–842
32. ↑ "Cote d'Ivoire Deep Dive Part II: Françafrique, liberal state capitalism and socio-ethnic tensions". February 15, 2024. https://54collective.vc/insight/cote-divoire-deep-dive-part-ii-francafrique-liberal-state-capitalism-and-socio-ethnic-tensions/.
33. ↑ Mingst, Karen A. (September 1, 1988). "The Ivory Coast at the Semi-Periphery of the World-Economy". International Studies Quarterly 32 (3): 259–274. doi:10.2307/2600443. https://academic.oup.com/isq/article-abstract/32/3/259/1853919?redirectedFrom=fulltext.
34. ↑ "Côte d'Ivoire’s Future: Next Steps in Development and Democracy". https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/Côte d'Ivoire’s Future - Next Steps in Development and Democracy.pdf.
35. ↑ S L. Senghor: "libéralisme planifié et les voies africaines vers le socialisme", lecture in Tunis in 1975
36. ↑ A. Eyinga: Gaullist Africa: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo , cap. "From African Socialism to Liberal Planning" , Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria 2002 (reprint of the 1978 original), p. 136
37. ↑ Ansoumane Doré: Economie et société en République de Guinée, 1958–1984, et perspectives , Éditions Bayardère 1986, p. 499
38. ↑ A. Eyinga: Gaullist Africa: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo, cap. "From African Socialism to Liberal Planning", Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria 2002 (reprint of the 1978 original), p. 137
39. ↑ Pierre François Gonidec, Vân Minh Trân: "Politique comparée du tiers monde", Édition Montchrestien 1980, page numbering missing (ebook) "... the economic regime is « a libéralisme planifié et conducté, capitaliste dans son essence et socialiste dans sa finalité.»"
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Marc Aicardi de Saint-Paul: "Du roi Denis à Omar Bongo", Éditions Albatros, Paris 1987, page numbering missing (ebook) "... for the sake of economic development and a libéralisme planifié."
41. ↑ Vanguard, The Patriotic (June 13, 2009). "The Political Longevity of El Hadj Omar Bongo in Gabon Defies Pedestrian Characterization". http://www.thepatrioticvanguard.com/the-political-longevity-of-el-hadj-omar-bongo-in-gabon-defies-pedestrian-characterization.
42. ↑ "BTI 2024 Gabon Country Report". https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/GAB.
43. ↑ J. Owona: Droit constitutionnel et régimes politiques Africans, Berger-Levrault, 1985, p. 316
44. ↑ Jeune Afrique – Numbers 860–873, 1977, p. 30

## References

* DeLancey, Mark W., and Mark Dike DeLancey (2000): Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.

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