Neolithic Europe

Short description: Era of pre-history prior to copper & bronze ages in each region

Map of the spread of farming into Europe up to about 3900 BC Female figure from Tumba Madžari, North Macedonia

The European Neolithic is the period from the arrival of Neolithic (New Stone Age) technology and the associated population of Early European Farmers in Europe, c. 7000 BC (the approximate time of the first farming societies in Greece) until c. 2000–1700 BC (the beginning of Bronze Age Europe with the Nordic Bronze Age). The Neolithic overlaps the Mesolithic and Bronze Age periods in Europe as cultural changes moved from the southeast to northwest at about 1 km/year – this is called the Neolithic Expansion.[1]

The duration of the Neolithic varies from place to place, its end marked by the introduction of bronze tools: in southeast Europe it is approximately 4,000 years (i.e. 7000 BC–3000 BC) while in parts of Northwest Europe it is just under 3,000 years (c. 4500 BC–1700 BC). In parts of Europe, notably the Balkans, the period after c. 5000 BC is known as the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) due to the invention of copper smelting and the prevalence of copper tools, weapons and other artifacts.

The spread of the Neolithic from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic in the Near East to Europe was first studied quantitatively in the 1970s, when a sufficient number of 14C age determinations for early Neolithic sites had become available.[2] Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza discovered a linear relationship between the age of an Early Neolithic site and its distance from the conventional source in the Near East (Jericho), thus demonstrating that the Neolithic spread at an average speed of about 1 km/yr.[2] More recent studies confirm these results and yield a speed of 0.6–1.3 km/yr at a 95% confidence level.[2]

## Contents

* 1 Basic cultural characteristics
* 2 Archaeology
* 3 End of the Neolithic and transition to the Copper age
* 4 Gallery
* 5 Genetics
* 6 Language
* 7 List of cultures and sites
* 7.1 Megalithic
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 Sources
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## Basic cultural characteristics

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools Ancient Greek Early and Middle Neolithic pottery 6500–5300 BC. National Museum of Archaeology, Athens

There are also many differences, with some Neolithic communities in southeastern Europe living in heavily fortified settlements of 3,000–4,000 people (e.g., Sesklo in Greece) whereas Neolithic groups in Britain were small (possibly 50–100 people) and highly mobile cattle-herders.[original research?]

The details of the origin, chronology, social organization, subsistence practices and ideology of the peoples of Neolithic Europe are obtained from archaeology, and not historical records, since these people left none. Since the 1970s, population genetics has provided independent data on the population history of Neolithic Europe, including migration events and genetic relationships with peoples in South Asia.[original research?]

A further independent tool, linguistics, has contributed hypothetical reconstructions of early European languages and family trees with estimates of dating of splits, in particular theories on the relationship between speakers of Indo-European languages and Neolithic peoples. Some archaeologists believe that the expansion of Neolithic peoples from southwest Asia into Europe, marking the eclipse of Mesolithic culture, coincided with the introduction of Indo-European speakers,[3] [4] More recent archaeogenetic evi the Pontic-Caspian steppe unrelated to Neolithic farmers appear far more likely.[5]

## Archaeology

Further information: Prehistoric Europe and Old Europe (archaeology)

Neolithic expansion of Cardium pottery and Linear Pottery culture according to archaeology A stone used in Neolithic rituals, in Detmerode, Wolfsburg, Germany Circular graves of Li Muri at Arzachena, one of the oldest megalithic sites in Italy dating to c. 4000–3300 BC

Archeologists trace the emergence of food-producing societies in the Levantine region of southwest Asia to the close of the last glacial period around 12,000 BC, and these developed into a number of regionally distinctive cultures by the eighth millennium BC. Remains of food-producing societies in the Aegean have been carbon-dated to c. 6500 BCE at Knossos, Franchthi Cave, and a number of mainland sites in Thessaly. Neolithic groups appear soon afterwards in the rest of Southeast Europe and south-central Europe. The Neolithic cultures of Southeast Europe (including the Aegean) show some continuity with groups in southwest Asia and Anatolia (e.g., Çatalhöyük).

In 2018, an 8,000-year-old ceramic figurine portraying the head of the "Mother Goddess", was found near Uzunovo, Vidin Province in Bulgaria, which pushes back the Neolithic revolution to 7th millennium BC.[6]

Current evidence suggests that Neolithic material culture was introduced to Europe via western Anatolia, and that similarities in cultures of North Africa and the Pontic steppes are due to diffusion out of Europe. All Neolithic sites in Europe contain ceramics,[original research?] and contain the plants and animals domesticated in Southwest Asia: einkorn, emmer, barley, lentils, pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle. Genetic data suggest that no independent domestication of animals took place in Neolithic Europe, and that all domesticated animals were originally domesticated in Southwest Asia.[7] The only domesticate not from Southwest Asia was broomcorn millet, domesticated in East Asia.[8] The earliest evidence of cheese-making dates to 5500 BC in Kuyavia, Poland.[9]

Archaeologists agreed for some time that the culture of the early Neolithic is relatively homogeneous, compared to the late Mesolithic. DNA studies tend to confirm this, indicating that agriculture was brought to Western Europe by the Aegean populations, that are known as 'the Aegean Neolithic farmers'. When these farmers arrived in Britain, DNA studies show that they did not seem to mix much with the earlier population of the Western Hunter-Gatherers. Instead, there was a substantial population replacement.[10][11]

Poulnabrone dolmen, the Burren, County Clare, Ireland

The diffusion of these farmers across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about 2,500 years (6500–4000 BC). The Baltic region was penetrated a bit later, c. 3500 BC, and there was also a delay in settling the Pannonian plain. In general, colonization shows a "saltatory" pattern, as the Neolithic advanced from one patch of fertile alluvial soil to another, bypassing mountainous areas. Analysis of radiocarbon dates show clearly that Mesolithic and Neolithic populations lived side by side for as much as a millennium in many parts of Europe, especially in the Iberian Peninsula and along the Atlantic coast.[12]

Investigation of the Neolithic skeletons found in the Talheim Death Pit suggests that prehistoric men from neighboring tribes were prepared to fight and kill each other in order to capture and secure women.[13] The mass grave at Talheim in southern Germany is one of the earliest known sites in the archaeological record that shows evidence of organised violence in Early Neolithic Europe, among various Linear Pottery culture tribes.[14] The archaeological site of Herxheim contained the scattered remains of more than 1000 individuals from different, in some cases faraway regions, who died around 5000 BC. Whether they were war captives or human sacrifices is unclear, but the evidence indicates that their corpses were spit-roasted whole and then consumed.[15]

In terms of overall size, some settlements of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, such as Talianki (with a population of around 15,000) in western Ukraine, were as large as the city-states of Sumer in the Fertile Crescent, and these Eastern European settlements predate the Sumerian cities by more than half of a millennium.[16]

## End of the Neolithic and transition to the Copper age

Main article: History:Chalcolithic Europe

With some exceptions, population levels rose rapidly at the beginning of the Neolithic until they reached the carrying capacity.[17] This was followed by a population crash of "enormous magnitude" after 5000 BC, with levels remaining low during the next 1,500 years.[17]

The oldest golden artifacts in the world (4600 BC – 4200 BC) are found in the Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria – grave offerings on exposition in Varna Archaeological Museum[18][19][20]

Scheme of Indo-European migrations from c. 4000 to 1000 BC according to the widely held Kurgan hypothesis. These migrations are thought to have spread Yamnaya steppe pastoralist ancestry and Indo-European languages throughout large parts of Eurasia.[21]

Populations began to rise after 3500 BC, with further dips and rises occurring between 3000 and 2500 BC but varying in date between regions.[17] Around this time is the Neolithic decline, when populations collapsed across most of Europe, possibly caused by climatic conditions, plague, or mass migration. A study of twelve European regions found most experienced boom and bust patterns and suggested an "endogenous, not climatic cause".[22] Recent archaeological evidence suggests the possibility of plague causing this population collapse, as mass graves dating from c. 2900 BC were discovered containing fragments of Yersinia pestis genetic material consistent with pneumonic plague.[23]

The Chalcolithic Age in Europe started from about 3500 BC, followed soon after by the European Bronze Age. This also became a period of increased megalithic construction. From 3500 BC, copper was being used in the Balkans and eastern and central Europe. Also, the domestication of the horse took place during that time, resulting in the increased mobility of cultures.

Nearing the close of the Neolithic, c. 2500 BC, large numbers of Eurasian steppe peoples migrated in Southeast and Central from eastern Europe, from the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea.[24][25]

## Gallery

* Pottery, 6th millennium BC (Karanovo I, Bulgaria)[26]

* Female figurine, marble, Thessaly, 5300–3300 BC. Neolithic Greece.

* Ancient Neolithic Greece stone tools and weapons

* Ancient Neolithic Greece stone grinder.

* Clay vase with polychrome decoration, Dimini, Neolithic Greece (5300–3300 BC)

* Neolithic site of Nea Nikomedeia, Northern Greece

* Neolithic long house, Germany, 5000 BC

* Goseck Circle, Germany, 4900 BC

## Genetics

Further information: Genetic history of Europe

Simplified model for the demographic history of Europeans during the Neolithic period in the Neolithic Revolution's introduction of agriculture[27]

Genetic studies since the 2010s have identified the genetic contribution of Neolithic farmers to modern European populations, providing quantitative results relevant to the long-standing "replacement model" vs. "demic diffusion" dispute in archaeology.

The earlier population of Europe were the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, called the "Western Hunter-Gatherers" (WHG). Along with the Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHG) and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHG), the WHGs constituted one of the three main genetic groups in the postglacial period of early Holocene Europe. Later, the Neolithic farmers expanded from the Aegean and Near East; in various studies, they are described as the Early European Farmers (EEF); Aegean Neolithic Farmers (ANF),[11] First European Farmers (FEF), or also as the Early Neolithic Farmers (ENF).

A seminal 2014 study first identified the contribution of three main components to modern European lineages (the third being "Ancient North Eurasians", associated with the later Indo-European expansion). The EEF component was identified based on the genome of a woman buried c. 7,000 years ago in a Linear Pottery culture grave in Stuttgart, Germany.[28]

This 2014 study found evidence for genetic mixing between WHG and EEF throughout Europe, with the largest contribution of EEF in Mediterranean Europe (especially in Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and among Ashkenazi Jews), and the largest contribution of WHG in Northern Europe and among Basque people.[29]

Nevertheless, DNA studies show that when the Neolithic farmers arrived in Britain, these two groups did not seem to mix much. Instead, there was a substantial population replacement.[10][11]

Since 2014, further studies have refined the picture of interbreeding between EEF and WHG. In a 2017 analysis of 180 ancient DNA datasets of the Chalcolithic and Neolithic periods from Hungary, Germany and Spain, evidence was found of a prolonged period of interbreeding. Admixture took place regionally, from local hunter-gatherer populations, so that populations from the three regions (Germany, Iberia and Hungary) were genetically distinguishable at all stages of the Neolithic period, with a gradually increasing ratio of WHG ancestry of farming populations over time. This suggests that after the initial expansion of early farmers, there were no further long-range migrations substantial enough to homogenize the farming population, and that farming and hunter-gatherer populations existed side by side for many centuries, with ongoing gradual admixture throughout the 5th to 4th millennia BC (rather than a single admixture event on initial contact).[30] Admixture rates varied geographically; in the late Neolithic, WHG ancestry in farmers in Hungary was at around 10%, in Germany around 25% and in Iberia as high as 50%.[31]

During late Neolithic and early Bronze Age, the EEF-derived cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by successive invasions of Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the Pontic–Caspian steppe.[32] These invasions led to EEF paternal DNA lineages in Europe being almost entirely replaced with WSH paternal DNA (mainly R1b and R1a). EEF mtDNA however remained frequent, suggesting admixture between WSH males and EEF females.[33][34]

A 2025 study conducted by scientists from the University of Ferrara had found that many of the prehistoric Europeans retained dark skin of their African ancestors until the Bronze and Iron Ages. The analysis suggested that lighter skin had evolved in Europe more sporadically than conventionally believed in academic scholarship.[35][36] The study had analysed 348 samples pooled from human remains across the British Isles, mainland Europe, Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East with a chronological range extending from 45,000 to 1,700 years ago.[37]

## Language

Main article: Paleo-European languages

Neolithic cultures in Europe in c. 4000–3500 BC

There is no direct evidence of the languages spoken in the Neolithic. Some proponents of paleolinguistics attempt to extend the methods of historical linguistics to the Stone Age, but this has little academic support. Criticising scenarios which envision for the Neolithic only a small number of language families spread over huge areas of Europe (as in modern times), Donald Ringe has argued on general principles of language geography (as concerns "tribal", pre-state societies), and the scant remains of (apparently) native, non-Indo-European languages attested in ancient inscriptions, that Neolithic Europe must have been a place of great linguistic diversity, with many language families with no recoverable linguistic links to each other, much like western North America prior to European colonisation.[38]

Discussion of hypothetical languages spoken in the European Neolithic is divided into two topics, Indo-European languages and "Pre-Indo-European" languages.[citation needed]

Early Indo-European languages are usually assumed to have reached Danubian (and maybe Central) Europe in the Chalcolithic or early Bronze Age, e.g. with the Corded Ware or Beaker cultures (see also Kurgan hypothesis for related discussions). The Anatolian hypothesis postulates arrival of Indo-European languages with the early Neolithic. Old European hydronymy is taken by Hans Krahe to be the oldest reflection of the early presence of Indo-European in Europe.[citation needed]

Theories of "Pre-Indo-European" languages in Europe are built on scant evidence. The Basque language is the best candidate for a descendant of such a language, but since Basque is a language isolate, there is no comparative evidence to build upon. Theo Vennemann nevertheless postulates a "Vasconic" family, which he supposes had co-existed with an "Atlantic" or "Semitidic" (i. e., para-Semitic) group. Another candidate is a Tyrrhenian family which would have given rise to Etruscan and Raetic in the Iron Age, and possibly also Aegean languages such as Minoan or Pelasgian in the Bronze Age.[citation needed]

In the north, a similar scenario to Indo-European is thought to have occurred with Uralic languages expanding in from the east. In particular, while the Sami languages of the Sami people from parts of Northern Europe and Russia belong in the Uralic family, they show considerable substrate influence, thought to represent one or more extinct languages spoken before the arrival of the Uralic speakers. The Sami are estimated to have adopted a Uralic language less than 2,500 years ago.[39] Some traces of pre-Uralic and pre-Indo-European languages of the Baltic area have been suspected in the Finnic languages as well, but these are much more modest. There are early loanwords from unidentified non-IE languages in other Uralic languages of Europe as well.[40]

Guus Kroonen brought up the so-called "Agricultural Substrate Hypothesis", based on the comparison of presumable Pre-Germanic and Pre-Greek substrate lexicon (especially agricultural terms without clear IE etymologies). Kroonen links that substrate to the gradual spread of agriculture in Neolithic Europe from Anatolia and the Balkans, and associates the Pre-Germanic agricultural substrate language with the Linear Pottery culture. The prefix *a- and the suffix *-it- are the most apparent linguistic markers by which a small group of "Agricultural" substrate words – i.e. *arwīt ("pea") or *gait ("goat") – can be isolated from the rest of the Proto-Germanic lexicon.[41] According to Aljoša Šorgo, there are at least 36 Proto-Germanic lexical items very likely originating from the "agricultural" substrate language (or a group of closely related languages). It is proposed by Šorgo that the Agricultural substrate was characterized by a four-vowel system of */æ/ */ɑ/ */i/ */u/, the presence of pre-nasalized stops, the absence of a semi-vowel */j/, a mobile stress accent, and reduction of unstressed vowels.[42]

## List of cultures and sites

Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae (Orkney, Scotland), Europe's most complete Neolithic village

* Mesolithic/Para-Neolithic
* Franchthi Cave (Greece, 20th to 3rd millennium BC) First European Neolithic site.
* Lepenski Vir culture (Serbia, 10th/8th to 6th millennium BC)
* Megalithic culture (8th to 2nd millennium BC)
* Elshanka culture (Russia, 7th millennium BC) Oldest European pottery.
* Bug-Dniester culture (Moldova, Ukraine, 7th to 6th millennium BC)
* Ertebølle culture (Denmark, 6th to 4th millennium BC)
* Swifterbant culture (Netherlands, 6th to 4th millennium BC)
* Neman culture (Poland, Lithuania, 6th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Dnieper-Donets culture (Ukraine, 5th millennium BC)
* Early Neolithic
* Khirokitia (Cyprus, 7th to 4th millennium BC)
* Sesklo culture (Greece, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
* Cardium pottery culture (Mediterranean coast, 7th to 6th millennium BC)
* Kakanj culture (Bosnia and Herzegovina, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
* Starčevo-Criș culture (Starčevo I, Körös, Criş, Central Balkans, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
* Karanovo culture (Bulgaria, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
* Dudești culture (Romania, 6th millennium BC)
* Katundas Cavern (Albania, 6th millennium BC)
* Middle NeolithicReconstruction of the main occupation phase of the Maidanetske mega-site, c. 3800 BC
* La Hoguette culture (France, 6th millennium BC)
* Körös culture (Hungary, Romania, 6th millennium BC)
* La Almagra pottery culture (Andalusia, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Linear Pottery culture (6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Circular enclosures
* Sopot culture (Croatia, Hungary, 6th to 4th millennium BC)
* Vinča culture (Balkans, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Cucuteni-Trypillian culture (Moldova, Ukraine, Romania, 6th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Tisza culture (Central Europe, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Langweiler (Germany, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Hamangia culture (Romania, Bulgaria, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Butmir culture (Bosnia and Herzegovina, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Bonu Ighinu culture (Sardinia, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
* Għar Dalam phase (Malta, 5th millennium BC)
* Lengyel culture (Central Europe, 5th millennium BC)
* A culture in Central Europe produced monumental arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. Reconstruction (model) of the Künzing-Unternberg circular ditch, Museum Quintana, Künzing, Lower Bavaria, Germany
* Hinkelstein culture (Germany, 5th millennium BC)
* Stroke-ornamented ware culture (5th millennium BC)
* Dimini culture (Greece, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Cerny culture (France, 5th millennium BC)
* Danilo culture (Croatia, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Rössen culture (Central Europe, 5th millennium BC)
* San Ciriaco culture (Sardinia, 5th millennium BC)
* Chasséen culture (France, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Sredny Stog culture (Ukraine, Russia, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Michelsberg culture (Central Europe, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Boian culture (Romania, Bulgaria, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Pfyn culture (Switzerland, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Pit–Comb Ware culture, a.k.a. Comb Ceramic culture (Northeast Europe, 5th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Mariupol culture (Pontic Steppe, 5th millennium BC)
* Hembury culture (Britain, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Baalberge group (Germany, Czechia, 4th millennium BC)
* Cortaillod culture (Switzerland, 4th millennium BC)
* Mondsee group (Austria, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Horgen culture (Switzerland, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Hvar culture (Eastern Adriatic coast, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Windmill Hill culture (Britain, 4th millennium BC)
* Eneolithic (Chalcolithic)A model of the prehistoric town of Los Millares, with its walls (Andalusia, Spain)
* Samara culture (Russia, 5th millennium BC)
* Khvalynsk culture (Russia, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Gumelniţa culture (Romania, 5th millennium BC)
* Varna culture (Bulgaria, 5th millennium BC)
* Tiszapolgár culture (Central Europe, 5th millennium BC)
* Suvorovo culture (North-west Black Sea, 5th millennium BC)
* Novodanilovka culture (Ukraine, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Funnelbeaker culture (5th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Cernavodă culture (Bulgaria, Romania, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
* Repin culture (East European forest steppe, 4th millennium BC)
* Rinaldone culture (Italy, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Baden culture (Central Europe, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Usatove culture (North-west Black Sea, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Globular Amphora culture (Central Europe, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Yamnaya culture (Pontic-Caspian steppe, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Eutresis culture (Greece, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Vučedol culture (North-west Balkans, Pannonian Plain, late 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
* Los Millares culture (Almería, Spain, 4th to 2nd millennium BC)
* Corded Ware culture, a.k.a. Battle-axe or Single Grave culture (Northern Europe, 3rd millennium BC)
* Gaudo culture (Italy, 4th to 3rd millennium BC, early Bronze Age)
* Beaker culture (3rd to 2nd millennium BC, early Bronze Age)
* Stonehenge, Skara Brae

### Megalithic

Klekkende Høj passage grave, Denmark, c. 3500-2800 BC

Some Neolithic cultures listed above are known for constructing megaliths. These occur primarily on the Atlantic coast of Europe, but there are also megaliths on western Mediterranean islands.

* c. 5000 BC: Constructions in Portugal (Évora). Emergence of the Atlantic Neolithic period, the age of agriculture along the fertile shores of Europe.
* c. 4800 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Barnenez) and Poitou (Bougon).
* c. 4000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Carnac), Portugal (Lisbon), Spain (Galicia and Andalusia), France (central and southern), Corsica, England, Wales, Northern Ireland (Banbridge) and elsewhere.
* c. 3700 BC: Constructions in Ireland (Carrowmore and elsewhere) and Spain (Dolmen of Menga, Antequera Dolmens Site, Málaga).
* c. 3600 BC: Constructions in England (Maumbury Rings and Godmanchester), and Malta (Ġgantija and Mnajdra temples).
* c. 3500 BC: Constructions in Spain (Dolmen of Viera, Antequera Dolmens Site, Málaga, and Guadiana), Ireland (south-west), France (Arles and the north), north-west and central Italy (Piedmont, Valle d'Aosta, Liguria and Tuscany), Mediterranean islands (Sardinia, Sicily, Malta) and elsewhere in the Mediterranean, Belgium (north-east) and Germany (central and south-west).
* c. 3400 BC: Constructions in Ireland (Newgrange), Netherlands (north-east), Germany (northern and central) Sweden and Denmark.
* c. 3200 BC: Constructions in Malta (Ħaġar Qim and Tarxien).
* c. 3000 BC: Constructions in France (Saumur, Dordogne, Languedoc, Biscay, and the Mediterranean coast), Spain (Los Millares), Belgium (Ardennes), and Orkney, as well as the first henges (circular earthworks) in Britain.
* c. 2900 BC: Constructions in Spain (Tholos of El Romeral, Antequera Dolmens Site, Málaga)
* c. 2800 BC: Construction of the henge at Stonehenge.

## See also

* Prehistoric Europe
* Chalcolithic Europe
* Germanic substrate hypothesis
* Indo-Iranians
* Neolithic tomb
* Old European culture
* Pre-Indo-European languages
* Proto-Indo-European language
* Proto-Indo-Europeans
* Vinča symbols
* Neolithic in Switzerland

## References

1. ↑ Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza 1971.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Original text published under Creative Commons license CC BY 4.0: Shukurov, Anvar; Sarson, Graeme R.; Gangal, Kavita (2014). "The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia" (in en). PLOS ONE 9 (5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. PMID 24806472. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...995714G. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3. ↑ Renfrew 1987.
4. ↑ Bellwood 2004.
5. ↑ Cooper, Alan; Haak. "European invasion: DNA reveals the origins of modern Europeans" (in en-US). http://theconversation.com/european-invasion-dna-reveals-the-origins-of-modern-europeans-38096.
6. ↑ "Discovery of 8,000-year-old veiled Mother Goddess near Bulgaria's Vidin 'pushes back' Neolithic revolution in Europe". Archaeology in Bulgaria. 27 October 2018. http://archaeologyinbulgaria.com/2018/10/27/discovery-of-8000-year-old-veiled-mother-goddess-near-bulgaria-vidin-pushes-back-neolithic-revolution-in-europe/.
7. ↑ Bellwood 2004, pp. 68–9.
8. ↑ Bellwood 2004, pp. 74, 118.
9. ↑ Subbaraman 2012.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Paul Rincon, Stonehenge: DNA reveals origin of builders. BBC News website, 16 April 2019
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Brace, Selina; Diekmann, Yoan; Booth, Thomas J.; van Dorp, Lucy; Faltyskova, Zuzana; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Olalde, Iñigo et al. (2019). "Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain". Nature Ecology & Evolution 3 (5): 765–771. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 30988490. Bibcode: 2019NatEE...3..765B.
12. ↑ Bellwood 2004, pp. 68–72.
13. ↑ Roger Highfield (2 June 2008). "Neolithic men were prepared to fight for their women" (in en-GB). The Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2066554/Neolithic-men-were-prepared-to-fight-for-their-women.html.
14. ↑ "German mass grave records prehistoric warfare". BBC News. 17 August 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-33967908.
15. ↑ Boulestin, Bruno; Coupey, Anne-Sophie (2015). Cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture: The Human Remains from Herxheim. Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 101, 115, 123, 126.
16. ↑ Menotti, Francesco (2007), "The Tripolye house, a sacred and profane coexistence!", WAC-6, 6th World Archaeological Congress (WAC6), Dublin, OCLC 368044032, http://www.wac6.org/livesite/item.php?itemID=1683&itemType=PAPER
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Shennan & Edinborough 2007.
18. ↑ Grande, Lance; Augustyn, Allison (15 November 2009). Gems and Gemstones: Timeless Natural Beauty of the Mineral World. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30511-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=RnE9Fa4pbn0C&dq=varna+necropolis+oldest&pg=PA290.
19. ↑ Curry, Andrew. "Mystery of the Varna Gold: What Caused These Ancient Societies to Disappear?". https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/varna-bulgaria-gold-graves-social-hierarchy-prehistoric-archaelogy-smithsonian-journeys-travel-quarterly-180958733/.
20. ↑ Daley, Jason. "World's Oldest Gold Object May Have Just Been Unearthed in Bulgaria". https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-gold-object-unearthed-bulgaria-180960093/.
21. ↑ Curry, Andrew (August 2019). "The first Europeans weren't who you might think". National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature.
22. ↑ Timpson, Adrian; Colledge, Sue (September 2014). "Reconstructing regional population fluctuations in the European Neolithic using radiocarbon dates: a new case-study using an improved method". Journal of Archaeological Science 52: 549–557. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.08.011. Bibcode: 2014JArSc..52..549T.
23. ↑ Rascovan, Nicolás; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Kristiansen, Kristian; Nielsen, Rasmus; Willerslev, Eske; Desnues, Christelle; Rasmussen, Simon (10 January 2019). "Emergence and Spread of Basal Lineages of Yersinia pestis during the Neolithic Decline" (in en). Cell 176 (1): 295–305.e10. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.11.005. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 30528431.
24. ↑ Haak, Wolfgang; Lazaridis, Iosif; Patterson, Nick; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Llamas, Bastien; Brandt, Guido; Nordenfelt, Susanne et al. (11 June 2015). "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe". Nature 522 (7555): 207–211. doi:10.1038/nature14317. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 25731166. Bibcode: 2015Natur.522..207H.
25. ↑ "Steppe migrant thugs pacified by Stone Age farming women". ScienceDaily (Faculty of Science - University of Copenhagen). 4 April 2017. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170404084429.htm.
26. ↑ Ceramic vessel. 18 October 2012. http://bulgarianheritage.bulgariana.eu/jspui/handle/pub/451.
27. ↑ "Population genomic analysis of ancient and modern genomes yields new insights into the genetic ancestry of the Tyrolean Iceman and the genetic structure of Europe". PLOS Genetics 10 (5). May 2014. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004353. PMID 24809476.
28. ↑ Lazaridis et al., "Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans", Nature, 513(7518), 18 September 2014, 409–413, doi: 10.1038/nature13673.
29. ↑ Lazaridis et al. (2014), Supplementary Information, p. 113.
30. ↑ Lipson et al., "Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers", Nature 551, 368–372 (16 November 2017) doi:10.1038/nature24476.
31. ↑ Lipson et al. (2017), Fig 2.
32. ↑ Goldberg, Amy et al. (7 March 2017). "Ancient X chromosomes reveal contrasting sex bias in Neolithic and Bronze Age Eurasian migrations". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (National Academy of Sciences) 114 (10): 2657–2662. doi:10.1073/pnas.1616392114. PMID 28223527. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114.2657G.
33. ↑ Juras, Anna et al. (2 August 2018). "Mitochondrial genomes reveal an east to west cline of steppe ancestry in Corded Ware populations". Scientific Reports (Nature Research) 8 (11603): 11603. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29914-5. PMID 30072694. Bibcode: 2018NatSR...811603J.
34. ↑ Olalde, Iñigo et al. (15 March 2019). "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 363 (6432): 1230–1234. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. PMID 30872528. Bibcode: 2019Sci...363.1230O.
35. ↑ Perretti, Silvia; Santos, Patrícia; Vizzari, Maria Teresa; Tassani, Enrico; Benazzo, Andrea; Ghirotto, Silvia; Barbujani, Guido (22 July 2025). "Inference of human pigmentation from ancient DNA by genotype likelihoods". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122 (29). doi:10.1073/pnas.2502158122. PMID 40663601. Bibcode: 2025PNAS..12202158P.
36. ↑ Shemary, Josef Al (3 March 2025). "Britons - including ones who built Stonehenge - 'were mostly black 5,000 years ago,' study suggests" (in en). https://www.lbc.co.uk/article/britons-including-ones-who-built-stonehenge-were-mostly-black-5000-years-ago-stu-5Hjd229_2/.
37. ↑ Perretti, Silvia; Santos, Patrícia; Vizzari, Maria Teresa; Tassani, Enrico; Benazzo, Andrea; Ghirotto, Silvia; Barbujani, Guido (22 July 2025). "Inference of human pigmentation from ancient DNA by genotype likelihoods". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122 (29). doi:10.1073/pnas.2502158122. PMID 40663601. Bibcode: 2025PNAS..12202158P.
38. ↑ Ringe 2009.
39. ↑ Aikio 2004.
40. ↑ Häkkinen 2012.
41. ↑ Guus Kroonen «Non-Indo-European root nouns in Germanic: evidence in support of the Agricultural Substrate Hypothesis». Department of Scandinavian Studies and Linguistics, Copenhagen University
42. ↑ Šorgo, Aljoša. 2020\. Characteristics of Lexemes of a Substratum Origin in Proto-Germanic. In Romain Garnier (ed.): Loanwords and substrata: proceedings of the colloquium held in Limoges, 5th–7 June 2018. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck: Innsbruck. Pages 427—472

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## Further reading

* Bellwood, Peter (2001). "Early Agriculturalist Population Diasporas? Farming, Languages, and Genes". Annual Review of Anthropology 30: 181–207. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.181.
* Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08750-4.
* Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (2001). Genes, Peoples, and Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22873-3.
* Gimbutas, Marija (1989). The Language of the Goddess. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-250356-5. https://archive.org/details/languageofgoddes00gimb.
* "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe". Nature 534 (7606): 200–5. June 2016. doi:10.1038/nature17993. PMID 27135931. Bibcode: 2016Natur.534..200F.

## External links

* Hofmanová, Zuzana et al. (2016). "Early farmers from across Europe directly descended from Neolithic Aegeans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113 (25): 6886–6891. doi:10.1073/pnas.1523951113. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 27274049. Bibcode: 2016PNAS..113.6886H.
* The genetic structure of the world's first farmers, Lazaridis et al, 2016
* Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe, Haak et al, 2015
* Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia, Allentoft et al, 2015
* Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe, Mathieson et al, 2015
* "The Horse, the Wheel and Language, How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes shaped the Modern World", David W Anthony, 2007
* General table of Neolithic sites in Europe
* Mario Alinei, et al., Paleolithic Continuity Theory of Indo-European Origins
* culture.gouv.fr: Life along the Danube 6500 years ago

* v
* t
* e

Neolithic Europe (including the Chalcolithic)

↑ Mesolithic Europe ↑

Horizons|

* Cardium pottery
* Corded Ware culture
* First Temperate Neolithic
* Linear Pottery culture (LBK)

Cultures|

* Baden
* Beaker
* Boian
* Butmir
* Cernavodă
* Cerny
* Chasséen
* Cortaillod
* Coțofeni
* Cucuteni–Trypillia
* Decea Mureşului
* Dudești
* Funnelbeaker
* Gaudo
* Globular Amphora
* Gorneşti
* Gumelnița–Karanovo
* Hamangia
* Horgen
* Kakanj
* Karanovo
* Lengyel
* Narva
* Petreşti
* Pit–Comb Ware
* Pitted Ware
* Pfyn
* Rössen
* Seine–Oise–Marne
* Sesklo
* Sredny Stog
* Starčevo–Kőrös–Criș

* Starčevo
* Körös
* Criş

* Tisza
* Tiszapolgár
* Varna
* Vinča
* Vučedol
* Wartberg
* Windmill Hill

Monumental
architecture|

* Bank barrow
* Causewayed enclosure
* Cist
* Cursus
* Dolmen
* Great dolmen
* Guardian stones
* Henge
* Long barrow
* Megalith
* Megalithic entrance
* Menhir
* Passage grave
* Polygonal dolmen
* Rectangular dolmen
* Rondel
* Round barrow
* Simple dolmen
* Statue menhir
* Stone circle
* Stone row
* Timber circle
* Tor enclosure
* Unchambered long barrow

Technology|

* Grooved ware
* Lithic industries
* Metallurgy
* Neolithic long house
* Unstan ware

Concepts|

* Danubian culture
* Secondary products revolution
* Old Europe
* Proto-Indo-Europeans

↓ Bronze Age Europe ↓

* v
* t
* e

Prehistoric Europe

Sovereign states|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Armenia
* Austria
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Georgia
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
*   * Italy
* Kazakhstan
* Latvia
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Turkey
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* England
* Northern Ireland
* Scotland
* Wales

States with limited
recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Artsakh
* Northern Cyprus
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria

Template:History of Europe

* v
* t
* e

Prehistoric technology

* Prehistory
* Timeline
* Outline
* Stone Age
* Subdivisions
* New Stone Age
* Technology
* history
* Glossary

Tools

| Farming|

* Neolithic Revolution
* Founder crops
* New World crops
* Ard / plough
* Celt
* Digging stick
* Domestication
* Goad
* Irrigation
* Secondary products
* Sickle
* Terracing

|

Food processing
(Paleolithic diet)|

* Fire
* Basket
* Cooking
* Earth oven
* Granaries
* Grinding slab
* Ground stone
* Hearth
* Aşıklı Höyük
* Qesem cave
* Manos
* Metate
* Mortar and pestle
* Pottery
* Quern-stone
* Storage pits

Hunting|

* Arrow
* Boomerang
* throwing stick
* Bow and arrow
* history
* Nets
* Spear
* spear-thrower
* baton
* harpoon
* Schöningen
* woomera

Projectile points|

* Arrowhead
* Transverse
* Bare Island
* Cascade
* Clovis
* Cresswell
* Cumberland
* Eden
* Folsom
* Lamoka
* Manis Mastodon
* Plano

Systems|

* Game drive system
* Buffalo jump

Toolmaking|

* Earliest toolmaking
* Oldowan
* Acheulean
* Mousterian
* Aurignacian
* Clovis culture
* Cupstone
* Fire hardening
* Gravettian culture
* Hafting
* Hand axe
* Grooves
* Langdale axe industry
* Levallois technique
* Lithic core
* Lithic reduction
* analysis
* debitage
* flake
* Lithic technology
* Magdalenian culture
* Metallurgy
* Microblade technology
* Mining
* Prepared-core technique
* Solutrean industry
* Striking platform
* Tool stone
* Uniface
* Yubetsu technique

Other tools|

* Adze
* Awl
* bone
* Axe
* Bannerstone
* Blade
* prismatic
* Bone tool
* Bow drill
* Burin
* Canoe
* Oar
* Pesse canoe
* Chopper
* tool
* Cleaver
* Denticulate tool
* Fire plough
* Fire-saw
* Hammerstone
* Knife
* Microlith
* Quern-stone
* Racloir
* Rope
* Scraper
* side
* Stone tool
* Tally stick
* Weapons
* Wheel
* illustration

Architecture

| Ceremonial|

* Kiva
* Pyramid
* Standing stones
* megalith
* row
* Stonehenge

|

Dwellings|

* Neolithic architecture
* long house
* British megalith architecture
* Nordic megalith architecture
* Burdei
* Cave
* Cliff dwelling
* Dugout
* Hut
* Quiggly hole
* Jacal
* Longhouse
* Mudbrick
* Mehrgarh
* Pit-house
* Pueblitos
* Pueblo
* Rock shelter
* Blombos Cave
* Abri de la Madeleine
* Sibudu Cave
* Roundhouse
* Stilt house
* Alp pile dwellings
* Stone roof
* Wattle and daub

Water management|

* Check dam
* Cistern
* Flush toilet
* Reservoir
* Well

Other architecture|

* Archaeological features
* Broch
* Burnt mound
* fulacht fiadh
* Causewayed enclosure
* Tor enclosure
* Circular enclosure
* Goseck
* Cursus
* Henge
* Thornborough
* Megalithic architectural elements
* Midden
* Oldest extant buildings
* Timber circle
* Timber trackway
* Sweet Track

Arts and culture

| Material goods|

* Baskets
* Beadwork
* Beds
* Chalcolithic
* Clothing/textiles
* timeline
* Cosmetics
* Glue
* Hides
* shoes
* Ötzi
* Jewelry
* amber use
* Mirrors
* Pottery
* Cardium
* Cord-marked
* Grooved ware
* Jōmon
* Linear
* Unstan ware
* Sewing needle
* Weaving
* Wine
* winery
* wine press

|

Prehistoric art|

* Art of the Upper Paleolithic
* Art of the Middle Paleolithic
* Blombos Cave
* List of Stone Age art
* Bird stone
* Cairn
* Carved stone balls
* Cave paintings
* Cup and ring mark
* Geoglyph
* Hill figure
* Golden hats
* Guardian stones
* Gwion Gwion rock paintings
* painting
* pigment
* Megalithic art
* Petroform
* Petroglyph
* Petrosomatoglyph
* Pictogram
* Rock art
* Rock cupule
* Stone carving
* Sculpture
* Statue menhir
* Stone circle
* list
* British Isles and Brittany
* Venus figurine

Prehistoric music|

* Evolutionary musicology
* music archaeology
* Alligator drum
* Paleolithic flute
* Divje Babe flute
* Gudi

Prehistoric religion|

* Evolutionary origin of religion
* Paleolithic religion
* Spiritual drug use

Burial|

* Burial mounds
* Bowl barrow
* Round barrow
* Mound Builders culture
* U.S. sites
* Chamber tomb
* Cotswold-Severn
* Cist
* Dartmoor kistvaens
* Clava cairn
* Court cairn
* Cremation
* Dolmen
* Great dolmen
* Funeral pyre
* Gallery grave
* transepted
* wedge-shaped
* Grave goods
* Jar burial
* Kuyavian long barrows
* Long barrow
* unchambered
* Grønsalen
* Megalithic tomb
* Mummy
* Passage grave
* Rectangular dolmen
* Ring cairn
* Simple dolmen
* Stone box grave
* Tor cairn
* Unchambered long cairn

Other cultural|

* Archaeoastronomy
* sites
* lunar calendar
* Behavioral modernity
* Origin of language
* Prehistoric counting
* Prehistoric medicine
* trepanning
* Prehistoric warfare
* Symbols
* symbolism

* v
* t
* e

Chronology of the Neolithic period[1]

Pre-Pottery Neolithic Pottery Neolithic

11000 | Europe | Egypt | Syria
Levant | Anatolia | Khabur | Sinjar Mountains
Assyria | Middle Tigris | Low
Mesopotamia | Iran
(Khuzistan)  | Iran | Indus/
India | China
10000 |  |  | Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
Gesher[2]
Mureybet
(10,500 BC)  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | Early Pottery
(18,000 BC)[3]
9000 | Jericho
Tell Abu Hureyra
[4]
8000 | Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
Jericho
Tell Aswad | Göbekli Tepe
Çayönü
Aşıklı Höyük | Initial Neolithic
(Pottery)
Nanzhuangtou
(8500–8000 BC)
7000 | Egyptian Neolithic
Nabta Playa
(7500 BC)  | Çatalhöyük
(7500–5500)
Hacilar
(7000 BC)  | Tell Sabi Abyad
Bouqras | Jarmo | Ganj Dareh
Chia Jani
Ali Kosh | Mehrgarh I[2]
6500 | Neolithic Europe
Franchthi
Sesklo
[5] | Pre-Pottery Neolithic C
('Ain Ghazal)  | Pottery Neolithic
Tell Sabi Abyad
Bouqras | Pottery Neolithic
Jarmo | Chogha Bonut | Teppe Zagheh | Pottery Neolithic
Peiligang
(7000–5000 BC)
6000 | Pottery Neolithic
Sesklo
Dimini | Pottery Neolithic
Yarmukian
(Sha'ar HaGolan)  | Pottery Neolithic
Ubaid 0
(Tell el-'Oueili)  | Pottery Neolithic
Chogha Mish | Pottery Neolithic
Sang-i Chakmak | Pottery Neolithic
Lahuradewa

Mehrgarh II

Mehrgarh III
5600 | Faiyum A |
Amuq A  |
Halaf

Halaf-Ubaid | Umm Dabaghiya |
Samarra
(6000–4800 BC)  | Tepe Muhammad Djafar | Tepe Sialk
5200 | Linear Pottery culture
(5500–4500 BC)  |
Amuq B  | Hacilar

Mersin
24–22

Hassuna |
Ubaid 1
(Eridu 19–15)

Ubaid 2
(Hadji Muhammed)
(Eridu 14–12)  |
Susiana A  | Yarim Tepe
Hajji Firuz Tepe
4800 | Pottery Neolithic
Merimde
[6] |
Amuq C  | Hacilar
Mersin
22–20  | Hassuna Late

Gawra 20  |
Tepe Sabz | Kul Tepe Jolfa
4500 |
Amuq D  | Gian Hasan
Mersin
19–17  | Ubaid 3  | Ubaid 3
(Gawra)
19–18  | Ubaid 3  | Khazineh
Susiana B

3800 | Badarian
Naqada | Ubaid 4

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic Europe. Read more

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1. ↑ Liverani, Mario (2013) (in en). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Routledge. p. 13, Table 1.1 "Chronology of the Ancient Near East". ISBN 9781134750917. https://books.google.com/books?id=_EtJAgAAQBAJ.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Shukurov, Anvar; Sarson, Graeme R.; Gangal, Kavita (7 May 2014). "The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia" (in en). PLOS ONE 9 (5): e95714. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 24806472. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...995714G.
3. ↑ Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Arpin, Trina; Pan, Yan; Cohen, David; Goldberg, Paul; Zhang, Chi; Wu, Xiaohong (29 June 2012). "Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China" (in en). Science 336 (6089): 1696–1700. doi:10.1126/science.1218643. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22745428. Bibcode: 2012Sci...336.1696W.
4. ↑ Thorpe, I. J. (2003) (in en). The Origins of Agriculture in Europe. Routledge. p. 14. ISBN 9781134620104. https://books.google.com/books?id=gYmEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP14.
5. ↑ Price, T. Douglas (2000) (in en). Europe's First Farmers. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780521665728. https://books.google.com/books?id=d0mvxuJBBL0C&pg=PA3.
6. ↑ Jr, William H. Stiebing; Helft, Susan N. (2017) (in en). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 9781134880836. https://books.google.com/books?id=C4U0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76.

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