Law of sines

Short description: Property of all triangles on a Euclidean plane

This article is about the law of sines in trigonometry. For the law of sines in physics, see Snell's law.

Lua error in Module:Multiple_image at line 163: attempt to perform arithmetic on local 'totalwidth' (a nil value).

Trigonometry

* Outline
* History
* Usage

* Functions (inverse)
* Generalized trigonometry

Reference

* Identities
* Exact constants
* Tables
* Unit circle

Laws and theorems

* Sines
* Cosines
* Tangents
* Cotangents

* Pythagorean theorem

Calculus

* Trigonometric substitution
* Integrals (inverse functions)
* Derivatives

* v
* t
* e

In trigonometry, the law of sines (sometimes called the sine formula or sine rule) is a mathematical equation relating the lengths of the sides of any triangle to the sines of its angles. According to the law, asin⁡α=bsin⁡β=csin⁡γ=2R, where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and α, β, and γ are the opposite angles (see figure 2), while R is the radius of the triangle's circumcircle. When the last part of the equation is not used, the law is sometimes stated using the reciprocals; sin⁡αa=sin⁡βb=sin⁡γc. The law of sines can be used to compute the remaining sides of a triangle when two angles and a side are known—a technique known as triangulation. It can also be used when two sides and one of the non-enclosed angles are known. In some such cases, the triangle is not uniquely determined by this data (called the ambiguous case) and the technique gives two possible values for the enclosed angle.

The law of sines is one of two trigonometric equations commonly applied to find lengths and angles in scalene triangles, with the other being the law of cosines.

The law of sines can be generalized to higher dimensions on surfaces with constant curvature.[1]

## Contents

* 1 Proof
* 2 The ambiguous case of triangle solution
* 3 Examples
* 3.1 Example 1
* 3.2 Example 2
* 4 Relation to the circumcircle
* 4.1 Proof
* 4.2 Relationship to the area of the triangle
* 5 Spherical law of sines
* 5.1 Vector proof
* 5.2 Geometric proof
* 5.3 Other proofs
* 6 Hyperbolic case
* 7 The case of surfaces of constant curvature
* 8 Higher dimensions
* 9 History
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 External links

## Proof

With the side of length a as the base, the triangle's altitude can be computed as b sin γ or as c sin β. Equating these two expressions gives bsin⁡β=csin⁡γ, and similar equations arise by choosing the side of length b or the side of length c as the base of the triangle.

## The ambiguous case of triangle solution

When using the law of sines to find a side of a triangle, an ambiguous case occurs when two separate triangles can be constructed from the data provided (i.e., there are two different possible solutions to the triangle). In the case shown below they are triangles ABC and ABC′.

Given a general triangle, the following conditions would need to be fulfilled for the case to be ambiguous:

* The only information known about the triangle is the angle α and the sides a and c.
* The angle α is acute (i.e., α < 90°).
* The side a is shorter than the side c (i.e., a < c).
* The side a is longer than the altitude h from angle β, where h = c sin α (i.e., a > h).

If all the above conditions are true, then each of angles β and β′ produces a valid triangle, meaning that both of the following are true: γ'=arcsin⁡csin⁡αaorγ=π−arcsin⁡csin⁡αa.

From there we can find the corresponding β and b or β′ and b′ if required, where b is the side bounded by vertices A and C and b′ is bounded by A and C′.

## Examples

The following are examples of how to solve a problem using the law of sines.

### Example 1

Example 1

Given: side a = 20, side c = 24, and angle γ = 40°. Angle α is desired.

Using the law of sines, we conclude that sin⁡α20=sin⁡(40∘)24. α=arcsin⁡(20sin⁡(40∘)24)≈32.39∘.

Note that the potential solution α = 147.61° is excluded because that would necessarily give α \+ β \+ γ > 180°.

### Example 2

Example 2

If the lengths of two sides of the triangle a and b are equal to x, the third side has length c, and the angles opposite the sides of lengths a, b, and c are α, β, and γ respectively then α=β=180∘−γ2=90∘−γ2sin⁡α=sin⁡β=sin⁡(90∘−γ2)=cos⁡(γ2)csin⁡γ=asin⁡α=xcos⁡(γ2)ccos⁡(γ2)sin⁡γ=x

## Relation to the circumcircle

In the identity asin⁡α=bsin⁡β=csin⁡γ, the common value of the three fractions is actually the diameter of the triangle's circumcircle. This result dates back to Ptolemy.[2][3]

### Proof

Deriving the ratio of the sine law equal to the circumscribing diameter. Note that triangle ADB passes through the center of the circumscribing circle with diameter d.

As shown in the figure, let there be a circle with inscribed △ABC and another inscribed △ADB that passes through the circle's center O. The ∠AOD has a central angle of 180∘ and thus ∠ABD=90∘, by Thales's theorem. Since △ABD is a right triangle, sin⁡δ=oppositehypotenuse=c2R, where R=d2 is the radius of the circumscribing circle of the triangle.[3] Angles γ and δ lie on the same circle and subtend the same chord c; thus, by the inscribed angle theorem, γ=δ. Therefore, sin⁡δ=sin⁡γ=c2R.

Rearranging yields 2R=csin⁡γ.

Repeating the process of creating △ADB with other points gives

asin⁡α=bsin⁡β=csin⁡γ=2R.

### Relationship to the area of the triangle

The area of a triangle is given by T=12absin⁡θ, where θ is the angle enclosed by the sides of lengths a and b. Substituting the sine law into this equation gives T=12ab⋅c2R.

Taking R as the circumscribing radius,[4]

T=abc4R.

It can also be shown that this equality implies abc2T=abc2s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)=2abc(a2+b2+c2)2−2(a4+b4+c4), where T is the area of the triangle and s is the semiperimeter s=12(a+b+c).

The second equality above readily simplifies to Heron's formula for the area.

The sine rule can also be used in deriving the following formula for the triangle's area: denoting the semi-sum of the angles' sines as S=12(sin⁡A+sin⁡B+sin⁡C), we have[5]

T=4R2S(S−sin⁡A)(S−sin⁡B)(S−sin⁡C)

where R is the radius of the circumcircle: 2R=asin⁡A=bsin⁡B=csin⁡C.

## Spherical law of sines

The spherical law of sines deals with triangles on a sphere, whose sides are arcs of great circles.

Suppose the radius of the sphere is 1\. Let a, b, and c be the lengths of the great-arcs that are the sides of the triangle. Because it is a unit sphere, a, b, and c are the angles at the center of the sphere subtended by those arcs, in radians. Let A, B, and C be the angles opposite those respective sides. These are dihedral angles between the planes of the three great circles.

Then the spherical law of sines says: sin⁡Asin⁡a=sin⁡Bsin⁡b=sin⁡Csin⁡c.

### Vector proof

Consider a unit sphere with three unit vectors OA, OB and OC drawn from the origin to the vertices of the triangle. Thus the angles α, β, and γ are the angles a, b, and c, respectively. The arc BC subtends an angle of magnitude a at the centre. Introduce a Cartesian basis with OA along the z-axis and OB in the xz-plane making an angle c with the z-axis. The vector OC projects to ON in the xy-plane and the angle between ON and the x-axis is A. Therefore, the three vectors have components: 𝐎𝐀=(001),𝐎𝐁=(sin⁡c0cos⁡c),𝐎𝐂=(sin⁡bcos⁡Asin⁡bsin⁡Acos⁡b).

The scalar triple product, OA ⋅ (OB × OC) is the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the position vectors of the vertices of the spherical triangle OA, OB and OC. This volume is invariant to the specific coordinate system used to represent OA, OB and OC. The value of the scalar triple product OA ⋅ (OB × OC) is the 3 × 3 determinant with OA, OB and OC as its rows. With the z-axis along OA the square of this determinant is (𝐎𝐀⋅(𝐎𝐁×𝐎𝐂))2=(det⁡(𝐎𝐀𝐎𝐁𝐎𝐂))2=|001sin⁡c0cos⁡csin⁡bcos⁡Asin⁡bsin⁡Acos⁡b|2=(sin⁡bsin⁡csin⁡A)2. Repeating this calculation with the z-axis along OB gives (sin c sin a sin B)2, while with the z-axis along OC it is (sin a sin b sin C)2. Equating these expressions and dividing throughout by (sin a sin b sin c)2 gives sin2Asin2a=sin2Bsin2b=sin2Csin2c=V2sin2(a)sin2(b)sin2(c), where V is the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the position vector of the vertices of the spherical triangle. Consequently, the result follows.

It is easy to see how for small spherical triangles, when the radius of the sphere is much greater than the sides of the triangle, this formula becomes the planar formula at the limit, since lima->0sin⁡aa=1 and the same for sin b and sin c.

### Geometric proof

Consider a unit sphere with: OA=OB=OC=1

Construct point D and point E such that ∠ADO=∠AEO=90∘

Construct point A′ such that ∠A′DO=∠A′EO=90∘

It can therefore be seen that ∠ADA′=B and ∠AEA′=C

Notice that A′ is the projection of A on plane OBC. Therefore ∠AA′D=∠AA′E=90∘

By basic trigonometry, we have: AD=sin⁡cAE=sin⁡b

But AA′=ADsin⁡B=AEsin⁡C

Combining them we have: sin⁡csin⁡B=sin⁡bsin⁡C⇒sin⁡Bsin⁡b=sin⁡Csin⁡c

By applying similar reasoning, we obtain the spherical law of sines: sin⁡Asin⁡a=sin⁡Bsin⁡b=sin⁡Csin⁡c

See also: Spherical trigonometry, Spherical law of cosines, and Half-side formula

### Other proofs

A purely algebraic proof can be constructed from the spherical law of cosines. From the identity sin2A=1−cos2A and the explicit expression for cos⁡A from the spherical law of cosines sin2A=1−(cos⁡a−cos⁡bcos⁡csin⁡bsin⁡c)2=(1−cos2b)(1−cos2c)−(cos⁡a−cos⁡bcos⁡c)2sin2bsin2csin⁡Asin⁡a=[1−cos2a−cos2b−cos2c+2cos⁡acos⁡bcos⁡c]1/2sin⁡asin⁡bsin⁡c. Since the right hand side is invariant under a cyclic permutation of a,b,c the spherical sine rule follows immediately.

The figure used in the Geometric proof above is used by and also provided in Banerjee[6] (see Figure 3 in this paper) to derive the sine law using elementary linear algebra and projection matrices.

## Hyperbolic case

In hyperbolic geometry when the curvature is −1, the law of sines becomes sin⁡Asinh⁡a=sin⁡Bsinh⁡b=sin⁡Csinh⁡c.

In the special case when B is a right angle, one gets sin⁡C=sinh⁡csinh⁡b

which is the analog of the formula in Euclidean geometry expressing the sine of an angle as the opposite side divided by the hypotenuse.

See also: Hyperbolic triangle

## The case of surfaces of constant curvature

Define a generalized sine function, depending also on a real parameter κ: sinκ(x)=x−κ3!x3+κ25!x5−κ37!x7+⋯=∑n=0∞(−1)nκn(2n+1)!x2n+1.

The law of sines in constant curvature κ reads as[1] sin⁡Asinκa=sin⁡Bsinκb=sin⁡Csinκc.

By substituting κ=0, κ=1, and κ=−1, one obtains respectively sin0(x)=x, sin1(x)=sin⁡x, and sin−1(x)=sinh⁡x, that is, the Euclidean, spherical, and hyperbolic cases of the law of sines described above.[1]

Let pκ(r) indicate the circumference of a circle of radius r in a space of constant curvature κ. Then pκ(r)=2πsinκ(r). Therefore, the law of sines can also be expressed as: sin⁡Apκ(a)=sin⁡Bpκ(b)=sin⁡Cpκ(c).

This formulation was discovered by János Bolyai.[7]

## Higher dimensions

A tetrahedron has four triangular facets. The absolute value of the polar sine (psin) of the normal vectors to the three facets that share a vertex of the tetrahedron, divided by the area of the fourth facet will not depend upon the choice of the vertex:[8]

|psin⁡(𝐛,𝐜,𝐝)|Areaa=|psin⁡(𝐚,𝐜,𝐝)|Areab=|psin⁡(𝐚,𝐛,𝐝)|Areac=|psin⁡(𝐚,𝐛,𝐜)|Aread=(3Volumetetrahedron)22AreaaAreabAreacAread.

More generally, for an n-dimensional simplex (i.e., triangle (n = 2), tetrahedron (n = 3), pentatope (n = 4), etc.) in n-dimensional Euclidean space, the absolute value of the polar sine of the normal vectors of the facets that meet at a vertex, divided by the hyperarea of the facet opposite the vertex is independent of the choice of the vertex. Writing V for the hypervolume of the n-dimensional simplex and P for the product of the hyperareas of its (n − 1)-dimensional facets, the common ratio is |psin⁡(𝐛,…,𝐳)|Areaa=⋯=|psin⁡(𝐚,…,𝐲)|Areaz=(nV)n−1(n−1)!P.

Note that when the vectors v1, ..., vn, from a selected vertex to each of the other vertices, are the columns of a matrix V then the columns of the matrix N=−V(VTV)−1det⁡VTV/(n−1)! are outward-facing normal vectors of those facets that meet at the selected vertex. This formula also works when the vectors are in a m-dimensional space having m > n. In the m = n case that V is square, the formula simplifies to N=−(VT)−1|det⁡V|/(n−1)!.

## History

An equivalent of the law of sines, that the sides of a triangle are proportional to the chords of double the opposite angles, was known to the 2nd century Hellenistic astronomer Ptolemy and used occasionally in his Almagest.[9]

Statements related to the law of sines appear in the astronomical and trigonometric work of 7th century Indian mathematician Brahmagupta. In his Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta, Brahmagupta expresses the circumradius of a triangle as the product of two sides divided by twice the altitude; the law of sines can be derived by alternately expressing the altitude as the sine of one or the other base angle times its opposite side, then equating the two resulting variants.[10] An equation even closer to the modern law of sines appears in Brahmagupta's Khaṇḍakhādyaka, in a method for finding the distance between the Earth and a planet following an epicycle; however, Brahmagupta never treated the law of sines as an independent subject or used it systematically for solving triangles.[11]

The spherical law of sines is sometimes credited to 10th century scholars Abu-Mahmud Khujandi or Abū al-Wafāʾ (it appears in his Almagest), but it is given prominence in Abū Naṣr Manṣūr's Treatise on the Determination of Spherical Arcs, and was credited to Abū Naṣr Manṣūr by his student al-Bīrūnī in his Keys to Astronomy.[12] Ibn Muʿādh al-Jayyānī's 11th-century Book of Unknown Arcs of a Sphere also contains the spherical law of sines.[13]

The 13th-century Persian mathematician Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī stated and proved the planar law of sines:[14]

> In any plane triangle, the ratio of the sides is equal to the ratio of the sines of the angles opposite to those sides. That is, in triangle ABC, we have AB : AC = Sin(∠ACB) : Sin(∠ABC)

By employing the law of sines, al-Tusi could solve triangles where either two angles and a side were known or two sides and an angle opposite one of them were given. For triangles with two sides and the included angle, he divided them into right triangles that he could then solve. When three sides were given, he dropped a perpendicular line and then used Proposition II-13 of Euclid's Elements (a geometric version of the law of cosines). Al-Tusi established the important result that if the sum or difference of two arcs is provided along with the ratio of their sines, then the arcs can be calculated.[15]

According to Glen Van Brummelen, "The Law of Sines is really Regiomontanus's foundation for his solutions of right-angled triangles in Book IV, and these solutions are in turn the bases for his solutions of general triangles."[16] Regiomontanus was a 15th-century German mathematician.

## See also

* Biography:Gersonides
* Half-side formula - for solving spherical triangles
* Law of cosines
* Law of tangents
* Law of cotangents
* Mollweide's formula - for checking solutions of triangles
* Solution of triangles
* Surveying

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Generalized law of sines". http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GeneralizedLawofSines.html.
2. ↑ Coxeter, H. S. M. and Greitzer, S. L. Geometry Revisited. Washington, DC: Math. Assoc. Amer., pp. 1–3, 1967
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Law of Sines". http://www.pballew.net/lawofsin.html.
4. ↑ Mr. T's Math Videos (2015-06-10), Area of a Triangle and Radius of its Circumscribed Circle, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6QNGDPG4Og, retrieved 2018-09-18
5. ↑ Mitchell, Douglas W., "A Heron-type area formula in terms of sines," Mathematical Gazette 93, March 2009, 108–109.
6. ↑ Banerjee, Sudipto (2004), "Revisiting Spherical Trigonometry with Orthogonal Projectors", The College Mathematics Journal (Mathematical Association of America) 35 (5): 375–381, doi:10.1080/07468342.2004.11922099, http://www.biostat.umn.edu/~sudiptob/ResearchPapers/banerjee.pdf, retrieved 2024-02-08
7. ↑ Katok, Svetlana (1992). Fuchsian groups. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-226-42583-5. https://archive.org/details/fuchsiangroups00kato.
8. ↑ Eriksson, Folke (1978). "The law of sines for tetrahedra and n-simplices". Geometriae Dedicata 7 (1): 71–80. doi:10.1007/bf00181352.
9. ↑ Toomer, Gerald J., ed (1998). Ptolemy's Almagest. Princeton University Press. pp. 7, fn. 10; 462, fn. 96.
10. ↑ Winter, Henry James Jacques (1952). Eastern Science. John Murray. p. 46. https://archive.org/details/easternscienceou0000wint/page/46/.

Colebrooke, Henry Thomas (1817). Algebra, with Arithmetic and Mensuration from the Sanscrit of Brahmegupta and Bhascara. London: John Murray. pp. 299–300. https://archive.org/details/algebrawitharith00brahuoft/page/298/mode/2up.
11. ↑ Van Brummelen, Glen (2009). The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth. Princeton University Press. pp. 109–111. ISBN 978-0-691-12973-0.

Brahmagupta (1934). The Khandakhadyaka: An Astronomical Treatise of Brahmagupta. University of Calcutta.
12. ↑ Sesiano, Jacques (2000). "Islamic mathematics". Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics. Springer. pp. 137–157. ISBN 1-4020-0260-2.

Van Brummelen, Glen (2009). The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth. Princeton University Press. pp. 183–185. ISBN 978-0-691-12973-0.
13. ↑ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Jayyani.html .
14. ↑ "Nasir al-Din al-Tusi - Biography" (in en). https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir/.
15. ↑ Katz, Victor J. (2017-03-21) (in en). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Pearson. pp. 315. ISBN 978-0-13-468952-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=7rP2MAAACAAJ.
16. ↑ Van Brummelen, Glen (2009). The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth: The Early History of Trigonometry. Princeton University Press. p. 259. ISBN 978-0-691-12973-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bHD8IBaYN-oC.

## External links

* Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Sine theorem", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4, https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/s085520
* The Law of Sines at cut-the-knot
* Degree of Curvature
* Finding the Sine of 1 Degree
* Generalized law of sines to higher dimensions

* v
* t
* e

Ancient Greek mathematics

Mathematicians
(timeline)|

* Anaxagoras
* Anthemius
* Archytas
* Aristaeus the Elder
* Aristarchus
* Apollonius
* Archimedes
* Autolycus
* Bion
* Bryson
* Callippus
* Carpus
* Chrysippus
* Cleomedes
* Conon
* Ctesibius
* Democritus
* Dicaearchus
* Diocles
* Diophantus
* Dinostratus
* Dionysodorus
* Domninus
* Eratosthenes
* Eudemus
* Euclid
* Eudoxus
* Eutocius
* Geminus
* Heron
* Hipparchus
* Hippasus
* Hippias
* Hippocrates
* Hypatia
* Hypsicles
* Isidore of Miletus
* Leon
* Marinus
* Menaechmus
* Menelaus
* Metrodorus
* Nicomachus
* Nicomedes
* Nicoteles
* Oenopides
* Pappus
* Perseus
* Philolaus
* Philon
* Porphyry
* Posidonius
* Proclus
* Ptolemy
* Pythagoras
* Serenus
* Simplicius
* Sosigenes
* Sporus
* Thales
* Theaetetus
* Theano
* Theodorus
* Theodosius
* Theon of Alexandria
* Theon of Smyrna
* Thymaridas
* Xenocrates
* Zeno of Elea
* Zeno of Sidon
* Zenodorus

Treatises|

* Almagest
* Archimedes Palimpsest
* Arithmetica
* Conics (Apollonius)
* Elements (Euclid)
* On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)
* On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)
* On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus)
* The Sand Reckoner

Problems|

* Problem of Apollonius
* Squaring the circle
* Doubling the cube
* Angle trisection

Centers|

* Cyrene
* Library of Alexandria
* Platonic Academy

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law of sines. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Law_of_sines&oldid=3988715"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template