Learning management system

Short description: Educational software application

A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, automation, and delivery of educational courses, training programs, materials or learning and development programs.[1] The learning management system concept emerged directly from e-Learning. Learning management systems make up the largest segment of the learning system market. The first introduction of the LMS was in the late 1990s.[2] LMSs have been adopted by almost all higher education institutions in the English-speaking world.[3] Learning management systems have experienced a massive growth in usage because of the emphasis on remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.[4]

Learning management systems were designed to identify training and learning gaps, using analytical data and reporting. LMSs are focused on online learning delivery but support a range of uses, acting as a platform for online content, including courses, both asynchronous based and synchronous based. In the higher education space, an LMS may offer classroom management for instructor-led training or a flipped classroom.[5] Modern LMSs include intelligent algorithms to make automated recommendations for courses based on a user's skill profile as well as extract metadata from learning materials to make such recommendations even more accurate.[6]

## Contents

* 1 Purpose
* 2 History
* 2.1 Correspondence teaching
* 2.2 Multimedia teaching: The emergence and development of the distance learning idea
* 2.3 Telematic teaching
* 2.4 Teaching through the internet: The appearance of the first LMS
* 2.5 COVID-19 and learning management systems
* 3 Technical aspects
* 4 Features
* 4.1 Managing courses, users and roles
* 4.2 Online assessment
* 4.3 User feedback
* 4.4 Synchronous and asynchronous learning
* 4.5 Learning analytics
* 5 Learning management industry
* 6 Advantages and disadvantages
* 6.1 Advantages
* 6.2 Disadvantages
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Bibliography
* 10 Further reading

## Purpose

## History

There are several historical phases of distance education that preceded the development of the LMS.

### Correspondence teaching

The first known document of correspondence teaching dates back to 1723, through the advertisement in the Boston Gazette of Caleb Phillips, professor of shorthand, offering teaching materials and tutorials.[7] The first testimony of a bi-directional communication organized correspondence course comes from England, in 1840, when Isaac Pitman initiated a shorthand course, wherein he sent a passage of the Bible to students, who would send it back in full transcription. The success of the course resulted in the foundation of the phonographic correspondence society in 1843. The pioneering milestone in distance language teaching was in 1856 by Charles Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheidt, who began the first European institution of distance learning. This is the first known instance of the use of materials for independent language study.[8]

### Multimedia teaching: The emergence and development of the distance learning idea

The concept of e-learning began developing in the early 20th century, marked by the appearance of audio-video communication systems used for remote teaching.[9] In 1909, E.M. Forster published his story 'The Machine Stops' and explained the benefits of using audio communication to deliver lectures to remote audiences.[10]

In 1924, Sidney L. Pressey developed the first teaching machine which offered multiple types of practical exercises and question formats. Nine years later, University of Alberta's Professor M.E. Zerte transformed this machine into a problem cylinder able to compare problems and solutions.[11]

This, in a sense, was "multimedia", because it made use of several media formats to reach students and provide instruction. Later, printed materials would be joined by telephone, radio broadcasts, TV broadcasts, audio, and videotapes.[12]

The earliest networked learning system was the Plato Learning Management system (PLM) developed in the 1970s by Control Data Corporation.

### Telematic teaching

In the 1980s, modern telecommunications started to be used in education. Computers became prominent in the daily use of higher education institutions, as well as instruments to student learning. Computer-aided teaching aimed to integrate technical and educational means. The trend then shifted to video communication, as a result of which University of Houston decided to hold telecast classes to their students for approximately 13–15 hours a week. The classes took place in 1953, while in 1956, Robin McKinnon Wood and Gordon Pask released the first adaptive teaching system for corporate environments SAKI.[13] The idea of automating teaching operations also inspired the University of Illinois experts to develop their Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations (PLATO) which enabled users to exchange content regardless of their location.[13] In the period between 1970 and 1980, educational venues were rapidly considering the idea of computerizing courses, including the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute from California which introduced the first accredited online-taught degree.

### Teaching through the internet: The appearance of the first LMS

The history of the application of computers to education is filled with broadly descriptive terms such as computer-managed instruction (CMI), and integrated learning systems (ILS), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer-assisted instruction (CAI), and computer-assisted learning (CAL). These terms describe drill-and-practice programs, more sophisticated tutorials, and more individualized instruction, respectively.[14] The term is currently used to describe a number of different educational computer applications.[15] FirstClass by SoftArc, used by the United Kingdom's Open University in the 1990s and 2000s to deliver online learning across Europe, was one of the earliest internet-based LMSs.[16][17]

The first fully-featured Learning Management System (LMS) was called EKKO, developed and released by Norway's NKI Distance Education Network in 1991.[18] Three years later, New Brunswick's NB Learning Network presented a similar system designed for DOS-based teaching, and devoted exclusively to business learners.

### COVID-19 and learning management systems

The suspension of in-school learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic started a dramatic shift in the way teachers and students at all levels interact with each other and learning materials. UNESCO estimated that as of May 25, 2020, approximately 990,324,537 learners, or 56.6% of the total enrolled students have been affected by COVID-19 related school closures.[19] In many countries, online education through the use of Learning Management Systems became the focal point of teaching and learning. For example, statistics taken from a university’s LMS during the initial school closure period (March to June 2020) indicate that student submissions and activity nearly doubled from pre-pandemic usage levels.[20]

Student satisfaction with LMS usage during this period is closely tied to the information quality contained within LMS modules and maintaining student self-efficacy.[21] From the teacher perspective, a study of K-12 teachers in Finland reported high levels of acceptance for LMS technology, however, training support and developing methods for maintaining student engagement are key to long-term success.[22] In developing nations, the transition to LMS usage faced many challenges, which included a lower number of colleges and universities using LMSs before the pandemic, technological infrastructure limitations, and negative attitudes toward technology amongst users.[23]

## Technical aspects

An LMS can be either hosted locally or by a vendor. A vendor-hosted cloud system tends to follow a SaaS (software as a service) model. All data in a vendor-hosted system is housed by the supplier and accessed by users through the internet, on a computer or mobile device. Vendor-hosted systems are typically easier to use and require less technical expertise. An LMS that is locally hosted sees all data pertaining to the LMS hosted internally on the users′ internal servers. Locally hosted LMS software will often be open-source, meaning users will acquire (either through payment or free of charge) the LMS software and its code. With this, the user is able to modify and maintain the software through an internal team. Individuals and smaller organizations tend to stick with cloud-based systems due to the cost of internal hosting and maintenance.[24]

There are a variety of integration strategies for embedding content into LMSs, including AICC, xAPI (also called 'Tin Can'), SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) and LTI (Learning Tools Interoperability).[25][26]

Through an LMS, teachers may create and integrate course materials, articulate learning goals, align content and assessments, track studying progress, and create customized tests for students. An LMS allows the communication of learning objectives, and organize learning timelines. An LMS perk is that it delivers learning content and tools straight to learners, and assessment can be automated. It can also reach marginalized groups through special settings. Such systems have built-in customizable features including assessment and tracking. Thus, learners can see in real time their progress and instructors can monitor and communicate the effectiveness of learning.[27][28] One of the most important features of LMS is trying to create a streamline communication between learners and instructors. Such systems, besides facilitating online learning, tracking learning progress, providing digital learning tools, managing communication, and maybe selling content, may be used to provide different communication features.[29]

## Features

### Managing courses, users and roles

Learning management systems may be used to create professionally structured course content. The teacher can add text, images, videos, pdfs, tables, links and text formatting, interactive tests, slideshows, etc. Moreover, they can create different types of users, such as teachers, students, parents, visitors and editors (hierarchies). It helps control which content students can access, track studying progress and engage students with contact tools. Teachers can manage courses and modules, enroll students or set up self-enrollment.[30]

### Online assessment

An LMS can enable instructors to create automated assessments and assignments for learners, which are accessible and submitted online. Most platforms allow a variety of different question types such as: one/multi-line answer; multiple choice answer; ordering; free text; matching; essay; true or false/yes or no; fill in the gaps; agreement scale and offline tasks.[27]

### User feedback

Students' exchange of feedback both with teachers and their peers is possible through LMS. Teachers may create discussion groups to allow students feedback, share their knowledge on topics and increase the interaction in course. Students' feedback is an instrument which help teachers to improve their work, helps identify what to add or remove from a course, and ensures students feel comfortable and included.[2]

### Synchronous and asynchronous learning

Students can either learn asynchronously (on demand, self-paced) through course content such as pre-recorded videos, PDF, SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model), discussion forums or they can undertake synchronous learning utilizing video conference communication, live discussions and chats.[31]

### Learning analytics

Learning management systems will often incorporate dashboards to track student or user progress. They can then report on key items such as completion rates, attendance data and success likelihood. Utilising these metrics can help facilitators better understand gaps in user knowledge.[32]

## Learning management industry

This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2021)

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In the relatively new LMS market, commercial providers for corporate applications and education range from new entrants to those that entered the market in 1990. In addition to commercial packages, many open-source solutions are available.

As of 2023, in the U.S. higher-education market, the leading LMSs by number of institutions are Canvas (Instructure)[33], D2L Brightspace, Blackboard Learn (Anthology), and Moodle. According to the “State of Higher Ed LMS Market for US and Canada: Year-End 2023 Edition,”[34] Canvas holds approximately 41 % institutional market share, followed by Blackboard at 17%; Moodle and Brightspace are tied at about 16 % each.[35][36]

Many users of LMSs use an authoring tool to create content, which is then hosted on an LMS. In some cases, LMSs that do use a standard include a primitive authoring tool for basic content manipulation. More modern systems, in particular SaaS solutions have decided not to adopt a standard and have rich course authoring tools. There are several standards for creating and integrating complex content into an LMS, including AICC, SCORM, xAPI, and Learning Tools Interoperability. However, using SCORM or an alternative standardized course protocol is not always required and can be restrictive when used unnecessarily.[37]

Evaluation of LMSs is a complex task and significant research supports different forms of evaluation, including iterative processes where students' experiences and approaches to learning are evaluated.[38]

## Advantages and disadvantages

Both supporters and critics of LMSs recognize the importance of developing 21st century skills; however, the controversy lies in whether or not they are practical for both teachers and students.[39]

In one study, an LMS led to a reported higher computer self-efficacy, while participants reported being less satisfied with the learning process that is achieved in the LMS.[40] A study among Indian students has suggested that a negative experience with an LMS can leave "the learner with a passive, un-engaging experience, leading to incomplete learning and low performance".[41]

### Advantages

There are six major advantages of LMS which in themselves constitute the concept of LMS.[27]

* Interoperability: Data standards on LMS allow information to be exchanged from one system to another
* Accessibility: The consistent layout using on LMS provides students with disabilities better opportunity to access web content.[42]
* Reusability: Reusability refers to the LMS system's ability to be reused for educational content. A critical aspect in lowering the high expenses of developing educational experiences in e-learning settings.[43]
* Durability: Due to the rising adoption of technology into academics, the growth of LMS market was valued at $24.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 19.9% from 2025 to 2030.[44]
* Maintenance ability: LMS allows developers to continually enhance their software and better adapt them to their user base.[45]
* Adaptability: LMS is always improving, updating, and learning new behaviours quickly. LMS has been active since 1990s and keeps adjusting to the changing society today.[46]

### Disadvantages

* Teachers have to be willing to adapt their curricula from face-to-face lectures to online lectures.[30]
* There is the potential for instructors to try to directly translate existing support materials into courses which can result in very low interactivity and engagement for learners if not done well.

## See also

* Philosophy:Competency management system
* Engineering:Educational technology - Use of technology in education to enhance learning and teaching (e-learning)
* Social:Intelligent tutoring system - Computer system to provide instruction to learners
* Software:LAMS – Learning Activity Management System
* Learning objects
* Learning Record Store (LRS)
* Social:List of learning management systems
* Massive open online course
* Student information system - Software for educational institutions to manage student and school data
* Virtual learning environment

## References

1. ↑ Ellis, Ryann K. (2024), Field Guide to Learning Management, Quora, http://www.astd.org/~/media/Files/Publications/LMS_fieldguide_20091, retrieved 5 July 2012
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Davis, B., Carmean, C., & Wagner, E. (2009). "The Evolution of the LMS : From Management to Learning.". The ELearning Guild Research 24.
3. ↑ "LMS Data – The First Year Update". 23 September 2014. http://edutechnica.com/2014/09/23/lms-data-the-first-year-update/.
4. ↑ "Social Isolation and Acceptance of the Learning Management System (LMS) in the time of COVID-19 Pandemic: An Expansion of the UTAUT Model". Journal of Educational Computing Research 59 (2): 183–208. April 2021. doi:10.1177/0735633120960421. ISSN 0735-6331.
5. ↑ Phillipo, John (June 27, 2018). "LMS: The Missing Link and Great Enabler". https://nanopdf.com/download/lms-the-missing-link-and-great-enabler_pdf.
6. ↑ Aldahwan, Nouf; Alsaeed, Nourah I. (August 2020). "Use of Artificial Intelligent in Learning Management System (LMS): A Systematic Literature Review". International Journal of Computer Applications 175 (August 2020): 16–26. doi:10.5120/ijca2020920611. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346970541.
7. ↑ "A Brief History of Online Education". http://bear.warrington.ufl.edu/tutorials/going-the-distance/.
8. ↑ "History of Distance Learning". http://www.godistancelearning.com/history-of-distance-learning.html.
9. ↑ Hubackova, Sarka (June 2015). "History and Perspectives of Elearning" (in en). Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 191: 1187–1190. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.594.
10. ↑ E.M. Forster, "THE MACHINE STOPS" , archive.ncsa.illinois.edu.
11. ↑ Solomon Arulraj DAVID, "A Critical Understanding of Learning Management System", academia.edu.
12. ↑ "Interactions: Selection and Use of Media for Open and Distance Learning". http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website00236B/WEB/INT_02.HTM.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Solomon Arulraj DAVID, " Teaching Machines", teachingmachin.es.
14. ↑ Parr, Judy M.; Fung, Irene (3 October 2006). "A Review of the Literature on Computer-Assisted Learning, particularly Integrated Learning Systems, and Outcomes with Respect to Literacy and Numeracy". New Zealand Ministry of Education. http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=5499&indexid=6920&indexparentid=1024.
15. ↑ Watson, William R. (2007). "An Argument for Clarity: What are Learning Management Systems, What are They Not, and What Should They Become?". TechTrends 51 (2): 28–34. doi:10.1007/s11528-007-0023-y. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/69/20/67/PDF/Watson-2007.pdf. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
16. ↑ "History and Trends of Learning Management System (Infographic)". Oxagile. 12 April 2016. https://www.oxagile.com/article/history-and-trends-of-learning-management-system-infographics/.
17. ↑ Ashok Sharma (4 May 2015). "The History of Distance Learning and the LMS". ELH Online Learning Made Simple. http://www.elearnhub.org/the-history-of-distance-learning-and-the-lms/.
18. ↑ "The NKI Internet College: A review of 15 years delivery of 10,000 online courses", irrodl.org,.
19. ↑ Toquero, Cathy Mae (2020-04-16). "Challenges and Opportunities for Higher Education amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Philippine Context" (in english). Pedagogical Research 5 (4): em0063. doi:10.29333/pr/7947. ISSN 2468-4929. https://www.pedagogicalresearch.com/article/challenges-and-opportunities-for-higher-education-amid-the-covid-19-pandemic-the-philippine-context-7947.
20. ↑ Prat, Joana; Llorens, Ariadna; Salvador, Francesc; Alier, Marc; Amo, Daniel (May 6, 2021). "A Methodology to Study the University's Online Teaching Activity from Virtual Platform Indicators: The Effect of the Covid-19 Pandemic at Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya". Sustainability 13 (9): 5177. doi:10.3390/su13095177. Bibcode: 2021Sust...13.5177P.
21. ↑ Alzahrani, Latifa; Seth, Kavita Panwar (2021-11-01). "Factors influencing students' satisfaction with continuous use of learning management systems during the COVID-19 pandemic: An empirical study" (in en). Education and Information Technologies 26 (6): 6787–6805. doi:10.1007/s10639-021-10492-5. ISSN 1573-7608. PMID 33841029. PMC 8023780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10492-5.
22. ↑ Dindar, Muhterem; Suorsa, Anna; Hermes, Jan; Karppinen, Pasi; Näykki, Piia (2021). "Comparing technology acceptance of K-12 teachers with and without prior experience of learning management systems: A Covid-19 pandemic study" (in en). Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 37 (6): 1553–1565. doi:10.1111/jcal.12552. ISSN 1365-2729. PMID 34548732.
23. ↑ Cavus, Nadire; Mohammed, Yakubu; Yakubu, Mohammed Nasiru (May 6, 2021). "Determinants of Learning Management Systems during COVID-19 Pandemic for Sustainable Education". Sustainability 13 (9): 5189. doi:10.3390/su13095189. Bibcode: 2021Sust...13.5189C.
24. ↑ Peter, Berking (2016). "Choosing an LMS". https://qrisnetwork.org/sites/default/files/conference-session/resources/210ChoosingAnLMS.PDF.
25. ↑ Lin, Sandi (16 November 2015). "SaaS Learning Management System: Is your LMS Truly SaaS? - eLearning Industry". eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/saas-learning-management-system-lms-truly-saas.
26. ↑ "Standard support LMS". https://aristeksystems.com/blog/custom-lms-vs-ready-made/#common-features. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Long, Phillip D. (2004). "Learning Management Systems (LMS)". Encyclopedia of Distributed Learning. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc.. pp. 291–293. doi:10.4135/9781412950596.n99. ISBN 9780761924517. http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/distributedlearning/n99.xml.
28. ↑ Wang, Qiyun; Woo, Huay Lit; Quek, Choon Lang; Yang, Yuqin; Liu, Mei (2011-06-09). "Using the Facebook group as a learning management system: An exploratory study" (in en). British Journal of Educational Technology 43 (3): 428–438. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01195.x. ISSN 0007-1013.
29. ↑ Chaiprasurt, Chantorn; Esichaikul, Vatcharaporn (2013-07-05). "Enhancing motivation in online courses with mobile communication tool support: A comparative study" (in en). The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 14 (3): 377–401. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v14i3.1416. ISSN 1492-3831.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Schoonenboom, Judith (February 2014). "Using an adapted, task-level technology acceptance model to explain why instructors in higher education intend to use some learning management system tools more than others". Computers & Education 71: 247–256. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.09.016. ISSN 0360-1315.
31. ↑ Bradley, Vaughn Malcolm (2021). "Learning Management System (LMS) Use with Online Instruction" (in en). International Journal of Technology in Education 4 (1): 68–92. doi:10.46328/ijte.36. ISSN 2689-2758. https://www.ijte.net/index.php/ijte/article/view/36.
32. ↑ Jones, Kyle M. L. (2019-07-02). "Learning analytics and higher education: a proposed model for establishing informed consent mechanisms to promote student privacy and autonomy". International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education 16 (1). doi:10.1186/s41239-019-0155-0. ISSN 2365-9440.
33. ↑ "State of Higher Ed LMS Market for US and Canada: Year-End 2023 Edition [Hill"]. https://danielschristian.com/learning-ecosystems/2024/03/05/state-of-higher-ed-lms-market-for-us-and-canada-year-end-2023-edition-hill/.
34. ↑ PH&A, On EdTech by. "Observations on the Higher Education LMS Market" (in en). https://onedtech.philhillaa.com/p/observations-on-higher-ed-lms-market.
35. ↑ "Learning Management System Market Size & Share Trends, 2034". https://www.industryresearch.biz/market-reports/learning-management-system-market-107161.
36. ↑ "51 LMS Statistics: 2026 Data, Trends & Predictions" (in en). 2020-09-02. https://research.com/education/lms-statistics.
37. ↑ "SCORM is dead – what are the alternatives to SCORM?" (in en-GB). 2018-08-22. https://plumestudio.com/blog/scorm-is-stagnant-heres-what-to-use-instead.
38. ↑ Ellis, R.; Calvo, R.A. (2007), "Minimum indicators to quality assure blended learning supported by learning management systems", Journal of Educational Technology and Society, http://sydney.edu.au/engineering/latte/docs/07-ETS-EllisCalvo.pdf
39. ↑ Reese, Sasha (September 2015). "Online learning environments in higher education: Connectivism vs. dissociation". Education Information Technology 20 (3): 579–588. doi:10.1007/s10639-013-9303-7.
40. ↑ Piccoli, Gabriele; Ahmad, Rami; Ives, Blake (December 2001). "Web-Based Virtual Learning Environments: A Research Framework and a Preliminary Assessment of Effectiveness in Basic IT Skills Training". MIS Quarterly 25 (4): 401–426. doi:10.2307/3250989.
41. ↑ Jena, R.K. (2016). "Investigating the interrelation between attitudes, learning readiness, and learning styles under virtual learning environment: a study among Indian students.". Behaviour & Information Technology 35 (11): 946–957. doi:10.1080/0144929X.2016.1212930. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144929X.2016.1212930. Retrieved 12 March 2025.
42. ↑ "How do learning management systems differ on accessibility? | AccessComputing". https://www.washington.edu/accesscomputing/how-do-learning-management-systems-differ-accessibility#:~:text=One accessibility benefit of using,presented using a consistent layout..
43. ↑ González, Jorge Fontenla; Rodríguez, Manuel Caeiro; Llamas, Martín (October 2009). "Enhancing Reusability in learning management systems through the integration of third-party tools". 2009 39th IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/FIE.2009.5350672. ISBN 978-1-4244-4715-2.
44. ↑ Anderson, Kamy (2025-03-27). "30+ eLearning Statistics & Trends in 2025" (in en-US). https://www.proprofstraining.com/blog/elearning-statistics/.
45. ↑ Malavolta, Ivano; Verdecchia, Roberto; Filipovic, Bojan; Bruntink, Magiel; Lago, Patricia (September 2018). "How Maintainability Issues of Android Apps Evolve". 2018 IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance and Evolution (ICSME). pp. 334–344. doi:10.1109/ICSME.2018.00042. ISBN 978-1-5386-7870-1. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8530041.
46. ↑ Santos, Lara Cristina de Paiva Lourenço dos Santos (2008). Adaptability support in a learning management system (masterThesis).

## Bibliography

* Levensaler, Leighann; Laurano, Madeline (2009), Talent Management Systems 2010, Bersin & Associates, http://www.bersin.com/Lib/Rs/Details.aspx?Docid=103311599, retrieved 25 October 2009

## Further reading

* Connolly, P. J. (2001). A standard for success. InfoWorld, 23(42), 57-58. EDUCAUSE Evolving Technologies Committee (2003). Course Management Systems (CMS). Retrieved 25 April 2005, from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/DEC0302.pdf
* Cook, David (2007). "Web-based learning: pros, cons and controversies". Clinical Medicine 7 (1): 37–42. doi:10.7861/clinmedicine.7-1-37. PMID 17348573. PMC 4953546. https://www.tau.ac.il/medicine/cme/pituach/240210/4.pdf. Retrieved September 24, 2018.
* Demian, Peter; Morrice, James (15 December 2015). "The Use of Virtual Learning Environments and Their Impact on Academic Performance". Engineering Education 7: 11–19. doi:10.11120/ened.2012.07010011. https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/The_use_of_virtual_learning_environments_and_their_impact_on_academic_performance/9444965/1/files/17066882.pdf.
* Ellis, Ryann K. (2009) A field guide to learning management systems. American Society for Training & Development (ASTD)
* Gibbons, A. S., Nelson, J. M., & Richards, R. (2002). The nature and origin of instructional objects. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The instructional use of learning objects: Online version. Retrieved 5 April 2005, from http://reusability.org/read/chapters/gibbons.doc
* Gilhooly, K. (2001). Making e-learning effective. Computerworld, 35(29), 52-53.
* Hodgins, H. W. (2002). The future of learning objects. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The instructional use of learning objects: Online version. Retrieved 13 March 2005, from http://reusability.org/read/chapters/hodgins.doc
* Popat, Kris (2007). Virtually There: Learning Platforms. Scunthorpe: Yorkshire and Humber Grid for Learning. ISBN 9780955600609.
* Weller, M. (2007). Virtual Learning Environments: Using, choosing and developing your VLE. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415414319.
* Wiley, D. (2002). Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The instructional use of learning objects: Online version. Retrieved 13 March 2005, from http://reusability.org/read/chapters/wiley.doc

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