Childhood blindness

Snellen chart used to determine visual acuity
Causes| Genetic disorder, Infection[1]
Diagnostic method| Pupillary reflex(among others)[2]
Prevention| Vitamin A supplement

Childhood blindness is an important contribution to the national prevalence of the disability of blindness.[3] Blindness in children can be defined as a visual acuity of <3/60 in the eye with better vision of a child under 16 years of age.[4] This generally means that the child cannot see an object 10 feet (about 3 meters) away, that a child with "normal" vision could see if it was 200 feet (about 60 meters) away.[5]

## Contents

* 1 Mechanism
* 1.1 Vitamin A deficiency
* 1.2 Measles
* 1.3 Newborn conjunctivitis
* 1.4 Retinopathy of prematurity
* 2 Diagnosis
* 3 Prevention
* 3.1 Vitamin A deficiency
* 3.2 Retinopathy of pfrematurity
* 4 Treatment
* 4.1 Management
* 5 Epidemiology
* 6 Society and culture
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Mechanism

Human Eye

Childhood blindness has many causes.[6] Leading causes include retinopathy of prematurity, vitamin A deficiency, infectious diseases (measles, newborn conjunctivitis), retinoblastoma, and congenital conditions (cataracts and glaucoma).[7] Leber congenital amaurosis primarily affects the retina, and typically severe visual impairment begins in infancy. Mutations in Aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein like-1 have been linked to Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA).[8] [9][10]

The most frequently affected parts of the eyes are:[11][12]

* Whole globe (36%)
* Cornea (36%)
* Lens (11%)
* Retina (6%)
* Optic nerve (5%)
* Uvea (2%)

### Vitamin A deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency is most common in developing countries where many kids experience malnourishment. This vitamin deficiency blinds hundreds of thousands of kids each year, and is a preventable cause of childhood blindness. Since vitamin A is required for rhodopsin, the photosensitive pigment in the retinol rods, its deficiency can lead to night blindness.[13]

### Measles

Since 2010, globally 85% of children have been vaccinated for measles significantly reducing the number of measles cases each year. Children who have a vitamin A deficiency and measles infection can develop corneal ulcerations and keratomalacia due to immunosuppression caused by the vitamin deficiency.[13]

### Newborn conjunctivitis

Newborn conjunctivitis is present at the time of birth and presents within the first 28 days of life as a severe conjunctival infection with purulent discharge. This increases the risk of corneal ulcerations and perforations that can lead to blindness. The common organisms that lead to this diagnosis include Neisseria gonorrhoea and Chlamydia trachomatis. Infected pregnant women and their partners should be treated to avoid infection of the newborn, and newborns presenting with conjunctivitis should be treated with hourly topical antibiotic drops (gentamicin). [13]

### Retinopathy of prematurity

Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP) is classified by the abnormal growth of blood vessels in the retina, a process called retinal neovascularization.[14] These blood vessels may bleed or grow in the wrong direction. Bleeding can lead to the formation of scar tissue which can cause blurred vision and vision loss. If the vessels grow too far in the wrong direction, they can pull the retina away from the back of the eye – this is called retinal detachment. Retinal detachment is a medical emergency that can cause permanent blindness and thus requires urgent intervention.[15]

Babies who are born prematurely (formally defined as 37 weeks of gestational age or earlier) are at higher risk of developing retinopathy of prematurity. The earlier a preterm baby is born, the greater the baby's risk of developing ROP. Blood vessels in the eye typically finish development by the time of birth. Therefore, a baby who is born early is exposed to various stimuli (oxygen, lights, temperature, etc.) that may influence how the blood vessels of the eye develop. Additional risk factors for ROP include low birth weight (3 pounds or less) and giving the baby excess amounts of oxygen following birth. If preterm infants are experiencing other health problems like anemia, vitamin E deficiency, and/or breathing problems, they are at increased risk of developing ROP.[16]

## Diagnosis

The diagnosis of childhood blindness is done via methods to ascertain the degree of visual impairment in the affected child. Early detection is essential to provide early intervention to children. The American Academy of Ophthalmology recommend various screening methods starting in newborns and spanning throughout childhood in order to assess for childhood blindness and other ophthalmic disorders. Newborns are screened with the red reflex test performed by shining a light into the child's eyes. If a red reflex is not produced, further workups should be done to assess for congenital cataracts or retinoblastoma. From 6-12 months, children are screened at their well-child visits with the red reflex test, assessment of eye movement, and proper pupil dilation. From 1 year to 3 years of age, children often undergo a "photoscreening" test where a camera takes pictures of the child's eyes to assess for developmental abnormalities that may lead to amblyopia. Children ages 3 to 5 years of age will be assessed for proper eye alignment and visual acuity. Visual acuity is assessed with a Snellen chart with lines of letters that the child reads and helps determine visual acuity.[17]

## Prevention

The chemical structure of Vitamin A (one of many chemical forms)

### Vitamin A deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency is a leading cause of preventable childhood blindness, particularly in developing countries. Vitamin A deficiency is defined as a serum (blood) concentration of less than 0.70 μmol/L while a severe deficiency is defined as less than 0.35 μmol/L, per the Centers of Disease Control National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.[18] Vitamin A is supplied through the diet, and a deficiency often results from poor dietary intake of Vitamin A-rich foods.[19] Low dietary levels of Vitamin A can be worsened by infections that cause inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, which prevent the body from fully absorbing Vitamin A available within digested food. Children in the United States have a recommended Vitamin A dietary allowance of at least 300 micrograms/day.[19] Good sources of Vitamin A include vegetables, such as carrots, papaya, and pumpkin.[20] Animal products, such as fish oils, as well as dairy products (milk, cheese, and yogurt) are also sources of Vitamin A.[20]

### Retinopathy of pfrematurity

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a cause of childhood blindness that can occur around the time of birth. Generally, measures taken to avoid preterm birth are also effective at preventing ROP. Babies delivered preterm, defined at or before 37 weeks of gestation, have incomplete development of the blood vessels supplying the retina.[21] At birth, increased exposure to oxygen from the environment and from medical interventions (such as a high flow nasal cannula) causes damage to retinal blood vessels and stunts their growth. Prevention of ROP in preterm babies involves careful monitoring of oxygen delivery to avoid excess exposure.[22] Neonatal ocular exams can help detect ROP.[23]

## Treatment

Whether blindness is treatable depends upon the cause.[24] Surgical intervention can be performed in cases of primary congenital glaucoma. A 2020 review found no difference between combined trabeculotomy and trabeculectomy (CTT) and routine conventional trabeculotomy, or between visco-trabeculotomy and routine conventional trabeculotomy. The review also found that the 360-degree circumferential trabeculotomy may show greater surgical success than conventional trabeculotomy but that further research with one year follow-up was needed.[25]

In a research paper published in February 2025, scientists reported that they had demonstrated a new therapy to be both safe and effective in improving the vision of and slowing retinal deterioration in young patients born with "LCA-AIPL1."[26] Since their initial study, researchers have now treated a total of 11 children with AIPL1-LCA and seen improvement in the vision of each patient.[27]

Braille

### Management

Braille is a universal way to learn how to read and write, for the blind.[28] A refreshable braille display is an assistive learning device that can help such children in school.[29] Schools for the blind are a form of management, however the limitations of using studies done in such schools has been recognized. Children that are enrolled presently usually developed blindness 5 or more years prior to enrollment, consequently not reflecting current possible causes.[30] About 66% of children with visual impairment also have one other disability (comorbidity), be it, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, or hearing loss.[31] Eye care/screening for children within primary health care is important, as catching ocular disease issues can lead to better outcomes overall.[32]

## Epidemiology

Globally, the number children with blindness is approximately 1.4 million, representing 4% of the global blind population, and an additional 17.5 million are at risk of developing poor vision.[33] Although this number is significantly lower than the number of blind adults, the estimated economic and social burden of blindness for children is much greater due to the increase in blind years. Childhood blindness is most prevalent among children with genetic ancestry from Africa and Asia, who represent 75% of the world's affected population.[7][34] A 2014 review indicated that an estimated 238,500 children with bilateral blindness (rate 1.2/1,000) live in the Eastern Mediterranean region.[32] There is also an increase in blindness outside of developing countries due to a lack of screening and prophylactic measures to treat causes of pediatric blindness.[35]

## Society and culture

VISION 2020 is a program launched by the International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB) and is supported by the WHO in 1999 that has made controlling blindness in children a high priority.[36] In addition, the IAPB and WHO coordinate "World Sight Day" on the second Thursday of October each year.[37] Starting in 2000, World Sight Day has become an opportunity to raise awareness of eye health and highlight the importance of increasing access to eye health services globally. It has also become a tool to influence governments around the world to allocate funds for blindness prevention programs and educational initiatives.

## References

1. ↑ "Eye Problems in Babies. Baby Eye Problems. Patient". https://patient.info/doctor/eye-problems-in-babies.
2. ↑ Gogate, Parikshit; Gilbert, Clare; Zin, Andrea (2011). "Severe Visual Impairment and Blindness in Infants: Causes and Opportunities for Control". Middle East African Journal of Ophthalmology 18 (2): 109–114. doi:10.4103/0974-9233.80698. ISSN 0974-9233. PMID 21731320.
3. ↑ GLOBAL DATA ON VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS 2010. WHO. 2012. p. 6. https://www.who.int/blindness/GLOBALDATAFINALforweb.pdf?ua=1. Retrieved 2020-10-04.
4. ↑ Mabey, David; Gill, Geoffrey; Weber, Martin W.; Whitty, Christopher J. M. (2013-01-17). Principles of Medicine in Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00251-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=RDWFo45IAxcC&q=childhood%20blindness%20definition&pg=PA812. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
5. ↑ "The criteria for certification" (in en). 19 February 2014. https://www.rnib.org.uk/eye-health/registering-your-sight-loss/criteria-certification.
6. ↑ Hartnett, Mary Elizabeth (2005-01-01). Pediatric Retina. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-4782-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=10rAGi75DBAC&q=childhood%20blindness%20has%20many%20causes.&pg=PA315. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Beare, Nicholas A. V.; Bastawrous, Andrew (2014-01-01), Farrar, Jeremy; Hotez, Peter J.; Junghanss, Thomas et al., eds., "67 - Ophthalmology in the Tropics and Sub-tropics" (in en), Manson's Tropical Infectious Diseases (Twenty-third Edition) (London: W.B. Saunders): pp. 952–994.e1, ISBN 978-0-7020-5101-2, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702051012000686, retrieved 2022-09-12
8. ↑ "AIPL1 AIP like 1 HSP90 co-chaperone [Homo sapiens (Human)] \- Gene - NCBI". https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/23746.
9. ↑ Gilbert, Clare; Muhit, Mohammed (2008). "Twenty years of childhood blindness: what have we learnt?". Community Eye Health 21 (67): 46–47. ISSN 0953-6833. PMID 19030129.
10. ↑ International Committee for the Classification of Retinopathy of Prematurity (July 1, 2005). "THe international classification of retinopathy of prematurity revisited". Archives of Ophthalmology 123 (7): 991–999. doi:10.1001/archopht.123.7.991. ISSN 0003-9950. PMID 16009843.
11. ↑ Bhattacharjee, H; Das, K; Borah, RR; Guha, K; Gogate, P; Purukayastha, S; Gilbert, C (Nov–Dec 2008). "Causes of childhood blindness in the northeastern states of India.". Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 56 (6): 495–9. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.43368. PMID 18974521.
12. ↑ Ezegwui, IR; Umeh, RE; Ezepue, UF (Jan 2003). "Causes of childhood blindness: results from schools for the blind in south eastern Nigeria.". The British Journal of Ophthalmology 87 (1): 20–3. doi:10.1136/bjo.87.1.20. PMID 12488255.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Beare, Nicholas A.V.; Bastawrous, Andrew (2014), "Ophthalmology in the Tropics and Sub-tropics", Manson's Tropical Infectious Diseases (Elsevier): pp. 952–994.e1, doi:10.1016/b978-0-7020-5101-2.00068-6, ISBN 978-0-7020-5101-2, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780702051012000686?via=ihub
14. ↑ "Retinopathy of Prematurity | National Eye Institute". https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/retinopathy-prematurity.
15. ↑ "Retinal detachment - Symptoms and causes" (in en). https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/retinal-detachment/symptoms-causes/syc-20351344.
16. ↑ "What Is Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)?" (in en). 2022-05-11. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/diseases/what-is-retinopathy-prematurity.
17. ↑ "Eye Screening for Children" (in en). 2021-03-23. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/children-eye-screening.
18. ↑ Pfeiffer, Christine M.; Sternberg, Maya R.; Schleicher, Rosemary L.; Haynes, Bridgette M.H.; Rybak, Michael E.; Pirkle, James L. (April 2013). "CDC's Second National Report on Biochemical Indicators of Diet and Nutrition in the US Population is a valuable tool for researchers and policy makers". The Journal of Nutrition 143 (6): 938S–947S. doi:10.3945/jn.112.172858. ISSN 0022-3166. PMID 23596164.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Hodge, Christopher; Taylor, Christopher (2022), "Vitamin A Deficiency", StatPearls (Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing), PMID 33620821, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK567744/, retrieved 2022-09-12
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Hombali, Aditi S; Solon, Juan Antonio; Venkatesh, Bhumika T; Nair, N Sreekumaran; Peña-Rosas, Juan Pablo (2019-05-10). "Fortification of staple foods with vitamin A for vitamin A deficiency". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2019 (5). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010068.pub2. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 31074495.
21. ↑ Smith, Lois E. H. (2004-06-01). "Pathogenesis of retinopathy of prematurity" (in en). Growth Hormone & IGF Research. Proceedings of the 35th International Symposium on Growth Hormone and Growth Factors in Endocrinology and Metabolism 14: 140–144. doi:10.1016/j.ghir.2004.03.030. ISSN 1096-6374. PMID 15135797. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1096637404000619. Retrieved 2022-09-12.
22. ↑ Liegl, Raffael; Hellström, Ann; Smith, Lois EH (2016-05-20). "Retinopathy of prematurity: the need for prevention". Eye and Brain 8: 91–102. doi:10.2147/EB.S99038. ISSN 1179-2744. PMID 28539804.
23. ↑ "Retinopathy of Prematurity | National Eye Institute". https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/retinopathy-prematurity.
24. ↑ Mirdehghan, S. A.; Dehghan, M. H.; Mohammadpour, M.; Heidari, K.; Khosravi, M. (2005-05-01). "Causes of severe visual impairment and blindness in schools for visually handicapped children in Iran". British Journal of Ophthalmology 89 (5): 612–614. doi:10.1136/bjo.2004.050799. ISSN 1468-2079. PMID 15834095.
25. ↑ Gagrani, Meghal; Garg, Itika; Ghate, Deepta (25 August 2020). "Surgical interventions for primary congenital glaucoma". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020 (8). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008213.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 32816311.
26. ↑ "Blind children see after "remarkable" rare eye disorder breakthrough" (in en). 2025-02-21. https://www.newsweek.com/blind-children-see-eye-disorder-gene-therapy-lca-aipl1-2034060.
27. ↑ Michaelides, Michel; Laich, Yannik; Wong, Sui Chien; Oluonye, Ngozi; Zaman, Serena; Kumaran, Neruban; Kalitzeos, Angelos; Petrushkin, Harry et al. (2025-02-22). "Gene therapy in children with AIPL1-associated severe retinal dystrophy: an open-label, first-in-human interventional study" (in English). The Lancet 405 (10479): 648–657. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(24)02812-5. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 39986747.
28. ↑ Roth, Ginny A.; Fee, Elizabeth (2011-03-01). "The Invention of Braille". American Journal of Public Health 101 (3): 454. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2010.200865. ISSN 0090-0036. PMID 21307377.
29. ↑ MD, Elias I. Traboulsi (2011-12-01). Genetic Diseases of the Eye, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-971697-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=XvtoAgAAQBAJ&q=Refreshable%20braille%20display%20%20childhood%20learning&pg=PA877. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
30. ↑ Gogate, Parikshit; Kalua, Khumbo; Courtright, Paul (2009-12-08). "Blindness in Childhood in Developing Countries: Time for a Reassessment?". PLOS Med 6 (12). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000177. PMID 19997501.
31. ↑ "Vision Loss | Kids' Quest | NCBDDD | CDC". 2015-02-07. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/kids/vision.html#web.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Khandekar, Rajiv; Kishore, H.; Mansu, Rabiu M.; Awan, Haroon (2014). "The Status of Childhood Blindness and Functional Low Vision in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in 2012". Middle East African Journal of Ophthalmology 21 (4): 336–43. doi:10.4103/0974-9233.142273. ISSN 0974-9233. PMID 25371641.
33. ↑ Hussain, A. H. M. Enayet; Ferdoush, Junnatul; Mashreky, Saidur Rahman; Rahman, A. K. M. Fazlur; Ferdausi, Nahid; Dalal, Koustuv (2019). "Epidemiology of childhood blindness: A community-based study in Bangladesh". PLOS ONE 14 (6). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211991. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 31173584. Bibcode: 2019PLoSO..1411991H.
34. ↑ "WHO | Priority eye diseases". https://www.who.int/blindness/causes/priority/en/index3.html.
35. ↑ Hussain, A. H. M. Enayet; Ferdoush, Junnatul; Mashreky, Saidur Rahman; Rahman, A. K. M. Fazlur; Ferdausi, Nahid; Dalal, Koustuv (2019-06-07). "Epidemiology of childhood blindness: A community-based study in Bangladesh". PLOS ONE 14 (6). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211991. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 31173584. Bibcode: 2019PLoSO..1411991H.
36. ↑ "VISION 2020". IAPB. http://www.iapb.org/vision-2020.
37. ↑ "About World Sight Day" (in en-GB). https://www.iapb.org/world-sight-day/about-world-sight-day/.

## Further reading

* Hidalgo-de-Quintana, Juan; Schwarz, Nele; Meschede, Ingrid P.; Stern-Schneider, Gabriele; Powner, Michael B.; Morrison, Ewan E.; Futter, Clare E.; Wolfrum, Uwe et al. (March 23, 2015). "The Leber Congenital Amaurosis Protein AIPL1 and EB Proteins Co-Localize at the Photoreceptor Cilium". PLOS ONE 10 (3). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0121440. PMID 25799540. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1021440H.
* Rahi, J. S. (2007-01-01). "Childhood blindness: a UK epidemiological perspective". Eye 21 (10): 1249–1253. doi:10.1038/sj.eye.6702837. ISSN 0950-222X. PMID 17914426.

## External links

Classification|

* ICD-9-CM: 369.00

|

| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Childhood blindness.

|

| Scholia has a topic profile for Childhood blindness.

|

* v
* t
* e

* Diseases of the human eye (H00–H59
* 360–379)

Adnexa

| Eyelid|

| Inflammation|

* Stye
* Chalazion
* Blepharitis

|

* Entropion
* Ectropion
* Lagophthalmos
* Blepharochalasis
* Ptosis
* Blepharophimosis
* Xanthelasma

Eyelash|

* Trichiasis
* Madarosis

Lacrimal apparatus|

* Dacryoadenitis
* Epiphora
* Dacryocystitis
* Xerophthalmia

Orbit|

* Exophthalmos
* Enophthalmos
* Orbital cellulitis
* Orbital lymphoma
* Periorbital cellulitis

Conjunctiva|

* Conjunctivitis
* allergic
* Pterygium
* Pinguecula
* Subconjunctival hemorrhage

Globe

| Fibrous tunic|

| Sclera|

* Scleritis
* Episcleritis

|

Cornea|

* Keratitis
* herpetic
* acanthamoebic
* fungal
* Corneal ulcer
* Photokeratitis
* Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
* Corneal dystrophy
* Fuchs'
* Meesmann
* Corneal ectasia
* Keratoconus
* Pellucid marginal degeneration
* Keratoglobus
* Terrien's marginal degeneration
* Post-LASIK ectasia
* Keratoconjunctivitis
* sicca
* Corneal neovascularization
* Kayser–Fleischer ring
* Haab's striae
* Arcus senilis
* Band keratopathy

Vascular tunic|

* Iris
* Ciliary body

* Uveitis
* Intermediate uveitis
* Hyphema
* Rubeosis iridis
* Persistent pupillary membrane
* Iridodialysis
* Synechia

|

Choroid|

* Choroideremia
* Choroiditis
* Chorioretinitis

Lens|

* Cataract
* Congenital cataract
* Childhood cataract
* Aphakia
* Ectopia lentis

Retina|

* Retinitis
* Chorioretinitis
* Cytomegalovirus retinitis
* Retinal detachment
* Retinoschisis
* Ocular ischemic syndrome / Central retinal vein occlusion
* Central retinal artery occlusion
* Branch retinal artery occlusion
* Retinopathy
* diabetic
* hypertensive
* Purtscher's
* of prematurity
* Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
* Coats' disease
* Macular degeneration
* Retinitis pigmentosa
* Retinal haemorrhage
* Central serous retinopathy
* Macular edema
* Epiretinal membrane (Macular pucker)
* Vitelliform macular dystrophy
* Leber's congenital amaurosis
* Birdshot chorioretinopathy

Other|

* Glaucoma / Ocular hypertension / Primary juvenile glaucoma
* Floater
* Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
* Red eye
* Globe rupture
* Keratomycosis
* Phthisis bulbi
* Persistent fetal vasculature / Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous
* Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
* Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy

Pathways

| Optic nerve
Optic disc|

* Optic neuritis
* optic papillitis
* Papilledema
* Foster Kennedy syndrome
* Optic atrophy
* Optic disc drusen

Optic neuropathy|

* Ischemic
* anterior (AION)
* posterior (PION)
* Kjer's
* Leber's hereditary
* Toxic and nutritional

Strabismus
Extraocular muscles
Binocular vision
Accommodation|

| Paralytic strabismus|

* Ophthalmoparesis
* Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
* Kearns–Sayre syndrome

palsies|

* Oculomotor (III)
* Fourth-nerve (IV)
* Sixth-nerve (VI)

Other strabismus|

* Esotropia / Exotropia
* Hypertropia
* Heterophoria
* Esophoria
* Exophoria
* Cyclotropia
* Brown's syndrome
* Duane syndrome

Other binocular|

* Conjugate gaze palsy
* Convergence insufficiency
* Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
* One and a half syndrome

Refraction|

* Refractive error
* Hyperopia
* Myopia
* Astigmatism
* Anisometropia / Aniseikonia
* Presbyopia

Vision disorders
Blindness|

* Amblyopia
* Leber's congenital amaurosis
* Diplopia
* Scotoma
* Color blindness
* Achromatopsia
* Dichromacy
* Monochromacy
* Nyctalopia
* Oguchi disease
* Blindness / Vision loss / Visual impairment

Anopsia|

* Hemianopsia
* binasal
* bitemporal
* homonymous
* Quadrantanopia

subjective|

* Asthenopia
* Hemeralopia
* Photophobia
* Scintillating scotoma

Pupil|

* Anisocoria
* Argyll Robertson pupil
* Marcus Gunn pupil
* Adie syndrome
* Miosis
* Mydriasis
* Cycloplegia
* Parinaud's syndrome

Other|

* Nystagmus
* Childhood blindness

Infections

* Trachoma
* Onchocerciasis

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