Drugs in pregnancy

Short description: Effects of drug consumption during pregnancy

Drugs, including medications and recreational drugs, may have effects during pregnancy on the pregnant woman and fetus that vary from the effects of the drug on people who are not pregnant. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States reports that there are six million pregnancies with at least 50% of the women taking at least one medication.[1] In addition a reported 5–10% of women of childbearing age use alcohol or other addictive substances.[2] Of those who bear children, recreational drug use can have serious consequences to the health of not only the mother, but also the fetus as many medications can cross the placenta and reach the fetus. Some of the consequences on the babies include physical and mental abnormalities, higher risk of stillbirth, neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), low birthweight, and others.[3]

Drugs taken in pregnancy including over-the counter-medications, prescription medications, nutritional supplements, recreational drugs, and illicit drugs may cause harm to the mother or the unborn child. Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and illicit drug use while pregnant may be dangerous for the unborn baby and may lead to severe health problems and/or birth defects.[4] Even small amounts of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana have not been proven to be safe when taken while pregnant.[5] In some cases, for example, if the mother has epilepsy or diabetes, the risk of stopping a medication may be worse than risks associated with taking the medication while pregnant. The mother's healthcare professional will help make these decisions about the safest way to protect the health of both the mother and unborn child.[6] In addition to medications and recreational substances, some dietary supplements are important for a healthy pregnancy, however, others may cause harm to the unborn child.[7]

## Contents

* 1 Pregnancy categories
* 2 Medications
* 2.1 Medications for pain
* 2.1.1 Pain medications containing opioids
* 2.2 Anticonvulsant medications
* 2.3 Antacids
* 2.4 Antiacne
* 2.5 Anticoagulants
* 2.6 Antidepressants
* 2.7 Antidiabetics
* 2.8 Antidiarrheal
* 2.9 Antihistamines
* 2.10 Anti-hypertensives
* 2.11 Decongestants
* 3 Dietary supplements
* 3.1 Folic Acid
* 3.2 Iron
* 4 Illicit and recreational drugs
* 4.1 Alcohol
* 4.1.1 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
* 4.1.2 Miscarriage
* 4.1.3 Neonatal withdrawal
* 4.1.4 Sudden infant death syndrome
* 4.2 Caffeine
* 4.3 Cannabis
* 4.4 Cocaine
* 4.5 Methamphetamine
* 4.6 Opioids
* 4.7 Tobacco
* 5 References
* 6 Further reading

## Pregnancy categories

Main article: Chemistry:Pregnancy category

Categorizations of drugs based on safety in pregnancy varies by country.

Until 2014, the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations required that certain drugs and biological products be labelled specifically with respect to their effects on pregnant populations, including a definition of a "pregnancy category". These rules were enforced by the FDA, and medications that have been studied for their effects in pregnancy fell under the following Pregnancy Categories: A, B, C, D, or X depending on how they have been studied and what kind of results were found from the studies.[8][9][10] In 2014, however, the FDA has developed a "Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling Rule (PLLR)" which requires product labels to include specific information related to the safety and effectiveness of medications to pregnant and lactating women. This ruling has removed the requirement of stating pregnancy categories in prescription drug labels.[11]

Australia's categorization system takes into account birth defects, the effects around birth or when the mother gives birth, and problems that will arise later in the child's life due to the drug taken. The system places them into a category based on the severity of the consequences that the drug can have on the infant when it crosses the placenta.[12]

## Medications

Medications during pregnancy must be carefully considered. Many drugs, medications, and nutritional supplements can affect fetal development or cause complications. For over-the-counter and prescription medications, healthcare professionals can help weigh the potential risks and benefits of taking medication while pregnant and if it is needed. Some medications may be necessary for the health and well being of both the mother and the unborn child, and some medications may come with a risk of harm to the unborn baby, but in some instances the benefits may outweigh the risks to the baby or mother.

### Medications for pain

Short-term use of acetaminophen as directed is one of the only medications recommended for treating pain and fever in women who are pregnant.[13] There is no established association with teratogenicity or elevated occurrence of birth defects and the usage of acetaminophen at any point during a pregnancy.[13] There is potential for fetal liver toxicity in cases of maternal overdose, where the mother consumes more than the recommended daily dose.[14]

Ibuprofen and naproxen have not frequently been studied during pregnancy, but recent studies do not show increased risk of spontaneous abortion within the first six weeks of pregnancy.[15][13] However, all NSAIDs showed association with structural cardiac defects with usage during the early weeks of pregnancy. When ibuprofen and naproxen are used within the third trimester, there is a significant increase in the risk of premature closure of the ductus arteriosus with primary pulmonary hypertension in the newborn.[13] Between the lack of studies of the effect of ibuprofen and naproxen on pregnancy, it is recommended that pregnant women avoid these medications or use them sparingly per physician recommendations.[15]

Usage of aspirin for pain relief during pregnancy is not recommended. Aspirin use during pregnancy has not demonstrated an increased risk of spontaneous abortion within the early weeks of pregnancy. However, its usage during organogenesis and the third trimester can lead to elevated risk of intrauterine growth retardation and maternal hemorrhage.[16]

While aspirin should be avoided for use pain relief, low dose aspirin is used for prevention of preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction (FGR) in patients with previous risk factors (e.g. previous preeclampsia, multiple pregnancies, hypertension and diabetes).[17]

#### Pain medications containing opioids

For more information, see the below section on Recreational drugs

Pregnant women who use prescription medications containing opioids while pregnant may cause serious harm to the mother or unborn child.[18] For some people, the risk of stopping a medication such as prescription opioids may be more serious than the risk of taking a medication.[18]

### Anticonvulsant medications

Many commonly prescribed anticonvulsant medications are associated with an increased risk of birth defects such as neural tube defects, however, most women with epilepsy deliver healthy babies and have a healthy pregnancy.[19] Women who have epilepsy often still require treatment to control or prevent seizures and therefore require very early advice (ideally before conceiving the child) from their doctor to determine the safest way to protect both the mother and unborn child.[19]

Valproic acid and its derivatives such as sodium valproate and divalproex sodium, commonly used to prevent seizures and treat mood disorders, increase the risk of congenital malformations (birth defects) including neural tube defects if taken during pregnancy.[20] There is evidence that an increased dose or increased exposure in utero is associated with an increased risk of lower scores on neurodevelopmental tests.[21] Valproic acid use during pregnancy increases the risk of neural tube defects by approximately 20-fold.[20] Evidence is conflicting for carbamazepine regarding any increased risk of congenital physical anomalies or neurodevelopmental disorders by intrauterine exposure.[21] Similarly, children exposed to lamotrigine or phenytoin in the womb do not seem to differ in their skills compared to those who were exposed to carbamazepine.[21]

### Antacids

Heartburn is a common symptom of late term pregnancy during which up to 80% of pregnant women have experienced it by the end of their third trimester.[13] Heartburn often indicates the development of gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), where the lower esophageal sphincter relaxes due to elevated progesterone levels causing increased frequency and severity of gastric reflux or heartburn. If heartburn appears after 20 weeks of gestational age or is severe and persistent, this can indicate other conditions including HELLP syndrome and preeclampsia.[22]

Common antacids include aluminum hydroxide/magnesium hydroxide (Maalox) and calcium carbonate (Tums). Histamine H2 blockers and proton pump inhibitors, such as famotidine (Pepcid) and omeprazole (Prilosec), respectively, can also be used to help relieve heartburn, with no known teratogenic effects or congenital malformations.[13] Aluminum hydroxide/magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate, when consumed, do not cross the placenta and are regarded as safe pharmacological options to treat heartburn, since there are no significant association with maldevelopment or injury to fetus.[15]

Ginger and acupressure are common non-pharmacological options used to treat nausea and vomiting as alternatives to antacids, histamine H2 blockers, and proton pump inhibitors.[23] Lifestyle modifications are often recommended as well. Recommended modifications can include avoiding fatty food, reducing size and frequency of meals, and reducing caffeine intake.[24]

### Antiacne

Acne vulgaris (acne) can occur in pregnancy possibly due to the hormonal changes influencing sebum production.[25][26] There are limited antiacne medications that are safe in pregnancy. External applications of azelaic acid, glycolic acid, or benzoyl peroxide (alone or combined with clindamycin or erythromycin) are the safest options to treat mild to moderate acne.[26][27][28] Erythromycin is the antibiotic of choice for severe acne, barring the use of its estolate salt which risks maternal hepatotoxicity.[29] Topical nicotinamide and topical zinc are safe, however, there are no FDA pregnancy category ratings.[29][30] Topical salicylic acid and topical dapsone are classified as FDA pregnancy category C.[25][30] Acne medications to avoid during pregnancy include oral isotretinoin and topical tazarotene as there have been reports of birth defects.[25][31][32] As safety data is lacking, the use of topical retinoids, such as adapalene and tretinoin, is not recommended.[27][33] Antiandrogenic drugs, including spironolactone and cyproterone acetate, should be avoided.[25][32] If planning to conceive while using contraindicated medications, a washout and waiting period before conception is advised.[26] A herbal product, vitex agnus-castus should not be used during gestation due to undesirable hormonal effects.[34]

Safety data supports the use of blue and red light therapy as non-drug treatments to consider.[25][26] Personal hygiene and a healthy lifestyle also help, however dietary restriction and abrasive agents found in facial cleaning products are not beneficial.[27] As there are limited options to safely treat acne in pregnancy, shared decision-making between the health care provider and client is recommended.[25][27]

### Anticoagulants

Anticoagulants are medications that prevent the blood from forming clots and are also known as blood thinners.[35] These medications are commonly used for both prevention and treatment in people who are at risk for or have experienced a heart attack, stroke, or venous thromboembolism.[35] Pregnancy increases the risk of clot formation in women due to elevated levels of certain clotting factors and compounds in the body, and the risk increases even more immediately after birth and remains elevated up to 3 months after delivery.[36][37] Anticoagulants must be prescribed with caution as these medications can have negative health consequences for the developing baby and need to consider dosing and medication management options.[38]

Warfarin (brand name Coumadin) is a commonly prescribed blood thinner both in the inpatient and outpatient hospital settings. In pregnant women, warfarin is contraindicated and should be avoided as it crosses the placental barrier. Additionally, warfarin is listed as Pregnancy Category D, which means it has a risk of harming the fetus.[39] However, it has been shown that daily warfarin doses up to 5 mg may be beneficial for pregnant women who are at higher risk of thromboembolism.[40]

A common low molecular weight heparin drug is called enoxaparin (brand name Lovenox). Enoxaparin is listed as Pregnancy Category B, meaning animal studies have failed to show harmful effects to the fetus and therefore are safe to use in pregnant women.[39][41] However, pregnant women taking LMWH may not experience the full anticoagulant effect due to the nature of the medication compared to other anticoagulants (i.e. warfarin) and may be less favorable for users as it is an injectable medication.[42]

Unfractionated heparin is another type of anticoagulant that has been widely used. UFH is classified as Pregnancy Category C, which means animal studies have shown potential for adverse effects to the fetus; however, there needs to be more studies done to confirm the presence of a risk to the fetus. UFH can be used in pregnant women as long as the benefits outweigh the risk.[39]

Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) are newer types of anticoagulants that are available as oral medications and are widely used in non-pregnant populations. As many studies looking at DOACs exclude pregnant women, there is not enough evidence to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of DOACs in pregnant women.[42] Currently, rivaroxaban (Xarelto), dabigatran (Pradaxa), and edoxaban (Savaysa) are DOACs listed under Pregnancy Category C, and apixaban (Eliquis) is listed under Pregnancy Category B.[43]

### Antidepressants

This section is an excerpt from Antidepressant § Pregnancy[ edit ]

### Antidiabetics

Women who have diabetes mellitus may need intensive therapy with insulin to prevent complications to the mother and baby. Gestational diabetes is a form of diabetes that is first diagnosed during pregnancy and can accordingly cause high blood sugar that affects the woman and the baby.[44] In 10-20% of women whose diet and exercise are not adequate enough to control blood sugar, insulin injections may be required to lower blood sugar levels.[44] Medications that can be used in diabetes during pregnancy include insulin, glyburide and metformin.[45]

### Antidiarrheal

Diarrhea is not a common symptom of pregnancy; however, it can occur as a result of reduced gastric acidity and slowed intestinal motility.[46] Bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol), loperamide (Imodium), and atropine/diphenoxylate (Lomotil) are antidiarrheal agents that can be used to treat diarrhea. However, not all of them are safe to use during pregnancy. One of the components of bismuth subsalicylate is salicylate, which is a component that crosses the placenta. Due to this, there is an increased risk for intrauterine growth retardation, fetal hemorrhage, and maternal hemorrhage within organogenesis and in the second/third trimester.[13] Loperamide has limited data on the impact it has on pregnancy, but there is an association with cardiovascular malformation in the first trimester.[15][13] Atropine/diphenoxylate currently has insufficient evidence of teratogenicity in humans, but trials with animals showed evidence of teratogenic effects.[15]

### Antihistamines

Antihistamines may be prescribed in early pregnancy for the treatment of nausea and vomiting along with symptoms of asthma and allergies.[47] First generation antihistamines include diphenhydramine (Benadryl), chlorpheniramine (Diabetic Tussin), hydroxyzine (Atarax), and doxepin (Sinequan).[48] Second generation antihistamines include loratadine (Claritin), cetrizine (Zyrtec), and fexofenadine (Allegra).[13] First generation antihistamines have the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier which can result in sedative and anticholinergic effects while effectively treating allergic reactions and nausea and vomiting related to pregnancy. On the other hand, second generation antihistamines do not cross the blood-brain barrier, thus eliminating sedating effects. Currently, there is a lack of association between prenatal antihistamine exposure and birth defects.[47]

Antihistamines during pregnancy have not been linked to birth defects; however, further research is necessary for some antihistamine medications to determine safety during pregnancy.[49] It is suggested that women speak to their healthcare professionals before taking any over-the-counter or prescription medication while pregnant to ensure that there are no adverse health outcomes.[50]

### Anti-hypertensives

Hypertensive issues are the most common cardiovascular disorders during pregnancy, occurring within 5 to 10% of all pregnant females.[51] Anti-hypertensives are blood pressure medications used to treat high blood pressure in pregnant women.[40] This class of medication is commonly used to treat problems such as heart failure, heart attack, and kidney failure.[40] Caution must be exercised with the use of various hypertensive agents for the treatment of blood pressure.[51] While the drug classes of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme inhibitors (ACEi), Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARB), and angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitors (ARNI) have been shown to be potent anti-hypertensive agents, their use is advised against during pregnancy.[51] ACEi and ARB have known fetotoxicities when used during the second or third trimester or both.[52] Signs and symptoms of ACEi and ARB use during pregnancy include kidney damage or failure, oligohydramnios, anuria, joint contractures, and hypoplasia of the skull.[52] Common, alternative agents for high blood pressure in pregnant women include anti-adrenergic and beta-blocking medications, such as methyldopa or metoprolol, respectively.[52]

### Decongestants

Decongestants are often used in conjunction with cold medications or to combat pregnancy rhinitis in pregnant women. Common decongestants include pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine.[15] Pseudoephedrine is an alpha-adrenergic receptor agonist that enacts a vasoconstrictive effect to reduce airflow resistance in the nasal cavity and allow easier breathing by relieving a stuffy or congested nose. When taken in early trimesters, there has been limited evidence to associate pseudoephedrine with birth defects. However, studies often found it difficult to isolate pseudoephedrine's involvement, due to the variety of combination products that contain pseudoephedrine in conjunction with other medications.[18] Since pseudoephedrine activates alpha adrenergic receptors, it has the ability to elevate blood pressure and cause vasoconstriction within the uterine arteries. This can negatively affect blood flow to the fetus.[15] Due to the lack of studies, decongestants in combination drugs or isolated forms are suggested to be used sparingly during pregnancy. Saline nasal sprays, among other non-pharmacological treatments, are considered to be safe alternatives for decongestants.[13]

## Dietary supplements

Dietary supplements such as folic acid and iron are important for a healthy pregnancy.[7] Some dietary supplements can cause side effects and harm to the mother or unborn child.[7] Pregnant women should discuss all dietary supplements with their health care professional to determine the appropriate dosage and which supplements are safe during pregnancy.[7]

Caution should be taken before consuming dietary supplements while pregnant as dietary supplements are considered "foods" rather than medications and are not regulated for safety and efficacy by the FDA.[53][54]

### Folic Acid

Example of a neural tube defect: Spina Bifida

Many countries such as the USA, Canada, Chile, and Costa Rica have fortified foods with folic acid and have seen a reduced incidence of neural tube defect (NTD).[55]

The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that all women of child-barring age receive 400 μg of folic acid supplement (even if they are not planning on getting pregnant). Women who have already had an NTD-affected pregnancy and are planning to become pregnant again should receive 4000 μg each day for a month before and for the first three months of pregnancy.[56] The recommendation came from a study conducted by the British Medical Research Council (MRC) Vitamin Study Group from July 1983 to April 1991 involving 33 centers (17 of which in the UK and the remaining 16 in 6 different countries) that compared pregnancy outcomes of folic acid and other vitamins interventions with placebo. That study found a risk reduction of 71% of NTD-affected pregnancies in groups receiving folic acid when compared to groups receiving placebo. In the study, there were four intervention groups, Group A received 4 mg of folic acid; Group B received a multivitamin that contained folic acid; Group C placebo and Group D received a multivitamin without folic acid. In the groups that received folic acid, 6 out of 593 (1%) infants and fetuses had NTD reoccurrence compared to the groups that received no folic acid, which had 21 infants and fetuses with NTD out of 602 (3.5%).[57] There were no significant benefit found in the vitamin intervention groups.[55]

### Iron

Main articles: Medicine:Iron deficiency and Iron-deficiency anemia

Iron deficiency is common in pregnancy, with the highest occurrence rate during the third trimester as iron demand increases to support the placenta, fetal development and the iron stores for the first six months after birth. Low iron levels can cause fatigue, reduced work capacity, cardiovascular stress, lower resistance to infection and iron deficiency anemia. Iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy can lead to an increased risk of premature delivery, low birth weight and increased risk of perinatal mortality.[58]

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) suggests 27 mg of iron a day which would account for normal iron losses, iron used by the fetus and related tissues during gestation and increased maternal hemoglobin mass changes.[58] WHO recommends taking supplements of 30–60 mg of elemental iron a day throughout pregnancy for all pregnant individuals. Iron demand depends on individual specific factors and risk of deficiency; for specific dose recommendations, individuals should discuss with their doctors.[59]

Dietary sources of iron include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, legumes, vegetables, fruits, grains, nuts and iron-fortified grain products. Eating at least one source of vitamin C with each meal is also recommended, as it can help increase iron absorption. Examples of vitamin C sources include broccoli, cantaloupe, citrus fruits and their juices, kiwis, mangos, potatoes, strawberries, sweet peppers, tomatoes, and tomato sauce. On the contrary, caffeine, calcium supplements and antacids should be separated from meals and iron supplements by 1–2 hours as they can decrease iron absorption.[58]

## Illicit and recreational drugs

According to the World Health Organization, substance abuse refers to the damaging or risky consumption of psychoactive substances, which includes alcohol and illegal drugs.[60][61] When pregnant women use psychotropic substances, whether they are prescribed or not, it can have adverse effects on the developing fetus.[60] These effects may include causing birth defects, delayed development, and intrauterine growth restriction.[60] Additionally, it raises the likelihood of various pregnancy complications, including spontaneous miscarriage, preterm birth, and puts the mother at an increased risk of medical issues such as postpartum bleeding and placental abruption.[60]

### Alcohol

Alcohol should not be consumed while pregnant.[62][63][64] Even a small amount of alcohol is not known to be safe for the unborn baby.[65] Alcohol passes easily from the mother's bloodstream through the placenta and into the bloodstream of the fetus. Since the fetus is smaller and does not have a fully developed liver, the concentration of alcohol in its bloodstream lasts longer, increasing the chances of detrimental side effects.[66] The severity of effects alcohol may have on a developing fetus depends upon the amount and frequency of alcohol consumed; maternal weight, age, and alcohol metabolism;[67] and the stage of pregnancy.[68]

#### Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

Heavy drinking and binge drinking are closely associated with a higher risk of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs). The most severe form of FASD is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). This used to be the only diagnosis for fetal disorders due to alcohol consumption, but the term was broadened to a "spectrum" due to the variety of abnormalities observed in newborns. This was most likely because of the different amounts of alcohol ingested during pregnancy indicating that there is not a clear, specific dose that determines if a fetus will be affected by alcohol or not. FAS is characterized by slower physical growth, distinct facial abnormalities including smooth philtrum, thin vermilion, and short palpebral fissures, neurological deficits, or smaller head circumference.Other problems associated with FASD include delayed or uncoordinated motor skills, hearing or vision problems, learning disabilities, behavior problems, and inappropriate social skills compared to same-age peers. Those affected are more likely to have trouble in school, legal problems, participate in high-risk behaviors, and develop substance use disorders themselves.

#### Miscarriage

Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for miscarriage.[69]

#### Neonatal withdrawal

Babies exposed to alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and some antidepressants (SSRIs) during pregnancy may experience neonatal withdrawal.[70]

The onset of clinical presentation typically appears within 48 to 72 hours of birth but may take up to 8 days.[71][72]

#### Sudden infant death syndrome

Drinking of alcohol by parents is linked to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).[73] One study found a positive correlation between the two during New Years celebrations and weekends.[74] Another found that alcohol use disorder was linked to a more than doubling of risk.[75]

### Caffeine

Caffeine is a widespread drug consumed by adults due to its behavioral and stimulating effects. According to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, an acceptable intake of caffeine for pregnant women is less than or equal to 200 mg per day.[76] Consumption of caffeine is not associated with adverse reproductive and developmental effects.[77] The half-life of caffeine is longer in pregnancy by 8 to 16 more hours, which means that caffeine stays in the person longer, increases fetal exposure to caffeine, and is eliminated slower in the body.[76] Other comprehensive reviews reported that caffeine intake of more than 300 mg per day have been associated with spontaneous abortions and low birth weight, but further research is needed to establish this causal relationship.[76] Women with morning sickness are less likely to miscarry and more likely to have aversions to caffeinated beverages like coffee, which may indicate reverse causation.[78]

### Cannabis

Main article: Medicine:Cannabis in pregnancy

Cannabis use during pregnancy should be avoided.[79] There is no known safe dose of cannabis while pregnant and use of cannabis may lead to birth defects, pre-term birth, or low birth weight.[79] Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), an active ingredient in cannabis, can both cross the placenta and accumulates in high concentrations in breast milk.[80] Cannabis consumption in pregnancy might be associated with restrictions in growth of the fetus, miscarriage, and cognitive deficits.[80] Infants exposed to prenatal cannabis may show signs of increased tremors and altered sleep patterns.[81] Cannabis is the most frequently used illicit drug amongst pregnant women.[82] There are significant limitations to the current research available. One limitation is because most studies done are dated in the 1980s.[83] Additionally, many studies done on cannabis that evaluate its safety often fail to account for confounding factors, a variable that could also be having an effect on an outcome that is not the test variable. For example, tobacco use and sociodemographic differences are often not adjusted for accordingly in many studies.[84]

### Cocaine

Use of cocaine in pregnant women is dangerous and can lead to cardiovascular complications like hypertension, myocardial infarction and ischemia, kidney failure, liver rupture, cerebral ischemia, cerebral infarction, and maternal death.[85] Cardiac muscles become more sensitive to cocaine in pregnancy, in the presence of increasing progesterone concentrations.[85] Cocaine use leads to increased risk for perinatal outcomes: preterm delivery, low birth weight (less than 2500 grams) or reduced birth rate, small size and earlier gestational age at delivery.[86]

Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) is associated with premature birth, birth defects, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and other conditions.[87]

### Methamphetamine

Use of methamphetamine is dangerous for pregnant women and to the fetus.[88] Methamphetamines are a class of drugs that provide stimulant-like effects, including euphoria and alertness. The drug crosses the placenta and affects the fetus during the gestational stage of pregnancy.[88] Methamphetamine use in pregnancy may lead to babies born with an earlier gestational age at delivery (pre-term), lower birth weight, and smaller head circumference.[88] Methamphetamine use during pregnancy also negatively impacts brain development and behavioral functioning and increases the risk of the baby having ADHD and lower mental processing speed.[88]

### Opioids

Main article: Chemistry:Opioids and pregnancy

Opioids such as heroin, fentanyl, oxycodone and methadone should not be taken while pregnant. Opioid use during pregnancy may cause adverse outcomes for the women and unborn child.[18] Women who use opioids during pregnancy in a non-medical fashion are at a higher risk for premature birth, lower birth weight, still birth, specific birth defects, and withdrawal (neonatal abstinence syndrome).[18]

Opioids can cross the placenta and the blood brain barrier to the fetus.[89] Opioid use is the main cause of neonatal abstinence syndrome, which is where the baby experiences withdrawals from the opioid they were exposed to during the pregnancy. Typical symptoms may include tremors, convulsions, twitching, excessive crying, poor feeding or sucking, slow weight gain, breathing problems, fever, diarrhea, and vomiting.[90] There is no consensus on the effects on cognitive abilities.[91] Further research is required to determine the long-term effects of in utero exposure to opioid medications on children.[18]

### Tobacco

Smoking during pregnancy is dangerous to the unborn baby and may cause pre-term birth, birth defects such as cleft lip or cleft palate, or miscarriage.[92][79] Tobacco is the most commonly used substance among pregnant women, at 25%.[86][93] Nicotine crosses the placenta and accumulates within fetal tissues. Children born to women who smoked heavily were more susceptible to behavioral problems such as ADHD, poor impulse control, and aggressive behaviors.[86] Tobacco contains carbon monoxide, which has the potential to prevent the fetus from receiving sufficient oxygen. Other health concerns tobacco poses are premature birth, low birth weight, and an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) of up to three times compared to infants not exposed to tobacco.[92] Smoking and pregnancy, combined, cause twice the risk of premature rupture of membranes, placental abruption and placenta previa. In addition to the fetus, women in general who smoke heavily are less likely to become pregnant.[94]

## References

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3. ↑ National Institute on Drug Abuse (2020). "Substance Use While Pregnant and Breastfeeding" (in en). https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/substance-use-in-women/substance-use-while-pregnant-breastfeeding.
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7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 US Food and Drug Administration (2019-08-23). "Dietary Supplements: Tips for Women" (in en). FDA. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/women/dietary-supplements-tips-women. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
8. ↑ "FDA Pregnancy Categories - CHEMM". https://chemm.nlm.nih.gov/pregnancycategories.htm.
9. ↑ FDA (1 April 2015), CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, 4, Food and Drug Administration, https://onepregnancy.com/2020/02/foods-to-avoid-when-trying-to-get-pregnant.html, retrieved 9 March 2020
10. ↑ FDA (3 December 2014), Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling (Drugs) Final Rule, Food and Drug Administration, https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/DevelopmentResources/Labeling/ucm093307.htm, retrieved 16 December 2019
11. ↑ Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (2020-03-02). "Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling (Drugs) Final Rule" (in en). FDA. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/labeling-information-drug-products/pregnancy-and-lactation-labeling-drugs-final-rule. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
12. ↑ "Australian categorisation system for prescription medicines in pregnancy". 2014. https://www.tga.gov.au/australian-categorisation-system-prescribing-medicines-pregnancy.
13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 "Over-the-Counter Medications in Pregnancy". American Family Physician 90 (8): 548–55. October 2014. PMID 25369643. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/1015/p548.html. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
14. ↑ "Over-the-counter medications: Risk and safety in pregnancy". Seminars in Perinatology. Medications in Pregnancy and Lactation 39 (7): 541–4. November 2015. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2015.08.009. PMID 26452317. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0146000515001007.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 "Over-the-counter medications in pregnancy". American Family Physician 67 (12): 2517–24. June 2003. PMID 12825840. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2003/0615/p2517.html. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
16. ↑ "Over-the-Counter Medications in Pregnancy". American Family Physician 90 (8): 548–55. October 2014. PMID 25369643. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/1015/p548.html. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
17. ↑ Di Girolamo, Raffaella; Alameddine, Sara; Khalil, Asma; Santilli, Francesca; Rizzo, Giuseppe; Maruotti, Giuseppe Maria; Liberati, Marco; D'Antonio, Francesco (December 31, 2022). "Clinical practice guidelines on the use of aspirin in pregnancy: Systematic review" (in en). European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 282: 64–71. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2022.12.032. PMID 36652835. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301211522006558. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 CDC (2020-04-30). "Basics About Opioid Use During Pregnancy | CDC" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/pregnancy/opioids/basics.html.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Epilepsy and pregnancy" (in en). 2017-12-21. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/epilepsy-pregnant/.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Sodium valproate in pregnancy: what are the risks and should we use a shared decision-making approach?". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 18 (1). June 2018. doi:10.1186/s12884-018-1842-x. PMID 29859057.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 "Treatment for epilepsy in pregnancy: neurodevelopmental outcomes in the child". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020 (10). October 2014. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010236.pub2. PMID 25354543.
22. ↑ "The Pregnant Patient: Managing Common Acute Medical Problems". American Family Physician 98 (9): 595–602. November 2018. PMID 30325641. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2018/1101/p595.html. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
23. ↑ "Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy". BMJ Clinical Evidence 2014. March 2014. PMID 24646807.
24. ↑ "Constipation, haemorrhoids, and heartburn in pregnancy". BMJ Clinical Evidence 2010. August 2010. PMID 21418682.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 Kong, Y. L.; Tey, H. L. (June 2013). "Treatment of Acne Vulgaris During Pregnancy and Lactation" (in en). Drugs 73 (8): 779–787. doi:10.1007/s40265-013-0060-0. ISSN 0012-6667. PMID 23657872. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40265-013-0060-0.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Pugashetti, Rupa; Shinkai, Kanade (July 2013). "Treatment of acne vulgaris in pregnant patients: Treatment of acne vulgaris in pregnant patients" (in en). Dermatologic Therapy 26 (4): 302–311. doi:10.1111/dth.12077. PMID 23914887.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Meredith, Fiona M.; Ormerod, Anthony D. (October 2013). "The Management of Acne Vulgaris in Pregnancy" (in en). American Journal of Clinical Dermatology 14 (5): 351–358. doi:10.1007/s40257-013-0041-9. ISSN 1175-0561. PMID 23996075. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40257-013-0041-9.
28. ↑ Worret, Wolf-Ingo; Fluhr, Joachim W. (April 2006). "Acne therapy with topical benzoyl peroxide, antibiotics and azelaic acid" (in en). JDDG 4 (4): 293–300. doi:10.1111/j.1610-0387.2006.05931.x. ISSN 1610-0379. PMID 16638058. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1610-0387.2006.05931.x. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Chien, A. L.; Qi, J.; Rainer, B.; Sachs, D. L.; Helfrich, Y. R. (2016-03-01). "Treatment of Acne in Pregnancy" (in en). The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 29 (2): 254–262. doi:10.3122/jabfm.2016.02.150165. ISSN 1557-2625. PMID 26957383.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Liu, Haibo; Yu, Haiyan; Xia, Jun; Liu, Ling; Liu, Guan J.; Sang, Hong; Peinemann, Frank (2020-05-01). "Topical azelaic acid, salicylic acid, nicotinamide, sulphur, zinc and fruit acid (alpha-hydroxy acid) for acne". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 5 (5). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011368.pub2. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 32356369.
31. ↑ Costa, Caroline S; Bagatin, Ediléia; Martimbianco, Ana Luiza C; da Silva, Edina MK; Lúcio, Marília M; Magin, Parker; Riera, Rachel (2018-11-24). Cochrane Skin Group. ed. "Oral isotretinoin for acne" (in en). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2019 (2). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009435.pub2. PMID 30484286.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Murase, Jenny E.; Heller, Misha M.; Butler, Daniel C. (March 2014). "Safety of dermatologic medications in pregnancy and lactation" (in en). Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 70 (3): 401.e1–401.e14. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2013.09.010. PMID 24528911. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0190962213009614. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
33. ↑ Leachman, Sancy A.; Reed, Barbara R. (April 2006). "The Use of Dermatologic Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation" (in en). Dermatologic Clinics 24 (2): 167–197. doi:10.1016/j.det.2006.01.001. PMID 16677965. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0733863506000027. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
34. ↑ Daniele, Claudia; Thompson Coon, Joanna; Pittler, Max H.; Ernst, Edzard (2005). "Vitex agnus castus: a systematic review of adverse events". Drug Safety 28 (4): 319–332. doi:10.2165/00002018-200528040-00004. ISSN 0114-5916. PMID 15783241.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Anticoagulant medicines" (in en). 2018-02-06. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/anticoagulants/.
36. ↑ "Anticoagulation During Pregnancy: Evolving Strategies With a Focus on Mechanical Valves". Journal of the American College of Cardiology 68 (16): 1804–1813. October 2016. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2016.06.076. PMID 27737747. https://www.onlinejacc.org/content/68/16/1804. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
37. ↑ CDC (2020-02-12). "Pregnant? Don't Overlook Blood Clots | CDC" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dvt/features/blood-clots-pregnant-women.html.
38. ↑ "UpToDate". https://www.uptodate.com/contents/use-of-anticoagulants-during-pregnancy-and-postpartum#:~:text=Some pregnant women require anticoagulation,some women with fetal loss..
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 "Antithrombotic therapy for pregnant women". Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica 53 (8): 526–30. 2013. doi:10.2176/nmc.53.526. PMID 23979047. http://jlc.jst.go.jp/DN/JST.JSTAGE/nmc/53.526?lang=en&from=CrossRef&type=abstract.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 "Anticoagulation Regimens During Pregnancy in Patients With Mechanical Heart Valves: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". The Canadian Journal of Cardiology 32 (10): 1248.e1–1248.e9. October 2016. doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2015.11.005. PMID 26927861. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0828282X15015810.
41. ↑ "The use of low-molecular-weight heparins in pregnancy--how safe are they?". Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology 19 (6): 573–7. December 2007. doi:10.1097/GCO.0b013e3282f10e33. PMID 18007136.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Efficacy and safety of direct oral anticoagulants during pregnancy; a systematic literature review". Thrombosis Research 169: 123–127. September 2018. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2018.07.022. PMID 30036784.
43. ↑ "Unplanned pregnancy on a direct oral anticoagulant (Rivaroxaban): A warning". Obstetric Medicine 9 (1): 40–2. March 2016. doi:10.1177/1753495X15621814. PMID 27512489.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Gestational diabetes - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic" (in en). https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gestational-diabetes/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355345.
45. ↑ "Gestational diabetes mellitus: risks and management during and after pregnancy". Nature Reviews. Endocrinology 8 (11): 639–49. November 2012. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2012.96. PMID 22751341.
46. ↑ "Traveler's Diarrhea". The Medical Clinics of North America 100 (2): 317–30. March 2016. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2015.08.017. PMID 26900116.
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Antihistamines and birth defects: a systematic review of the literature". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety 13 (12): 1667–98. December 2014. doi:10.1517/14740338.2014.970164. PMID 25307228.
48. ↑ "1-antihistamines and should be the first-line antihistamines for the treatment of allergic rhinitis and urticaria". Allergy, Asthma, and Clinical Immunology 15: 61. 2019. doi:10.1186/s13223-019-0375-9. PMID 31582993.
49. ↑ CDC (2018-04-04). "Key Findings: Antihistamines and Birth Defects | NCBDDD | CDC" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/pregnancy/meds/treatingfortwo/features/antihistamines-and-bd.html.
50. ↑ CDC (2020-07-31). "Pregnant or thinking of getting pregnant? | CDC" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/pregnancy/meds/treatingfortwo/facts.html.
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 "2018 ESC Guidelines for the management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy". European Heart Journal 39 (34): 3165–3241. September 2018. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehy340. PMID 30165544.
52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 "The Use of Medication in Pregnancy". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 116 (46): 783–790. November 2019. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2019.0783. PMID 31920194.
53. ↑ Office of the Commissioner (2019-02-09). "FDA 101: Dietary Supplements" (in en). FDA. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/fda-101-dietary-supplements. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
54. ↑ "Dietary Supplements: Regulatory Challenges and Research Resources". Nutrients 10 (1): 41. January 2018. doi:10.3390/nu10010041. PMID 29300341.
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Ramakrishnan, Usha; Grant, Frederick; Goldenberg, Tamar; Zongrone, Amanda; Martorell, Reynaldo (28 June 2012). "Effect of Women's Nutrition before and during Early Pregnancy on Maternal and Infant Outcomes: A Systematic Review: Periconceptual nutrition and maternal and infant outcomes" (in en). Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 26: 285–301. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01281.x. PMID 22742616.
56. ↑ CDC (2022-06-28). "Folic Acid Recommendations" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/folicacid/recommendations.html.
57. ↑ "Effectiveness in Disease and Injury Prevention Use of Folic Acid for Prevention of Spina Bifida and Other Neural Tube Defects -- 1983-1991". https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00014915.htm.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Health Canada (2009). Prenatal Nutrition Guidelines for Health Professionals. Health Canada. ISBN 978-1-100-12207-6. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/fn-an/alt_formats/hpfb-dgpsa/pdf/pubs/iron-fer-eng.pdf. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
59. ↑ WHO (2012). Guideline: Daily iron and folic acid supplementation in pregnant women. World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-150199-6. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/77770/9789241501996_eng.pdf;jsessionid=80D26B72D8DD04605E8F0CC32583F40F?sequence=1. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 Cohen, Abigail; Osorio, Ruby; Page, Louise M. (2017). "Substance misuse in pregnancy". Obstetrics, Gynaecology & Reproductive Medicine (Elsevier BV) 27 (10): 316–321. doi:10.1016/j.ogrm.2017.07.003. ISSN 1751-7214.
61. ↑ "Substance Abuse". 2019-12-07. https://www.afro.who.int/health-topics/substance-abuse.
62. ↑ "Drinking alcohol while pregnant" (in en). 2020-12-02. https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/keeping-well/drinking-alcohol-while-pregnant/.
63. ↑ CDC (2025-01-30). "About Alcohol Use During Pregnancy" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol-pregnancy/about/index.html.
64. ↑ "Guidelines for identification and management of substance use and substance use disorders in pregnancy" (in en). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241548731.
65. ↑ CDC (2020-07-01). "Alcohol Use in Pregnancy" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/alcohol-use.html.
66. ↑ "Pregnancy and Alcohol: Safety, Effects & Addiction". 2012-04-27. https://americanpregnancy.org/pregnancy-health/pregnancy-and-alcohol/.
67. ↑ May, Philip A.; Gossage, J. Phillip (2011). "Maternal risk factors for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: not as simple as it might seem". Alcohol Research & Health: The Journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism 34 (1): 15–26. ISSN 1930-0573. PMID 23580036. PMC 3860552. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3860552/.
68. ↑ "Alcohol abuse in pregnant women: effects on the fetus and newborn, mode of action and maternal treatment". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 7 (2): 364–79. February 2010. doi:10.3390/ijerph7020364. PMID 20616979.
69. ↑ "Diagnosis and management of miscarriage". The Practitioner 258 (1771): 25–8, 3. May 2014. PMID 25055407.
70. ↑ "Neonatal abstinence Syndrome". US Library of Medicine. 2017. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007313.htm. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
71. ↑ "Therapeutic approaches for neonatal abstinence syndrome: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Daru: Journal of Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences 27 (1): 423–431. June 2019. doi:10.1007/s40199-019-00266-3. PMID 31093953.
72. ↑ "CDC Grand Rounds: Public Health Strategies to Prevent Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 66 (9): 242–245. 2017. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6609a2. PMID 28278146.
73. ↑ "Sudden infant death syndrome: review for the obstetric care provider". American Journal of Perinatology 30 (9): 703–714. October 2013. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1331035. PMID 23292938.
74. ↑ "Alcohol as a risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)". Addiction 106 (3): 516–525. March 2011. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03199.x. PMID 21059188. https://zenodo.org/record/886389. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
75. ↑ "Maternal alcohol use and sudden infant death syndrome and infant mortality excluding SIDS". Pediatrics 131 (3): e770–e778. March 2013. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1907. PMID 23439895.
76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 "The Safety of Ingested Caffeine: A Comprehensive Review". Frontiers in Psychiatry 8: 80. 2017. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00080. PMID 28603504.
77. ↑ "Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children". Food and Chemical Toxicology 109 (Pt 1): 585–648. November 2017. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.002. PMID 28438661.
78. ↑ Leviton, Alan (2018). "Biases Inherent in Studies of Coffee Consumption in Early Pregnancy and the Risks of Subsequent Events". Nutrients 10 (9). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6163788/. Retrieved 17 November 2025.
79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 CDC (2020-06-03). "Commit to Healthy Choices to Help Prevent Birth Defects | CDC" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/prevention.html.
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 "The Endocannabinoid System in the Postimplantation Period: A Role during Decidualization and Placentation". International Journal of Endocrinology 2013. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/510540. PMID 24228028.
81. ↑ "An epidemiological, developmental and clinical overview of cannabis use during pregnancy". Preventive Medicine 116: 1–5. November 2018. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.08.036. PMID 30171964.
82. ↑ Committee on the Health Effects of Marijuana: An Evidence Review and Research Agenda; Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice; Health and Medicine Division; National Academies of Sciences Engineering (2017-01-12). Prenatal, Perinatal, and Neonatal Exposure to Cannabis. National Academies Press (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK425751/. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
83. ↑ "Cannabis use during pregnancy: Pharmacokinetics and effects on child development". Pharmacology & Therapeutics 182: 133–151. February 2018. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.08.014. PMID 28847562.
84. ↑ "Marijuana Use in Pregnancy and While Breastfeeding". Obstetrics and Gynecology 132 (5): 1198–1210. November 2018. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002878. PMID 30234728.
85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 "Stimulant Use in Pregnancy: An Under-recognized Epidemic Among Pregnant Women". Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 62 (1): 168–184. March 2019. doi:10.1097/GRF.0000000000000418. PMID 30601144.
86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 "Developmental consequences of prenatal tobacco exposure". Current Opinion in Neurology 22 (2): 121–5. April 2009. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e328326f6dc. PMID 19532034.
87. ↑ "A review of the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure among school-aged children". Pediatrics 125 (3): 554–65. March 2010. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0637. PMID 20142293.
88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 88.2 88.3 Freye, Enno (2009). "Treatment Options in Methamphetamine Addiction and Withdrawal". Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 131–133. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_20. ISBN 978-90-481-2447-3.
89. ↑ "Maternal Use of Opioids During Pregnancy and Congenital Malformations: A Systematic Review". Pediatrics 139 (6): e20164131. June 2017. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-4131. PMID 28562278.
90. ↑ https://docs.google.com/document/d/1p0fwjFSlsgWkT643vw04_HNl4NKe9rBIu9vbbOD5uf8/edit
91. ↑ "Cognitive function of youths born to mothers with opioid and poly-substance abuse problems during pregnancy". Child Neuropsychology 23 (2): 159–187. February 2017. doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1092509. PMID 26471942.
92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 CDCTobaccoFree (2018-02-06). "Smoking During Pregnancy". https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/health_effects/pregnancy/index.htm.
93. ↑ Tawfeek, Karam T; Zuhair, Ghufran Z.; Al-hussaniy, Hany A.; naji, Meena (2022). "Neurodevelopmental Abnormalities in Children Associated with Maternal Use of Psychoactive Medication" (in en). Medical and Pharmaceutical Journal 1 (2): 24–33. doi:10.55940/medphar202210. ISSN 2957-6067.
94. ↑ CDCTobaccoFree (2019-05-29). "Smoking During Pregnancy" (in en-us). https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/health_effects/pregnancy/index.htm.

## Further reading

* Drugs in pregnancy and lactation: a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk (11th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2016. ISBN 978-1-4963-5037-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=HsSuDgAAQBAJ.
* Therapeutics in Pregnancy and Lactation. Routledge. 2019. ISBN 978-1-315-34863-6.
* "Chapter 53. Maternal and neonatal effects of alcohol and drugs by Loretta B. Finnegan and Stephen R. Kandall". Substance abuse: a comprehensive textbook. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2005. pp. 805–839. ISBN 978-0-7817-3474-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=HtGb2wNsgn4C&pg=PA805.
* Drugs during pregnancy and lactation: handbook of prescription drugs and comparative risk assessment. Elsevier. 2001. ISBN 978-0-444-50763-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=CE569saGK70C.
* Drugs during pregnancy and lactation: treatment options and risk assessment (2nd ed.). Elsevier. 2011. ISBN 978-0-08-054977-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=QSZ2S_73KBwC. Retrieved 4 August 2020.

* v
* t
* e

Pregnancy and childbirth

Planning|

* Birth control
* Natural family planning
* Pre-conception counseling

Conception|

* Assisted reproductive technology
* Artificial insemination
* Fertility medication
* In vitro fertilisation
* Fertility awareness
* Unintended pregnancy

Testing|

* 3D ultrasound
* Obstetric ultrasonography
* Pregnancy test
* Home testing
* Prenatal diagnosis

Prenatal|

| Anatomy|

* Amniotic fluid
* Amniotic sac
* Endometrium
* Placenta

|

Development|

* Fundal height
* Gestational age
* Human embryogenesis
* Maternal physiological changes
* Postpartum physiological changes

Care|

* Nutrition
* Environmental toxicants
* In pregnancy
* Prenatal
* Concomitant conditions
* Drinking
* Diabetes mellitus
* Smoking
* Vaping
* SLE
* Sexual activity during pregnancy

Procedures|

* Amniocentesis
* Cardiotocography
* Chorionic villus sampling
* Nonstress test
* Abortion

Childbirth|

| Preparation|

* Bradley method
* Hypnobirthing
* Lamaze
* Nesting instinct

|

Roles|

* Doula
* Birth attendant
* Men's roles
* Midwife
* Obstetrician
* Perinatal nurse
* Traditional birth attendant

Delivery|

* Bloody show
* Childbirth positions
* Home birth
* Multiple birth
* Natural childbirth
* Pelvimetry / Bishop score
* Cervical dilation
* Cervical effacement
* Position
* Presentation
* Breech
* Cephalic
* Shoulder
* Rupture of membranes
* Unassisted childbirth
* Uterine contraction
* Water birth

Postpartum|

| Maternal|

* Postpartum confinement
* Sex after pregnancy
* Psychiatric disorders of childbirth
* Postpartum physiological changes

|

Roles|

* Doula
* Health visitor
* Lactation consultant
* Monthly nurse
* Confinement nanny

Infant|

* Adaptation to extrauterine life
* Child care
* Congenital disorders

Obstetric history|

* Gravidity and parity

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