Medical cannabis

Short description: Cannabis sativa L. (marijuana; hemp) used medicinally

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"Medical marijuana" redirects here. For the company, see Medical Marijuana, Inc.

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Medical cannabis, medicinal cannabis or medical marijuana (MMJ) refers to cannabis products and cannabinoid molecules that are prescribed by physicians for their patients.[1][2][3][4] The use of cannabis as medicine has a long history, but has not been as rigorously tested as other medicinal plants due to legal and governmental restrictions, resulting in limited research to define the safety and efficacy of using cannabis to treat diseases.[5]

There is mixed and inconclusive evidence on the benefits of cannabis-based medicines, frequent mild adverse effects, and generally low-to-moderate quality of evidence.[6] Cannabis-based medicines may offer modest relief for chronic, especially neuropathic, pain and slight improvements in function and sleep in chronic pain patients, but evidence is limited and inconsistent; mild harms may outweigh the benefit and placebo effects may influence trial outcomes.[6][7][8][9] Recent clinical reviews have concluded that evidence remains insufficient to support the use of cannabis or cannabinoids for most medical indications, emphasizing that modest potential benefits must be weighed against established risks.[10]

Short-term use increases the risk of minor and major adverse effects.[7] Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations.[7] Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear.[7] Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident.[11]

Many cultures have used cannabis for therapeutic purposes for thousands of years.[12] Some American medical organizations have requested removal of cannabis from the list of Schedule I controlled substances, emphasizing that rescheduling would enable more extensive research and regulatory oversight to ensure safe access.[13][14] Others oppose its legalization, such as the American Academy of Pediatrics.[15] Countries that allow the medical use of whole-plant cannabis include Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and Uruguay. In the United States, 38 states and the District of Columbia have legalized cannabis for medical purposes, beginning with the passage of California's Proposition 215 in 1996.[16]

## Contents

* 1 Classification
* 2 Medical uses and research
* 2.1 Pain
* 2.2 Insomnia
* 2.3 Nausea and vomiting
* 2.4 HIV/AIDS
* 2.5 Neurological conditions
* 2.6 Mental health
* 3 Adverse effects
* 3.1 Medical use
* 3.2 Cognitive effects
* 3.3 Impact on psychosis
* 4 Pharmacology
* 4.1 Absorption
* 4.2 Distribution
* 4.3 Metabolism
* 4.4 Excretion
* 5 Administration
* 6 History
* 6.1 Ancient
* 6.2 Landrace strains
* 6.3 Modern
* 7 Society and culture
* 7.1 Legal status
* 7.1.1 International law
* 7.1.2 United States
* 7.1.3 Germany
* 7.2 Economics
* 7.2.1 Distribution
* 7.2.2 Insurance
* 7.3 Positions of medical organizations
* 7.4 Nonproprietary names
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links

## Classification

In the U.S., the National Institute on Drug Abuse defines medical cannabis as "using the whole, unprocessed marijuana plant or its basic extracts to treat symptoms of illness and other conditions".[17]

A cannabis plant includes more than 400 different chemicals, of which about 70 are cannabinoids.[18] In comparison, typical government-approved medications contain only one or two chemicals.[18] The number of active chemicals in cannabis is one reason why treatment with cannabis is difficult to classify and study.[18]

A 2014 review stated that the variations in ratio of CBD-to-THC in botanical and pharmaceutical preparations determines the therapeutic vs psychoactive effects (CBD attenuates THC's psychoactive effects[19]) of cannabis products.[20]

## Medical uses and research

Cannabis as illustrated in Köhler's Book of Medicinal Plants, 1897

A scoping review of 72 systematic reviews found mixed and inconclusive evidence on the benefits of cannabis-based medicines, frequent mild adverse effects, and generally low-to-moderate quality of evidence.[6]

Low quality evidence suggests its use for reducing nausea during chemotherapy, improving appetite in HIV/AIDS, improving sleep, and improving tics in Tourette syndrome.[7] When usual treatments are ineffective, cannabinoids have also been recommended for anorexia, arthritis, glaucoma,[21] and migraine.[22]

It is unclear whether American states might be able to mitigate the adverse effects of the opioid epidemic by prescribing medical cannabis as an alternative pain management drug.[23]

Cannabis should not be used in pregnancy.[24]

### Pain

Cannabis-based medicines may provide modest relief for chronic pain, particularly neuropathic pain, as well as small improvements in physical function and sleep in chronic pain patients.[8][25][26] Cannabis-based medicines show limited and inconsistent evidence for pain relief, with mild harms commonly reported that may outweigh potential benefits.[6]

Short-term use of oral or sublingual cannabis, particularly high-THC synthetic or comparable-THC extracted products, may modestly reduce chronic pain but increases risks of dizziness, sedation, and other adverse effects, with limited evidence on long-term outcomes.[26]

Placebo effects contribute to pain reduction in cannabinoid clinical trials, and while media attention is high, it does not directly correlate with clinical outcomes but may influence future expectations and trial results.[9]

### Insomnia

Research analyzing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) did not find significant differences in sleep duration between cannabis users and non-users. This suggests that while some individuals may perceive benefits from cannabis use in terms of sleep, it may not significantly change overall sleep patterns across the general population.[27]

### Nausea and vomiting

Medical cannabis is somewhat effective in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV)[11][21] and may be a reasonable option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment.[28] Comparative studies have found cannabinoids to be more effective than some conventional antiemetics such as prochlorperazine, promethazine, and metoclopramide in controlling CINV,[29] but these are used less frequently because of side effects including dizziness, dysphoria, and hallucinations.[30][31] Long-term cannabis use may cause nausea and vomiting, a condition known as cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS).[32]

A 2016 Cochrane review said that cannabinoids were "probably effective" in treating chemotherapy-induced nausea in children, but with a high side-effect profile (mainly drowsiness, dizziness, altered moods, and increased appetite). Less common side effects were "ocular problems, orthostatic hypotension, muscle twitching, pruritus, vagueness, hallucinations, lightheadedness and dry mouth".[33]

### HIV/AIDS

Evidence is lacking for both efficacy and safety of cannabis and cannabinoids in treating patients with HIV/AIDS or for anorexia associated with AIDS. As of 2013, current studies suffer from the effects of bias, small sample size, and lack of long-term data.[34]

### Neurological conditions

Cannabis' efficacy is not clear in treating neurological problems, including multiple sclerosis (MS) and movement problems.[20] Evidence also suggests that oral cannabis extract is effective for reducing patient-centered measures of spasticity.[20] A trial of cannabis is deemed to be a reasonable option if other treatments have not been effective.[11][by whom?] Its use for MS is approved in ten countries.[11][35]Template:COI source A 2012 review found no problems with tolerance, abuse, or addiction.[36] In the United States, cannabidiol, one of the cannabinoids found in the marijuana plant, has been approved for treating two severe forms of epilepsy, Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome.[37]

### Mental health

A 2019 systematic review found that there is a lack of evidence that cannabinoids are effective in treating depressive or anxiety disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, or psychosis.[38]

The relationship between cannabis use and anxiety symptoms is complex, and while some users report relief, the overall evidence from observational studies and clinical trials remains inconclusive.[39]

Cannabis use, especially at high doses, is associated with a higher risk of psychosis, particularly in individuals with a genetic predisposition to psychotic disorders like schizophrenia. Some studies have shown that cannabis can trigger a temporary psychotic episode, which may increase the risk of developing a psychotic disorder later.[40]

The impact of cannabis on depression is less clear. Some studies suggest a potential increase in depression risk among adolescents who use cannabis, though findings are inconsistent across studies.[40]

A review article published in JAMA Internal Medicine in Mach 2026 reaffirms that there is not enough evidence to support using cannabis for treating mental health conditions. In fact, the literature demonstrates there are substantial risks of adverse effects (e.g., worsening mania symptoms, increase in psychotic symptoms, etc.).[41]

## Adverse effects

American medical hashish

### Medical use

There is insufficient data to draw strong conclusions about the safety of medical cannabis.[42] Typically, adverse effects of medical cannabis use are not serious;[11] they include tiredness, dizziness, increased appetite, and cardiovascular and psychoactive effects. Other effects can include impaired short-term memory; impaired motor coordination; altered judgment; and paranoia or psychosis at high doses.[43] Tolerance to these effects develops over a period of days or weeks. The amount of cannabis normally used for medicinal purposes is not believed to cause any permanent cognitive impairment in adults, though long-term treatment in adolescents should be weighed carefully as they are more susceptible to these impairments. Withdrawal symptoms are rarely a problem with controlled medical administration of cannabinoids. The ability to drive vehicles or to operate machinery may be impaired until a tolerance is developed.[28] Although supporters of medical cannabis say that it is safe,[42] further research is required to assess the long-term safety of its use.[30][44]

### Cognitive effects

Recreational use of cannabis is associated with cognitive deficits, especially for those who begin to use cannabis in adolescence. As of 2021[update] there is a lack of research into long-term cognitive effects of medical use of cannabis, but one 12-month observational study reported that "MC patients demonstrated significant improvements on measures of executive function and clinical state over the course of 12 months".[45]

### Impact on psychosis

Exposure to THC can cause acute transient psychotic symptoms in healthy individuals and people with schizophrenia.[19]

A 2007 meta analysis concluded that cannabis use reduced the average age of onset of psychosis by 2.7 years relative to non-cannabis use.[46] A 2005 meta analysis concluded that adolescent use of cannabis increases the risk of psychosis, and that the risk is dose-related.[47] A 2004 literature review on the subject concluded that cannabis use is associated with a two-fold increase in the risk of psychosis, but that cannabis use is "neither necessary nor sufficient" to cause psychosis.[48] A French review from 2009 came to a conclusion that cannabis use, particularly that before age 15, was a factor in the development of schizophrenic disorders.[49]

## Pharmacology

The genus Cannabis contains two species which produce useful amounts of psychoactive cannabinoids: Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa, which are listed as Schedule I medicinal plants in the US;[11] a third species, Cannabis ruderalis, has few psychogenic properties.[11] Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds;[12] at least 80 of these are cannabinoids[50][51] – chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.[11] As of 2012, more than 20 cannabinoids were being studied by the U.S. FDA.[52]

The most psychoactive cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant is tetrahydrocannabinol (or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly known as THC).[12] Other cannabinoids include delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol (CBG); they have less psychotropic effects than THC, but may play a role in the overall effect of cannabis.[12] The most studied are THC, CBD and CBN.[53]

CB1 and CB2 are the primary cannabinoid receptors responsible for several of the effects of cannabinoids, although other receptors may play a role as well. Both belong to a group of receptors called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). CB1 receptors are found in very high levels in the brain and are thought to be responsible for psychoactive effects.[54] CB2 receptors are found peripherally throughout the body and are thought to modulate pain and inflammation.[55]

### Absorption

Cannabinoid absorption is dependent on its route of administration.

Inhaled and vaporized THC have similar absorption profiles to smoked THC, with a bioavailability ranging from 10 to 35%. Oral administration has the lowest bioavailability of approximately 6%, variable absorption depending on the vehicle used, and the longest time to peak plasma levels (2 to 6 hours) compared to smoked or vaporized THC.[56]

Similar to THC, CBD has poor oral bioavailability, approximately 6%. The low bioavailability is largely attributed to significant first-pass metabolism in the liver and erratic absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. However, oral administration of CBD has a faster time to peak concentrations (2 hours) than THC.[56]

Due to the poor bioavailability of oral preparations, alternative routes of administration have been studied, including sublingual and rectal. These alternative formulations maximize bioavailability and reduce first-pass metabolism. Sublingual administration in rabbits yielded bioavailability of 16% and time to peak concentration of 4 hours.[57] Rectal administration in monkeys doubled bioavailability to 13.5% and achieved peak blood concentrations within 1 to 8 hours after administration.[58]

### Distribution

Like cannabinoid absorption, distribution is also dependent on route of administration. Smoking and inhalation of vaporized cannabis have better absorption than do other routes of administration, and therefore also have more predictable distribution.[58][59] THC is highly protein bound once absorbed, with only 3% found unbound in the plasma. It distributes rapidly to highly vascularized organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys, as well as to various glands. Low levels can be detected in the brain, testes, and unborn fetuses, all of which are protected from systemic circulation via barriers.[60] THC further distributes into fatty tissues a few days after administration due to its high lipophilicity, and is found deposited in the spleen and fat after redistribution.[59][61][62]

### Metabolism

Delta-9-THC is the primary molecule responsible for the effects of cannabis. Delta-9-THC is metabolized in the liver and turns into 11-OH-THC.[63] 11-OH-THC is the first metabolic product in this pathway. Both Delta-9-THC and 11-OH-THC are psychoactive. The metabolism of THC into 11-OH-THC plays a part in the heightened psychoactive effects of edible cannabis.[64]

Next, 11-OH-THC is metabolized in the liver into 11-COOH-THC, which is the second metabolic product of THC.[65] 11-COOH-THC is not psychoactive.[63]

Ingestion of edible cannabis products lead to a slower onset of effect than the inhalation of it because the THC travels to the liver first through the blood before it travels to the rest of the body. Inhaled cannabis can result in THC going directly to the brain, where it then travels from the brain back to the liver in recirculation for metabolism.[63] Eventually, both routes of metabolism result in the metabolism of psychoactive THC to inactive 11-COOH-THC.

### Excretion

Due to substantial metabolism of THC and CBD, their metabolites are excreted mostly via feces, rather than by urine.[56][66] After delta-9-THC is hydroxylated into 11-OH-THC via CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4, it undergoes phase II metabolism into more than 30 metabolites, a majority of which are products of glucuronidation. Approximately 65% of THC is excreted in feces and 25% in the urine, while the remaining 10% is excreted by other means.[56] The terminal half-life of THC is 25 to 36 hours,[67] whereas for CBD it is 18 to 32 hours.[66]

CBD is hydroxylated by P450 liver enzymes into 7-OH-CBD. Its metabolites are products of primarily CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 activity, with potential activity of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6.[68] Similar to delta-9-THC, a majority of CBD is excreted in feces and some in the urine.[56] The terminal half-life is approximately 18–32 hours.[69]

## Administration

Illustrating various forms of medicinal cannabis

Smoking has been the means of administration of cannabis for many users, but it is not suitable for the use of cannabis as a medicine.[70] It was the most common method of medical cannabis consumption in the US as of 2013[update].[11] It is difficult to predict the pharmacological response to cannabis because concentration of cannabinoids varies widely, as there are different ways of preparing it for consumption (smoked, applied as oils, eaten, infused into other foods, or drunk) and a lack of production controls.[11] The potential for adverse effects from smoke inhalation makes smoking a less viable option than oral preparations.[70] Cannabis vaporizers have gained popularity because of a perception among users that fewer harmful chemicals are ingested when components are inhaled via aerosol rather than smoke.[11] Cannabinoid medicines are available in pill form (dronabinol and nabilone) and liquid extracts formulated into an oromucosal spray (nabiximols).[11] Oral preparations are "problematic due to the uptake of cannabinoids into fatty tissue, from which they are released slowly, and the significant first-pass liver metabolism, which breaks down Δ9THC and contributes further to the variability of plasma concentrations".[70]

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked cannabis for any condition or disease, as it deems that evidence is lacking concerning safety and efficacy.[71] The FDA issued a 2006 advisory against smoked medical cannabis stating: "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision."[71]

## History

### Ancient

Cannabis, called má 麻 (meaning "hemp; cannabis; numbness") or dàmá 大麻 (with "big; great") in Chinese, was used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago.[72] The botanist Hui-lin Li wrote that in China, "The use of Cannabis in medicine was probably a very early development. Since ancient humans used hemp seed as food, it was quite natural for them to also discover the medicinal properties of the plant."[73] Emperor Shen-Nung, who was also a pharmacologist, wrote a book on treatment methods in 2737 BCE that included the medical benefits of cannabis. He recommended the substance for many ailments, including constipation, gout, rheumatism, and absent-mindedness.[74] Cannabis is one of the 50 "fundamental" herbs in traditional Chinese medicine.Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag The ancient Egyptians used hemp (cannabis) in suppositories for relieving the pain of hemorrhoids.[75]

Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for treating a variety of illnesses and ailments, including insomnia, headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, and pain, including during childbirth.[76]

The Ancient Greeks used cannabis to dress wounds and sores on their horses,[77] and in humans, dried leaves of cannabis were used to treat nose bleeds, and cannabis seeds were used to expel tapeworms.[77]

In the medieval Islamic world, Arabic physicians made use of the diuretic, antiemetic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic properties of Cannabis sativa, and used it extensively as medication from the 8th to 18th centuries.[78]

### Landrace strains

Evolution of cultivated cannabis strains. The cultivar, Cannabis ruderalis, still grows wild today.

Cannabis seeds may have been used for food, rituals or religious practices in ancient Europe and China.[79]: 19–22 Harvesting the plant led to the spread of cannabis throughout Eurasia about 10,000 to 5,000 years ago, with further distribution to the Middle East and Africa about 2,000 to 500 years ago.[79]: 18–19 A landrace strain of cannabis developed over centuries.[80] They are cultivars of the plant that originated in one specific region.

Widely cultivated strains of cannabis, such as "Afghani" or "Hindu Kush", are indigenous to the Pakistan and Afghanistan regions, while "Durban Poison" is native to Africa.[79]: 45–48 There are approximately 16 landrace strains of cannabis identified from Pakistan, Jamaica, Africa, Mexico, Central America and Asia.[81]

### Modern

An Irish physician, William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, is credited with introducing cannabis to Western medicine.[82] O'Shaughnessy discovered cannabis in the 1830s while living abroad in India, where he conducted numerous experiments investigating the drug's medical utility (noting in particular its analgesic and anticonvulsant effects).[83] He returned to England with a supply of cannabis in 1842, after which its use spread through Europe and the United States.[84] In 1845 French physician Jacques-Joseph Moreau published a book about the use of cannabis in psychiatry.[85] In 1850 cannabis was entered into the United States Pharmacopeia.[83] An anecdotal report of Cannabis indica as a treatment for tetanus appeared in Scientific American in 1880.[86]

The use of cannabis in medicine began to decline by the end of the 19th century, due to difficulty in controlling dosages and the rise in popularity of synthetic and opium-derived drugs.[84] Also, the advent of the hypodermic syringe allowed these drugs to be injected for immediate effect, in contrast to cannabis which is not water-soluble and therefore cannot be injected.[84]

In the United States, the medical use of cannabis further declined with the passage of the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937, which imposed new regulations and fees on physicians prescribing cannabis.[87] Cannabis was removed from the U.S. Pharmacopeia in 1941, and officially banned for any use with the passage of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.[84]

Cannabis began to attract renewed interest as medicine in the 1970s and 1980s, in particular due to its use by cancer and AIDS patients who reported relief from the effects of chemotherapy and wasting syndrome.[88] In 1996, California became the first U.S. state to legalize medical cannabis in defiance of federal law.[89] In 2001, Canada became the first country to adopt a system regulating the medical use of cannabis.[90]

* The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan. "Dà má" (Pinyin pronunciation) is the Chinese expression for cannabis, the first character meaning "big" and the second character meaning "hemp".

* Cannabis indica fluid extract, American Druggists Syndicate, pre-1937

* An advertisement for cannabis americana distributed by a pharmacist in New York in 1917

* The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) from Ancient Egypt has a prescription for medical marijuana applied directly for inflammation.

## Society and culture

### Legal status

Legal status of (whole-plant) medical cannabis worldwide (only de jure; may not reflect actual access in these countries)

* * *

Legal as authorized by a physician

Legal for any use (no prescription required)

* * *

See also countries that have decriminalized or where enforcement is limited.

Countries that have legalized the medical use of cannabis include Argentina,[91] Australia,[92] Brazil,[93] Canada,[94] Chile,[94] Colombia,[94] Costa Rica,[95] Croatia,[96] Cyprus,[97] Czech Republic,[94] Finland,[98] Germany,[99] Greece,[100] Israel,[101] Italy,[102] Jamaica,[103] Lebanon,[104] Luxembourg,[105] Malta,[106] Morocco,[107] the Netherlands,[94] New Zealand,[108] North Macedonia,[109] Panama,[110] Peru,[111] Poland,[112] Portugal,[113] Rwanda,[114] Sri Lanka,[115] Switzerland,[116] Thailand,[117] the United Kingdom,[118] and Uruguay.[94] Other countries have more restrictive laws that allow only the use of isolated cannabinoid drugs such as Sativex or Epidiolex.[119][120] Countries with the most relaxed policies include Canada,[121] the Netherlands,[94] Thailand,[122] and Uruguay,[94] where cannabis can be purchased without need for a prescription. In Mexico, THC content of medical cannabis is limited to one percent.[123] In the United States, the legality of medical cannabis varies by state.[16]

However, in many of these countries, access may not always be possible under the same conditions.

#### International law

Cannabis and its derivatives are subject to regulation under three United Nations drug control treaties: the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.[124]

Cannabis and cannabis resin are classified as a Schedule I drug under the Single Convention treaty, meaning that medical use is considered "indispensable for the relief of pain and suffering" but that it is considered to be an addictive medication with risks of abuse.[125] Countries have an obligation to provide access and sufficient availability of drugs listed in Schedule I for the purposes of medical uses.[126][127]

Prior to December 2020 cannabis and cannabis resin were also included in Schedule IV, a more restrictive level of control, which is for only the most dangerous drugs such as heroin and fentanyl.[128] They were removed after an independent scientific assessment by the World Health Organization in 2018–2019.

Member nations of the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs voted 27–25 to remove it from Schedule IV on 2 December 2020,[129] following a World Health Organization recommendation for removal in January 2019.[130][131]

#### United States

In the United States, the use of cannabis for medical purposes is legal in 38 states, four out of five permanently inhabited U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia.[16] An additional 10 states have more restrictive laws allowing the use of low-THC products.[16] Cannabis remains illegal at the federal level under the Controlled Substances Act, which classifies it as a Schedule I drug with a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use. In December 2014, however, the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment was signed into law, prohibiting the Justice Department from prosecuting individuals acting in accordance with state medical cannabis laws.[132]

In the US, the FDA has approved two oral cannabinoids for use as medicine in 1985:[133] dronabinol (pure delta-9-THC; brand name Marinol) and nabilone (a synthetic neocannabinoid; brand name Cesamet).[11] In the US, they are both listed as Schedule II, indicating high potential for side effects and addiction.[52][134]

#### Germany

After the April 2024 Cannabis Act legalized medical cannabis, telemedicine platforms such as Bloomwell and DoktorABC reported a surge in online consultations and medical cannabis prescriptions. This sparked policy debate over remote prescribing standards, with an amendment to the law scheduled for a vote in 2026.[135][136][137]

### Economics

#### Distribution

Medical marijuana dispensary in Denver, Colorado

The method of obtaining medical cannabis varies by region and by legislation. In the US, most consumers grow their own or buy it from cannabis dispensaries in states where it is legal.[11][138] Marijuana vending machines for selling or dispensing cannabis are in use in the United States and are planned to be used in Canada.[139] In 2014, the startup Meadow began offering on-demand delivery of medical marijuana in the San Francisco Bay Area, through their mobile app.[140]

Almost 70% of medical cannabis is exported from the United Kingdom, according to a 2017 United Nations report, with much of the remaining amount coming from Canada and the Netherlands.[141]

#### Insurance

In the United States, health insurance companies may not pay for a medical marijuana prescription as the Food and Drug Administration must approve any substance for medicinal purposes. Before this can happen, the FDA must first permit the study of the medical benefits and drawbacks of the substance, which it has not done since it was placed on Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in 1970. Therefore, all expenses incurred fulfilling a medical marijuana prescription will possibly be incurred as out-of-pocket.[142] However, the New Mexico Court of Appeals has ruled that workers' compensation insurance must pay for prescribed marijuana as part of the state's Medical Cannabis Program.[143]

### Positions of medical organizations

Medical organizations that have issued statements in support of allowing access to medical cannabis include the American Nurses Association,[13] American Public Health Association,[144] American Medical Student Association,[145] National Multiple Sclerosis Society,[146] Epilepsy Foundation,[147] and Leukemia & Lymphoma Society.[148]

Organizations that oppose the legalization of medical cannabis include the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)[15] and American Psychiatric Association.[149] However, the AAP also supports rescheduling for the purpose of facilitating research.[15]

The American Medical Association[150] and American College of Physicians[151] do not take a position on the legalization of medical cannabis, but have called for the Schedule I classification to be reviewed. The American Academy of Family Physicians[14] and American Society of Addiction Medicine[152] also do not take a position, but do support rescheduling to better facilitate research. The American Heart Association says that "many of the concerning health implications of cannabis include cardiovascular diseases" but that it supports rescheduling to allow "more nuanced ... marijuana legislation and regulation" and to "reflect the existing science behind cannabis".[153] The American Cancer Society[154] and American Psychological Association[155] have noted the obstacles that exist for conducting research on cannabis, and have called on the federal government to better enable scientific study of the drug.

Cancer Research UK say that while cannabis is being studied for therapeutic potential, "claims that there is solid "proof" that cannabis or cannabinoids can cure cancer is highly misleading to patients and their families, and builds a false picture of the state of progress in this area".[156]

### Nonproprietary names

There are three International Nonproprietary Name (INN) granted for cannabinoids: two plant-derived phytocannabinoids and one neocannabinoid:

* Dronabinol is the INN for delta-9-THC[157][158] (there is a common confusion according to which the word "dronabinol" would only refer to synthetic delta-9-THC, which is incorrect[159]).
* Cannabidiol is also the official INN for the molecule, granted in 2017.[160]
* Nabilone is the INN for a synthetic cannabinoid analog (not present in Cannabis plants).

Nabiximols is the generic name (but not recognized as an INN) of a mixture of Cannabidiol and Dronabinol. Its most common form is the oromucosal spray derived from two strains of Cannabis sativa and containing THC and CBD traded under the brand name Sativex®.[52] It is not approved in the United States, but is approved in several European countries, Canada, and New Zealand as of 2013.[11]

Generic
name  | Brand
name(s)  | Country (non-exhaustive)  | Licensed indications

|
|
|

Nabilone | Cesamet  | U.S., Canada  | Antiemetic (treatment of nausea or vomiting) associated with chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to conventional therapy[11]
Dronabinol | Marinol
Syndros  | U.S.  | Anorexia associated with AIDS–related weight loss[11]
Nabiximols | Sativex  | Canada, New Zealand,
majority of the EU[161] | Limited treatment for spasticity and neuropathic pain associated with multiple sclerosis and intractable cancer pain.[11]

As an antiemetic, these medications are usually used when conventional treatment for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy fail to work.[11]

Nabiximols is used for treatment of spasticity associated with MS when other therapies have not worked, and when an initial trial demonstrates "meaningful improvement".[11] Trials for FDA approval in the US are underway.[11] It is also approved in several European countries for overactive bladder and vomiting.[52] When sold under the trade name Sativex as a mouth spray, the prescribed daily dose in Sweden delivers a maximum of 32.4 mg of THC and 30 mg of CBD; mild to moderate dizziness is common during the first few weeks.[162]

Relative to inhaled consumption, peak concentration of oral THC is delayed, and it may be difficult to determine optimal dosage because of variability in patient absorption.[11]

In 1964, Albert Lockhart and Manley West began studying the health effects of traditional cannabis use in Jamaican communities. They developed, and in 1987 gained permission to market, the pharmaceutical "Canasol", one of the first cannabis extracts.[163]

## See also

* Charlotte's Web (cannabis)
* Chinese herbology
* Tilden's Extract
* Zenivol (ZTL-101)
* Medicinal uses of fungi

## References

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3. ↑ Sarris, Jerome; Sinclair, Justin; Karamacoska, Diana; Davidson, Maggie; Firth, Joseph (2020-01-16). "Medicinal cannabis for psychiatric disorders: a clinically-focused systematic review" (in en). BMC Psychiatry 20 (1): 24. doi:10.1186/s12888-019-2409-8. ISSN 1471-244X. PMID 31948424.
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86. ↑ (in en) Scientific American, "Successful Treatment of Tetanus". Munn & Company. 1880-07-10. p. 25. https://books.google.com/books?id=6ok9AQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
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90. ↑ "Marijuana's journey to legal health treatment: the Canadian experience". CBC News. 17 August 2009. http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/marijuana-s-journey-to-legal-health-treatment-the-canadian-experience-1.799488.
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93. ↑ Ponieman, Natan (3 December 2019). "Brazil Regulates Sale Of Medical Marijuana Products". Benzinga. https://www.benzinga.com/markets/cannabis/19/12/14924387/brazil-regulates-sale-of-medical-marijuana-products.
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98. ↑ "Legal status of cannabis in Finland – An overview". 18 May 2016. https://sensiseeds.com/en/blog/legal-status-cannabis-finland-overview.
99. ↑ Senthilingam, Meera (6 March 2017). "Germany joins the global experiment on marijuana legalization". CNN.com. http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/29/health/global-marijuana-cannabis-laws/index.html.
100. ↑ Revesz, Rachael (3 July 2017). "Greece legalises marijuana for medical purposes". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/greece-marijuana-legal-medical-cannabis-weed-law-passes-a7821771.html.
101. ↑ Schwartz, Yardena (24 August 2017). "How the Booming Israeli Weed Industry Is Changing American Pot". Rollingstone.com. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/how-booming-israeli-weed-industry-is-changing-american-pot-w499117.
102. ↑ Samuels, Gabriel (26 July 2016). "Italian army aims to produce "the best-quality" medical marijuana after finding current batches deficient". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/cannabis-italy-army-medical-marijuana-italian-military-produces-best-quality-weed-a7156176.html.
103. ↑ Bud, Monterey (19 March 2018). "Jamaica's Kaya Farms Becomes First Medical Marijuana Dispensary To Open". marijuana.com. https://www.marijuana.com/news/2018/03/jamaicas-kaya-farms-becomes-first-medical-marijuana-dispensary-to-open.
104. ↑ "Lebanon Legalizes Cannabis Farming for Medicinal Use". The New York Times. Reuters. 21 April 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2020/04/21/world/middleeast/21reuters-lebanon-crisis-cannabis.html.
105. ↑ Pritchard, Heledd (29 June 2018). "Cannabis for medical use legalised in Luxembourg". Luxembourg Times. https://luxtimes.lu/luxembourg/34274-cannabis-for-medical-use-legalised-in-luxembourg.
106. ↑ Pace, Maria (27 March 2018). "Malta has officially legalised medical cannabis". Malta Today. https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/85616/malta_has_officially_legalised_medical_cannabis.
107. ↑ "Morocco: Bill to legalise cannabis enters into force". Middle East Monitor. 31 July 2021. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210731-morocco-bill-to-legalise-cannabis-enters-into-force/.
108. ↑ Ainge Roy, Eleanor (11 December 2018). "New Zealand passes laws to make medical marijuana widely available". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/11/new-zealand-passes-laws-to-make-medical-marijuana-widely-available.
109. ↑ Marusic, Sinisa Jakov (1 June 2016). "Macedonia Allows Medical Marijuana in Pharmacies". Balkan Insight. http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/macedonia-allows-medical-marijuana-in-pharmacies-05-31-2016.
110. ↑ "El gobierno de Panamá legalizó el uso medicinal y terapéutico del cannabis". Infobae. 14 October 2021. https://www.infobae.com/america/america-latina/2021/10/14/el-gobierno-de-panama-legalizo-el-uso-medicinal-y-terapeutico-del-cannabis/.
111. ↑ Collyns, Dan (20 October 2017). "Peru legalises medical marijuana in move spurred by mother's home lab". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/20/peru-marijuana-cannabis-legal-terminally-ill-children.
112. ↑ "Medical use of cannabis officially legal in Poland". Radio Poland. PAP. 11 February 2017. http://www.thenews.pl/1/9/Artykul/333153,Medical-use-of-cannabis-officially-legal-in-Poland.
113. ↑ Lamers, Matt (21 June 2018). "Portugal passes medical cannabis law, opens domestic market". Marijuana Business Daily. https://mjbizdaily.com/portugal-passes-medical-cannabis-law-opens-domestic-market/.
114. ↑ Mwai, Collins (29 June 2021). "10 things to know after Rwanda gives the green light for medical marijuana". The New Times. https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/187172/News/10-things-to-know-after-rwanda-gives-the-green-light-for-medical-marijuana.
115. ↑ South Asia Regional Profile, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 15 September 2005, https://www.unodc.org/pdf/india/publications/south_Asia_Regional_Profile_Sept_2005/13_srilanka.pdf, retrieved 2 February 2019
116. ↑ "Switzerland to legalise medicinal cannabis from Monday". The Local. 28 July 2022. https://www.thelocal.ch/20220728/switzerland-to-legalise-medicinal-cannabis-from-monday.
117. ↑ Mosbergen, Dominique (25 December 2018). "Thailand Approves Medical Marijuana In Regional First". HuffPost. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/thailand-medical-marijuana_us_5c22e6aae4b0407e907e7c18.
118. ↑ "Medicinal cannabis products to be legalised". BBC. 26 July 2018. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-44968386.
119. ↑ "Sativex (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol)". https://www.gwpharm.com/products-pipeline/sativex-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-and-cannabidiol.
120. ↑ Medical use of cannabis and cannabinoids, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, December 2018, http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/10171/20185584_TD0618186ENN_PDF.pdf, retrieved 11 December 2019
121. ↑ Sapra, Bani (20 June 2018). "Canada becomes second nation in the world to legalize marijuana". CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/20/health/canada-legalizes-marijuana/index.html.
122. ↑ Ives, Mike (10 November 2022). "Weed Is Now Legal in Thailand. How Long Will the High Times Last?". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/10/world/asia/thailand-weed-cannabis-law.html.
123. ↑ Janikian, Michelle (14 September 2017). "Legal Pot In Mexico: Everything You Need to Know". Rolling Stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/legal-pot-in-mexico-everything-you-need-to-know-w503038.
124. ↑ Habibi, Roojin; Hoffman, Steven J. (March 2018). "Legalizing Cannabis Violates the UN Drug Control Treaties, But Progressive Countries Like Canada Have Options". Ottawa Law Review 49 (2). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323697447. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
125. ↑ "Classification of controlled drugs". https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/topic-overviews/classification-of-controlled-drugs/html_en.
126. ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2010). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board on the Availability of Internationally Controlled Drugs: Ensuring Adequate Access for Medical and Scientific Purposes. Vienna: United Nations. https://syntheticdrugs.unodc.org/uploads/syntheticdrugs/res/library/access_html/2010.pdf.
127. ↑ IGHRDP; UNDP; UNAIDS; OHCHR; WHO (2012). "Obligations arising from human rights standards: Access to controlled substances as medicines". University of Essex. https://www.humanrights-drugpolicy.org/guidelines/obligations-arising-from-human-rights-standards/access-to-controlled-substances-as-medicines/.
128. ↑ Kaur, Harmeet (2 December 2020). "The UN removes cannabis from a list of the most dangerous substances". CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/02/health/un-reclassifies-cannabis-scn-trnd/index.html.
129. ↑ Kwai, Isabella (2 December 2020). "U.N. Reclassifies Cannabis as a Less Dangerous Drug". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/02/world/europe/cannabis-united-nations-drug-policy.html.
130. ↑ "WHO recommends rescheduling of cannabis". European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 25 March 2019. https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/news/2019/who-recommends-rescheduling-of-cannabis_en.
131. ↑ Georgiou, Aristos (8 February 2019). "WHO Recommends Rescheduling Cannabis in International Law for First Time in History". Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/who-recommends-rescheduling-cannabis-international-law-first-time-history-1324613.
132. ↑ Ingraham, Christopher (13 June 2017). "Jeff Sessions personally asked Congress to let him prosecute medical-marijuana providers". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/06/13/jeff-sessions-personally-asked-congress-to-let-him-prosecute-medical-marijuana-providers/.
133. ↑ Clark, Amy (16 May 2006). ""New" Pot Pill For Chemo Patients". CBS News. Associated Press. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-pot-pill-for-chemo-patients/.
134. ↑ "Final Rule: Placement of FDA-Approved Products of Oral Solutions Containing Dronabinol [(-)-delta-9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-THC) in Schedule II"]. https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2017/fr1122_6.htm.
135. ↑ Matussek, Karin; Wind, Sonja (7 February 2026). "Online Cannabis Sales Are Booming in Germany—and the Government Is Racing to Catch Up". Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2026-02-07/online-cannabis-sales-are-booming-in-germany.
136. ↑ Stevens, Ben (26 February 2025). "German Cannabis Imports Double in 2024, but Political Pressure Builds On Flourishing Medical Market". Business of Cannabis. https://businessofcannabis.com/german-cannabis-imports-double-in-2024-but-political-pressure-builds-on-flourishing-medical-market/.
137. ↑ Hogg, Bernadette (8 October 2025). "Germany restricts online cannabis sales amid import boom". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/germany-restrict-online-cannabis-sales-curb-ballooning-imports-2025-10-08/.
138. ↑ Timothy B. Wheeler (11 October 2014). "Medical marijuana fees stir debate in Maryland". The Baltimore Sun. http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/sun-investigates/bs-md-medical-marijuana-fees-20141011,0,3253557.story?page=1.
139. ↑ Blackwell, Tom (16 October 2013). "The pot vending machine's first foreign market? Canada, of course, "a seed for the rest of the world"". National Post. https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/pot-vending-machines-to-start-rolling-into-canada-after-firm-partners-with-u-s-company.
140. ↑ "Uber-For-Weed Startup Meadow Lights Up In San Francisco". TechCrunch. AOL. 14 October 2014. https://techcrunch.com/2014/10/14/uber-for-weed-startup-meadow-lights-up-in-san-francisco/.
141. ↑ "The UK is the world's largest producer of legal Cannabis, UN body finds" (in en). 2018-03-07. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/cannabis-legal-uk-worlds-largest-producer-marijuana-weed-un-body-findings-a8243921.html.
142. ↑ Clark, Tonya Body (10 February 2015). "The Medical Marijuana Debate". Wolters Kluwer Financial Services. http://www.insurancecompliancecorner.com/the-medical-marijuana-debate/.
143. ↑ Peters, Joey (29 June 2015). "Court: Employer can't block workers' comp for medical marijuana". http://nmpoliticalreport.com/4483/court-employer-cant-block-workers-comp-for-medical-marijuana/.
144. ↑ "Resolution on Medical Marijuana". http://druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/apha.htm.
145. ↑ "House of Delegates 2017, Resolution: A8". American Medical Student Association. http://www.amsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/A8-Principles-Regarding-Illegal-drugs-alcohol-and-tobacco-1.pdf.
146. ↑ "Medical Marijuana (Cannabis) FAQs". http://www.nationalmssociety.org/Treating-MS/Complementary-Alternative-Medicines/Marijuana/Marijuana-FAQs.
147. ↑ Gattone PM, Lammert W (20 February 2014). "Epilepsy Foundation Calls for Increased Medical Marijuana Access and Research" (Press release). Washington, D.C.: Epilepsy Foundation. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
148. ↑ "Medical Marijuana Use and Research". Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. https://www.maps.org/research-archive/mmj/lnls-res.pdf.
149. ↑ "Position Statement on Marijuana as Medicine". https://www.psychiatry.org/file library/about-apa/organization-documents-policies/policies/position-2013-marijuana-as-medicine.pdf.
150. ↑ Use of Cannabis for Medicinal Purposes, American Medical Association, 2009, https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/default/files/media-browser/public/about-ama/councils/Council Reports/council-on-science-public-health/i09-csaph-medical-marijuana.pdf, retrieved 1 July 2017
151. ↑ Supporting Research into the Therapeutic Role of Marijuana, American College of Physicians, February 2016, https://www.acponline.org/acp_policy/policies/supporting_research_therapeutic_role_of_marijuana_2016.pdf, retrieved 1 August 2017
152. ↑ "ASAM Issues New Public Policy Statement on Cannabis" (Press release). Rockville, MD: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 13 October 2020. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
153. ↑ American Heart Association (5 August 2020). "Medical Marijuana, Recreational Cannabis, and Cardiovascular Health". Circulation 142 (10): e131–52. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000883. PMID 32752884.
154. ↑ "Marijuana and Cancer". https://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatments-and-side-effects/complementary-and-alternative-medicine/marijuana-and-cancer.html.
155. ↑ "Marijuana research: Overcoming the barriers". American Psychological Association. 14 September 2017. http://advocacy.apascience.org/blog/2017/9/13/marijuana-research-overcoming-the-barriers.
156. ↑ Arney, Kat (25 July 2012). "Cannabis, cannabinoids and cancer – the evidence so far". Cancer Research UK. http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2012/07/25/cannabis-cannabinoids-and-cancer-the-evidence-so-far/.
157. ↑ World Health Organization (1984). "List of Proposed INNs No. 51". WHO Chronicle 38 (2): 6. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/pl51.pdf?sfvrsn=3ded55af_9&download=true.
158. ↑ World Health Organization (1984). "List of Recommended INNs No. 24". WHO Chronicle 38 (6): 4. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/rl24.pdf?sfvrsn=99779214_6&download=true.
159. ↑ Riboulet-Zemouli, Kenzi (2020). "'Cannabis' ontologies I: Conceptual issues with Cannabis and cannabinoids terminology" (in en). Drug Science, Policy and Law 6: 205032452094579. doi:10.1177/2050324520945797. ISSN 2050-3245.
160. ↑ World Health Organization (2017). "List of Recommended INNs No. 77". WHO Drug Information 31 (1): 75. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/rl77.pdf?sfvrsn=c1e6fc91_6&download=true.
161. ↑ "Medical use of cannabis and cannabinoids containing products – Regulations in Europe and North America". European Journal of Internal Medicine 49: 2–6. March 2018. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2018.01.001. PMID 29329891.
162. ↑ "Produkt – FASS Allmänhet". fass.se. http://www.fass.se/LIF/product?1&docType=6&specId&userType&nplId=20101019000051.
163. ↑ Youssef, Farid F. (June 2010). "Cannabis Unmasked: What it is and why it does what it does". UWIToday. https://sta.uwi.edu/uwitoday/archive/june_2010/article9.asp.

## Further reading

* National Academies Of Sciences, Engineering; Health Medicine, Division; Board on Population Health Public Health Practice; Committee on the Health Effects of Marijuana: An Evidence Review Research Agenda (2017). The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research. The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/24625. ISBN 978-0-309-45304-2. http://nationalacademies.org/hmd/reports/2017/health-effects-of-cannabis-and-cannabinoids.aspx. Retrieved 7 February 2017.

## External links

, links to websites about medical cannabis

* Information on Cannabis and Cannabinoids from the U.S. National Cancer Institute
* Information on cannabis (marihuana, marijuana) and the cannabinoids from Health Canada
* The Center for Medicinal Cannabis Research of the University of California
* Medical Marijuana – a 2014–2015 three-part CNN documentary produced by Sanjay Gupta
* "Marijuana and Medical Marijuana collected news and commentary". http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/m/marijuana/index.html.

* v
* t
* e

Cannabis plant

* Outline of cannabis
* Recreational and medical applications
* Industrial applications

General|

* Autoflowering cannabis
* Cannabis
* indica
* ruderalis
* sativa
* Difference between C. indica and C. sativa
* Consumption
* Cultivation
* Etymology (cannabis, dagga, ganja, ma, marijuana)
* Glossary
* Cannabis strains
* Synthetic cannabis

Usage|

| General|

* Medical cannabis
* Cannabis product testing
* History
* In the US
* Medical cannabis card
* Research

* Timeline
* Religious and spiritual use
* Chalice
* Occupational health concerns of cannabis use

|

Hemp|

* Hanfparade
* List of hemp diseases
* List of hemp products
* hempcrete
* jewelry
* milk
* oil
* paper
* rolling paper
* List of hemp varieties
* Hemp for Victory
* Hemp Industries Association
* The Emperor Wears No Clothes

Variants|

* Cannabis edible
* Bhang
* Cannabis tea
* Cannabis smoking
* Vaporizing

* Cannabis concentrate
* Essential oil
* Charas
* Hash oil
* Hashish
* Kief
* Tincture

* Phytocannabinoids
* Cannabidiol (CBD)
* Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

Effects|

* Amotivational syndrome
* Cannabis in pregnancy
* Cannabis use disorder (CUD)
* Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS)
* Entourage effect
* Endocannabinoid system
* Impaired driving
* Time perception
* Long-term

Culture|

* 420
* Budtender
* Cannabis Culture
* Cannabis Social Club
* Competitions
* Films (Stoner film)
* High Times
* Music
* Religion
* Head shop
* KBUD-AM (defunct)
* Operation Overgrow
* Stoner TV

Pro-cannabis
organizations|

* ACT
* ALCP
* AMMA
* ASA
* CBN
* CCRMG
* CLEAR
* CRC
* DFCR
* DPA
* FAAAT
* FCA
* GMM
* LEAP
* MAPS
* MPP
* NCIA
* NORML
* SAFER
* SCC
* SSDP
* VMCA

Use demographics|

* Adult lifetime use by country
* Annual use by country

Politics|

| General|

* Bootleggers and Baptists
* Drug testing
* Cannabis rights
* Capital punishment for cannabis trafficking
* Effects of legalized cannabis
* Global Marijuana March
* Legality of cannabis
* Legal history in the United States
* Marijuana Anonymous (MA)
* Marijuana Control, Regulation, and Education Act
* Marihuana Tax Act of 1937

|

Major legal
reforms|

* Canada: 2018 Cannabis Act
* UK: Return to class B
* Uruguay: Law No. 19172
* US:
* Decriminalization of non-medical use
* Rescheduling per the Controlled Substances Act
* Hemp Farming Act of 2018

Politicians
and parties|

* Cannabis political parties
* List of British politicians who have acknowledged cannabis use
* List of American politicians who have acknowledged cannabis use

Legal cases|

* Ker v. California (1963)
* Leary v. United States (1969)
* Gonzales v. Raich (2005)
* Kyllo v. United States (2001)
* ADPF 187 (2011)

*   * Category

Articles related to medical cannabis

* v
* t
* e

Ancient anaesthesia

Plants / animals|

* Aconitum (aconite)
* Atropa belladonna (belladonna)
* Cannabis
* medical use
* Castoreum
* Coca
* Conium (hemlock)
* Datura innoxia (thorn-apple)
* Datura metel (devil's trumpet)
* Hyoscyamus niger (henbane)
* Lactucarium
* Mandragora officinarum (mandrake)
* Opium
* Saussurea (saw-wort)
* Willow

People|

* Abulcasis
* Avenzoar
* Avicenna
* Celsus
* Dioscorides
* Galen
* Hippocrates
* Rhazes
* Sabuncuoğlu
* Sushrutha
* Theophrastus
* Zhang

Compounds|

* Aconitine
* Atropine
* Cocaine
* Coniine
* Hyoscine
* Δ9-THC
* Hyoscyamine
* Morphine
* Salicylate

* v
* t
* e

Cannabinoid receptor modulators

Receptor
(ligands)</small>|

| CB1|

* Agonists (abridged; see here for more): 2-AG
* 2-AGE (noladin ether)
* 11-Hydroxy-THC
* α-Amyrin · β-Amyrin
* AB-CHMINACA
* AM-1172
* AM-1220
* AM-1221
* AM-1235
* AM-2201
* AM-2232
* Anandamide
* Arvanil
* AZ-11713908
* Cannabinol
* CB-13
* CP 47,497
* CP 55,940
* Dimethylheptylpyran
* DEA
* ECG
* EGCG
* Epicatechin
* Gallocatechol (gallocatechin)
* Honokiol
* HU-210
* JWH-007
* JWH-015
* JWH-018
* JWH-073
* Kavain
* L-759,633
* Levonantradol
* Menabitan
* Nabilone
* Nabitan
* NADA
* O-1812
* Oleamide
* Pravadoline
* Serinolamide A
* THC (dronabinol)
* UR-144
* WIN 55,212-2
* Yangonin

* Antagonists: AM-251
* AM-6545
* Cannabidiol
* Cannabigerol
* Drinabant
* Falcarinol (carotatoxin)
* Hemopressin
* Ibipinabant
* LY-320,135
* MK-9470
* NESS-0327
* O-2050
* Otenabant
* PF-514273
* PipISB
* Rimonabant
* Rosonabant
* Surinabant
* Taranabant
* THCV
* TM-38837
* VCHSR
* Virodhamine

* Antibodies: Brizantin (Бризантин)
* Dietressa (Диетресса)

* Unknown/unsorted: MAFP

|

CB2|

* Agonists: 2-AG
* 2-AGE (noladin ether)
* 3,3'-Diindolylmethane
* 4-O-Methylhonokiol
* α-Amyrin · β-Amyrin
* A-796,260
* A-834,735
* A-836,339
* AM-1172
* AM-1221
* AM-1235
* AM-1241
* AM-2232
* Anandamide
* AZ-11713908
* Cannabinol
* Caryophyllene
* CB-13
* CBS-0550
* CP 55,940
* GW-405,833 (L-768,242)
* GW-842,166X
* HU-308
* JTE 7-31
* JWH-007
* JWH-015
* JWH-018
* JWH-73
* JWH-133
* L-759,633
* L-759,656
* Lenabasum (anabasum)
* Magnolol
* MDA-19
* Nabitan
* NADA
* Olorinab (APD-371)
* PF-03550096
* S-444,823
* SER-601
* Serinolamide A
* UR-144
* Tedalinab
* THC (dronabinol)
* THCV
* Tetrahydromagnolol
* Virodhamine

* Antagonists: 4-O-Methylhonokiol
* AM-630
* BML-190
* Cannabidiol
* Honokiol
* JTE-907
* SR-144,528
* WIN 54,461
* WIN 56,098

NAGly
(GPR18)|

* Agonists: Abnormal cannabidiol
* ACPA
* AM251
* Anandamide
* Cannabidiol
* NADGly
* THC (dronabinol)
* O-1602

* Antagonists: CID-85469571
* O-1918

GPR55|

* Agonists: 2-AGE (noladin ether)
* 2-ALPI
* Abnormal cannabidiol
* AM-251
* CID1011163
* CID1252842
* CID1792579
* CP 55,940
* GSK-494581A
* Lysophosphatidylinositol
* ML-184
* ML-185
* ML-186
* O-1602
* Oleoylethanolamide
* Palmitoylethanolamide
* THC (dronabinol)

* Antagonists: Cannabidiol
* CID-16020046
* ML-191
* ML-192
* ML-193
* O-1918
* PSB-SB-487
* PSB-SB-1202
* PSB-SB-1203
* Tetrahydromagnolol

GPR119|

* Agonists: 2-Oleoylglycerol
* Anandamide
* APD668
* AR-231,453
* AS-1269574
* MBX-2982
* N-Oleoyldopamine
* Oleoylethanolamide
* Olvanil
* PSN-375,963
* PSN-632,408

Unsorted|

* Agonists: Revosimeline

Transporter
(modulators)|

| eCBTs|

* Inhibitors: 5'-DMH-CBD
* AM-404
* AM-1172
* Arachidonoyl serotonin
* Arvanil
* Cannabidiol
* Guineensine
* LY-2183240
* O-2093
* OMDM-2
* Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
* SB-FI-26
* UCM-707
* URB-597
* VDM-11
* WOBE490
* WOBE491
* WOBE492

|

Enzyme
(modulators)|

| FAAH|

* Inhibitors: 4-Nonylphenylboronic acid
* AACOCF3
* AM-404
* Arachidonoyl serotonin
* BIA 10-2474
* Biochanin A
* Genistein
* IDFP
* JNJ-1661010
* JNJ-42165279
* JZL-195
* Kaempferol
* LY-2183240
* MAFP
* Palmitoylisopropylamide
* Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
* PF-3845
* PF-04457845
* PF-750
* SA-47
* SA-57
* TAK 21d
* TC-F 2
* UCM710
* URB-597

* Activators: PDP-EA

|

MAGL|

* Inhibitors: ABX-1431
* IDFP
* JJKK 048
* JW 642
* JZL-184
* JZL-195
* JZP-361
* KML 29
* MAFP
* MJN110
* NAM
* Pristimerin
* URB-602

ABHD6|

* Inhibitors: JZP-169
* JZP-430
* KT182
* KT185
* KT195
* KT203
* LEI-106
* ML294
* ML295
* ML296
* UCM710
* WWL-70

ABHD12|

* Inhibitors: Betulinic acid
* Maslinic acid
* MAFP
* Oleanolic acid
* Orlistat (tetrahydrolipstatin)
* Ursolic acid

Others|

* Precursors: Phosphatidylethanolamine
* NAPE
* Diacylglycerol

* Others: 2-PG (directly potentiates activity of 2-AG at CB1 receptor)
* ARN-272 (FAAH-like anandamide transporter inhibitor)

See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Cannabinoids (cannabinoids by structure)

* v
* t
* e

Recreational drug use

Major
recreational
drugs|

| Depressants|

* Barbiturates
* Benzodiazepines
* Carbamates
* Ethanol (alcohol)
* Alcoholic drinks
* Beer
* Wine
* Gabapentinoids
* GHB
* Inhalants
* Medical
* Nitrous oxide
* Hazardous solvents
* contact adhesives
* Gasoline
* nail polish remover
* Paint thinner
* Other
* Freon
* Kava
* Nonbenzodiazepines
* Quinazolinones

|

Opioids|

* Buprenorphine
* Suboxone
* Subutex
* Codeine
* Desomorphine
* Krokodil
* Dextropropoxyphene
* Darvocet
* Darvon
* Fentanyl
* Diamorphine
* Heroin
* Hydrocodone
* Hydromorphone
* Dilaudid
* Methadone
* Mitragyna speciosa
* Kratom
* Morphine
* Opium
* Oxycodone
* /paracetamol
* Tramadol

Stimulants|

* Amphetamine
* Arecoline
* Areca
* Betel
* Caffeine
* Coffee
* Energy drinks
* Tea
* Cathinone
* Khat
* Cocaine
* Coca
* Crack
* Ephedrine
* Ephedra
* MDPV
* Mephedrone
* Methamphetamine
* Methylone
* Methylphenidate
* Modafinil
* Nicotine
* Tobacco
* Theobromine
* Cocoa
* Chocolate

Entactogens|

* 2C series
* 6-APB
* Benzofury
* AMT
* MDA
* MDMA
* Ecstasy

Hallucinogens|

| Psychedelics|

* Bufotenin
* Psychoactive toads
* Vilca
* Yopo
* DMT
* Ayahuasca
* LSA
* LSD-25
* Mescaline
* Peruvian torch
* Peyote
* San Pedro
* Psilocybin / Psilocin
* Psilocybin mushrooms

|

Dissociatives|

* DXM
* Glaucine
* Inhalants
* Nitrous oxide
* alkyl nitrites
* poppers
* amyl nitrite
* Ketamine
* MXE
* Muscimol
* Amanita muscaria
* PCP
* Salvinorin A
* Salvia divinorum

Deliriants|

* Atropine and Scopolamine
* Atropa belladonna
* Datura
* Hyoscyamus niger
* Mandragora officinarum
* Dimenhydrinate
* Diphenhydramine

Cannabinoids|

* JWH-018
* THC
* Cannabis
* Hashish
* Hash oil
* Marijuana

Oneirogens|

* Calea zacatechichi
* Silene capensis

Club drugs|

* Cocaine
* Quaaludes
* MDMA (Ecstasy)
* Nitrous oxide
* Poppers

Drug culture|

| Cannabis culture|

* 420
* Cannabis cultivation
* Cannabis smoking
* Head shop
* Legal history of cannabis in the United States
* Legality of cannabis
* Marijuana Policy Project
* Medical cannabis
* NORML
* Cannabis and religion
* Stoner film

|

Coffee culture|

* Coffee break
* Coffeehouse
* Latte art
* Tea house

Drinking culture|

* Bartending
* Beer culture
* Beer festival
* Binge drinking
* Diethyl ether
* Drinking games
* Drinking song
* Happy hour
* Hip flask
* Nightclub
* Pub
* Pub crawl
* Sommelier
* Sports bar
* Tailgate party
* Wine bar
* Wine tasting

Psychedelia|

* Psychonautics
* Art
* Drug
* Era
* Experience
* Literature
* Music
* Microdosing
* Therapy

Smoking culture|

* Cigarette card
* Fashion cigarettes
* Cloud-chasing
* Loosie
* Smokeasy
* Smoking fetishism
* Tobacco smoking

Other|

* Club drug
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Dance party
* Drug paraphernalia
* Drug tourism
* Entheogen
* Hippie
* Needle sharing
* Nootropic
* Party and play
* Poly drug use
* Rave
* Religion and drugs
* Self-medication
* Sex and drugs
* Whoonga

Drug
production
and trade|

| Drug
production|

* Coca production in Colombia
* Drug precursors
* Opium production in Afghanistan
* Rolling meth lab

|

Drug trade|

* Illegal drug trade
* Colombia
* Darknet market
* Drug distribution
* Beer shop
* Cannabis shop
* Liquor store
* Liquor license

Issues with
drug use|

* Abuse
* Date rape drug
* Impaired driving
* Drug harmfulness
* Effects of cannabis
* Addiction
* Dependence
* Prevention
* Opioid replacement therapy
* Rehabilitation
* Responsible use
* Drug-related crime
* Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
* Long-term effects of cannabis
* Neurotoxicity
* Overdose
* Passive smoking
* of tobacco or other substances

Legality of
drug use|

| International|

* 1961 Narcotic Drugs
* 1971 Psychotropic Substances
* 1988 Drug Trafficking
* Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs

|

State level|

* Drug policy
* Decriminalization
* Prohibition
* Supply reduction
* Policy reform
* Demand reduction
* Drug Policy Alliance
* Harm reduction
* Law Enforcement Action Partnership
* Liberalization
* Latin America
* Students for Sensible Drug Policy
* Transform Drug Policy Foundation

Drug policy
by country|

* Australia
* Canada
* Germany
* India
* Netherlands
* Portugal
* Slovakia
* Soviet Union
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* United States
* Just Say No
* Office of National Drug Control Policy
* School district drug policies
* California
* Colorado
* Maryland
* Virginia

Other|

* Arguments for and against drug prohibition
* Capital punishment for drug trafficking
* Cognitive liberty
* Designer drug
* Drug court
* Drug possession
* Drug test
* Narc
* Politics of drug abuse
* War on Drugs
* Mexican Drug War
* Plan Colombia
* Philippine Drug War
* Zero tolerance

Lists of
countries by...|

* Alcohol legality
* Alcohol consumption
* Anabolic steroid legality
* Cannabis legality
* Annual use
* Lifetime use
* Cigarette consumption
* Cocaine legality
* Cocaine use
* Methamphetamine legality
* Opiates use
* Psilocybin mushrooms legality
* Salvia legality

Template:Herbal Sedatives

* v
* t
* e

Medicinal herbs and fungi

Herbs|

* Alfalfa
* Aloe vera
* Anise
* Asthma-plant
* Astragalus
* Cannabis
* medical use
* Caraway
* Cardamom
* Chamomile
* Chaparral
* Fenugreek
* Feverfew
* Flaxseed
* Ginger
* Ginkgo
* Ginseng
* Goldenseal
* Lemon balm
* Liquorice
* Marigold
* Marsh-mallow
* Neem
* Opium poppy
* Oregano
* Peppermint
* Purple coneflower
* Rosemary
* Sage
* Star anise
* Summer savory
* Tea tree oil
* Thyme
* Turmeric
* Umckaloabo
* Valerian
* Verbena
* White willow
* Yarrow
* Za'atar

Fungi|

* Almond mushroom
* Chaga mushroom
* Echigoshirayukidake
* Lingzhi mushroom
* Maitake
* Meshima
* Morel mushroom
* Shiitake

Regional practices|

* Chinese herbology
* Indian herbology
* Islamic herbology
* Japanese herbology
* Korean herbology

Related subjects|

* Alternative medicine
* Doctrine of signatures
* Herb garden
* Herbal
* Herbal tea
* Herbalism
* Homeopathy
* Medicinal plants

List of plants used in herbalism

* v
* t
* e

Psychoactive substance-related disorder (F10–F19, 291–292; 303–305)

General|

* SID
* Substance intoxication / Drug overdose
* Substance-induced psychosis
* Withdrawal:
* Craving
* Neonatal withdrawal
* Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome (PAWS)
* SUD
* Substance abuse / Substance-related disorders
* Physical dependence / Psychological dependence / Substance dependence

Combined
substance use|

* SUD
* Polysubstance dependence
* SID
* Combined drug intoxication (CDI)

Alcohol|

| SID|

| Cardiovascular diseases|

* Alcoholic cardiomyopathy
* Alcohol flush reaction

|

Gastrointestinal diseases|

* Alcoholic liver disease (ALD):
* Alcoholic hepatitis
* Auto-brewery syndrome

Endocrine diseases|

* Alcoholic ketoacidosis (AKA)

Nervous
system diseases|

* Alcohol-related dementia (ARD)
* Alcohol intoxication
* Hangover

Neurological
disorders|

* Alcoholic hallucinosis
* Alcoholic polyneuropathy
* Alcohol-related brain damage
* Alcohol withdrawal syndrome:
* Alcoholic hallucinosis
* Delirium tremens (DTs)
* Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
* Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
* Korsakoff syndrome
* Korsakoff psychosis
* Positional alcohol nystagmus (PAN)
* Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS)
* Wernicke encephalopathy (WE)

Respiratory tract diseases|

* Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions
* Alcoholic lung disease

SUD|

* Alcoholism (alcohol use disorder (AUD))
* Binge drinking

Caffeine|

* SID
* Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder
* Caffeine-induced sleep disorder
* Caffeinism
* SUD
* Caffeine dependence

Cannabis|

* SID
* Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS)
* SUD
* Amotivational syndrome
* Cannabis use disorder (CUD)
* Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder

Cocaine|

* SID
* Cocaine intoxication
* Prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE)
* SUD
* Cocaine dependence

Hallucinogen|

* SID
* Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip)
* Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD)

Nicotine|

* SID
* Nicotine poisoning
* Nicotine withdrawal
* SUD
* Nicotine dependence

Opioids|

* SID
* Opioid overdose
* SUD
* Opioid use disorder (OUD)

Sedative /
hypnotic|

* SID
* Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal)
* benzodiazepine: SID
* Benzodiazepine overdose
* Benzodiazepine withdrawal
* SUD
* Benzodiazepine use disorder (BUD)
* Benzodiazepine dependence
* barbiturate: SID
* Barbiturate overdose
* SUD
* Barbiturate dependence

Stimulants|

* SID
* Stimulant psychosis
* amphetamine: SUD
* Amphetamine dependence

Volatile
solvent|

* SID
* Sudden sniffing death syndrome (SSDS)
* Toluene toxicity
* SUD
* Inhalant abuse

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical cannabis. Read more

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Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Medicine:Medical_cannabis&oldid=4355596"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa
*[CB1]: Cannabinoid receptor type 1
*[CB2]: Cannabinoid receptor type 2
*[NAGly]: N-Arachidonyl glycine receptor
*[GPR18]: G protein-coupled receptor 18
*[GPR55]: G protein-coupled receptor 55
*[GPR119]: G protein-coupled receptor 119
*[eCBTs]: Endocannabinoid transporter
*[FAAH]: Fatty acid amide hydrolase
*[ABHD6]: alpha/beta-Hydrolase domain containing 6
*[ABHD12]: alpha/beta-Hydrolase domain containing 12