Near-sightedness

Short description: Problem with distance vision

Near-sightedness

Other names| short-sightedness, myopia
Diagram showing changes in the eye with near-sightedness
Specialty| Ophthalmology, optometry
Symptoms| Distant objects appear blurry, close objects appear normal, headaches, eye strain[1]
Complications| Retinal detachment, cataracts, glaucoma[2]
Causes| Combination of genetic and environmental factors[2]
Risk factors| Near work, greater time spent indoors, family history[2][3]
Diagnostic method| Eye examination[1]
Prevention| Unknown
Treatment| Eyeglasses, contact lenses, surgery[1]
Frequency| 1.5 billion people (22%)[2][4]

Near-sightedness, also known as myopia and short-sightedness, is an eye disease[5] where light focuses in front of, instead of on, the retina.[1][2] As a result, distant objects appear blurry while close objects appear normal.[1] Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain.[1] Severe near-sightedness is associated with an increased risk of retinal detachment, cataracts, and glaucoma.[2]

Myopia results from the length of the eyeball growing too long or less commonly the lens being too strong.[1][6] It is a type of refractive error.[1] Diagnosis is by eye examination.[1]

Tentative evidence indicates that the risk of near-sightedness can be decreased by having young children spend more time outside.[7][8] This decrease in risk may be related to natural light exposure.[9] Near-sightedness can be corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or by refractive surgery.[1] Eyeglasses are the simplest and safest method of correction.[1] Contact lenses can provide a relatively wider corrected field of vision, but are associated with an increased risk of infection.[1] Refractive surgeries like LASIK and PRK permanently change the shape of the cornea. Surgeries like Implantable Collamer Lens (ICL) implant a lens inside the anterior chamber in front of the natural eye lens. ICL doesn't affects the cornea. [1]

Near-sightedness is the most common eye problem and is estimated to affect 1.5 billion people (22% of the world population).[2][4] Rates vary significantly in different areas of the world.[2] Rates among adults are between 15% to 49%.[3][10] Among children, it affects 1% of rural Nepalese, 4% of South Africans, 12% of people in the US, and 37% in some large Chinese cities.[2][3] In China the proportion of girls is slightly higher than boys.[11] Rates have increased since the 1950s.[10] Uncorrected near-sightedness is one of the most common causes of vision impairment globally along with cataracts, macular degeneration, and vitamin A deficiency.[10]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Signs and symptoms
* 3 Causes
* 3.1 Genetics
* 3.2 Environmental factors
* 4 Mechanism
* 5 Diagnosis
* 5.1 Types
* 5.2 Degree
* 5.3 Age at onset
* 6 Prevention
* 6.1 Glasses and contacts
* 6.2 Medication
* 6.3 Other methods
* 7 Treatment
* 7.1 Glasses and contacts
* 7.2 Surgery
* 7.2.1 Photorefractive keratectomy
* 7.2.2 LASIK
* 7.2.3 Phakic intra-ocular lens
* 7.3 Orthokeratology
* 7.4 Intrastromal corneal ring segment
* 7.5 Alternative medicine
* 8 Epidemiology
* 8.1 Asia
* 8.2 Europe
* 8.3 North America
* 8.4 Australia
* 8.5 South America
* 9 History
* 10 Society and culture
* 10.1 Correlations
* 11 See also
* 12 References
* 13 External links

## Etymology

The term myopia is of Koine Greek origin: μυωπία myōpia 'short-sight' and μυωπίασις (myōpiasis) 'short-sight-ness'. It is derived from the ancient Greek μύωψ (myōps) 'short-sighted (man), (man) with eyes getting shut', from μύειν (myein) 'to shut the eyes' and ὤψ (ōps) 'eye, look, sight' (GEN ὠπός (ōpos)).[12][13][14][15][16] The opposite of myopia in English is hyperopia, or far-sightedness.

## Signs and symptoms

Near-sighted vision (top/left), normal vision (bottom/right)

A near-sighted individual can see clearly out to a certain distance (the far point of the eye), but objects placed beyond this distance appear blurred. If the extent of the myopia is great enough, even standard reading distances can be affected. Upon routine examination of the eyes, the vast majority of myopic eyes appear structurally identical to nonmyopic eyes.[citation needed]

Onset is often in school children, with worsening between the ages of 8 and 15.[17]

## Causes

The underlying cause is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors.[2] Risk factors include doing work that involves focusing on close objects, greater time spent indoors, urbanization, and a family history of the condition.[2][3][18][19] It is also associated with a high socioeconomic class and higher level of education.[2][19]

A 2012 review could not find strong evidence for any single cause, although many theories have been discredited.[20] Twin studies indicate that at least some genetic factors are involved.[17][21][22] Myopia has been increasing rapidly throughout the developed world, suggesting environmental factors are involved.[23]

A single-author literature review in 2021 proposed that myopia is the result of corrective lenses interfering with emmetropization.[24]

### Genetics

A risk for myopia may be inherited from one's parents.[25] Genetic linkage studies have identified 18 possible loci on 15 different chromosomes that are associated with myopia, but none of these loci is part of the candidate genes that cause myopia. Instead of a simple one-gene locus controlling the onset of myopia, a complex interaction of many mutated proteins acting in concert may be the cause. Instead of myopia being caused by a defect in a structural protein, defects in the control of these structural proteins might be the actual cause of myopia.[26] A collaboration of all myopia studies worldwide identified 16 new loci for refractive error in individuals of European ancestry, of which 8 were shared with Asians. The new loci include candidate genes with functions in neurotransmission, ion transport, retinoic acid metabolism, extracellular matrix remodeling and eye development. The carriers of the high-risk genes have a tenfold increased risk of myopia.[27] Aberrant genetic recombination and gene splicing in the OPNLW1 and OPNMW1 genes that code for two retinal cone photopigment proteins can produce high myopia by interfering with refractive development of the eye.

This article needs attention from an expert in medicine. The specific problem is: Article doesn't mention recent important discoveries about genetic control of refractive development.. WikiProject Medicine may be able to help recruit an expert. (February 2022)

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[28][29]

Human population studies suggest that contribution of genetic factors accounts for 60–90% of variance in refraction.[30][31][32][33] However, the currently identified variants account for only a small fraction of myopia cases, suggesting the existence of a large number of yet unidentified low-frequency or small-effect variants, which underlie the majority of myopia cases.[34]

### Environmental factors

Environmental factors which increase the risk of nearsightedness include insufficient light exposure, low physical activity, near work, and increased year of education.[17]

One hypothesis is that a lack of normal visual stimuli causes improper development of the eyeball. Under this hypothesis, "normal" refers to the environmental stimuli that the eyeball evolved to.[35] Modern humans who spend most of their time indoors, in dimly or fluorescently lit buildings may be at risk of development of myopia.[35]

People, and children especially, who spend more time doing physical exercise and outdoor play have lower rates of myopia,[36][35][37][38][39] suggesting the increased magnitude and complexity of the visual stimuli encountered during these types of activities decrease myopic progression. There is preliminary evidence that the protective effect of outdoor activities on the development of myopia is due, at least in part, to the effect of long hours of exposure to daylight on the production and the release of retinal dopamine.[23][40][41][42]

Myopia can be induced with minus spherical lenses,[43] and overminus in prescription lenses can induce myopia progression.[44][45] Overminus during refraction can be avoided through various techniques and tests, such as fogging, plus to blur, and the duochrome test.[45]

The near work hypothesis, also referred to as the "use-abuse theory" states that spending time involved in near work strains the intraocular and extraocular muscles. Some studies support the hypothesis, while other studies do not.[3] While an association is present, it is not clearly causal.[3]

Nearsightedness is also more common in children with diabetes, childhood arthritis, uveitis, and systemic lupus erythematosus.[17]

## Mechanism

Because myopia is a refractive error, the physical cause of myopia is comparable to any optical system that is out of focus. Borish and Duke-Elder classified myopia by these physical causes:[46][47]

* Axial myopia is attributed to an increase in the eye's axial length [48]
* Refractive myopia is attributed to the condition of the refractive elements of the eye.[48] Borish further subclassified refractive myopia:[46]
* Curvature myopia is attributed to excessive, or increased, curvature of one or more of the refractive surfaces of the eye, especially the cornea.[48] In those with Cohen syndrome, myopia appears to result from high corneal and lenticular power.[49]
* Index myopia is attributed to variation in the index of refraction of one or more of the ocular media.[48]

As with any optical system experiencing a defocus aberration, the effect can be exaggerated or masked by changing the aperture size. In the case of the eye, a large pupil emphasizes refractive error and a small pupil masks it. This phenomenon can cause a condition in which an individual has a greater difficulty seeing in low-illumination areas, even though there are no symptoms in bright light, such as daylight.[50]

Under rare conditions, edema of the ciliary body can cause an anterior displacement of the lens, inducing a myopia shift in refractive error.[51]

## Diagnosis

A diagnosis of myopia is typically made by an eye care professional, usually an optometrist or ophthalmologist. During a refraction, an autorefractor or retinoscope is used to give an initial objective assessment of the refractive status of each eye, then a phoropter is used to subjectively refine the patient's eyeglass prescription. Other types of refractive error are hyperopia, astigmatism, and presbyopia.[1]

### Types

Various forms of myopia have been described by their clinical appearance:[47][52][53]

* Simple myopia: Myopia in an otherwise normal eye, typically less than 4.00 to 6.00 diopters.[54] This is the most common form of myopia.
* Degenerative myopia, also known as malignant, pathological, or progressive myopia, is characterized by marked fundus changes, such as posterior staphyloma, and associated with a high refractive error and subnormal visual acuity after correction.[48] This form of myopia gets progressively worse over time. Degenerative myopia has been reported as one of the main causes of visual impairment.[55]
* Pseudomyopia is the blurring of distance vision brought about by spasm of the accommodation system.[56]
* Nocturnal myopia: Without adequate stimulus for accurate accommodation, the accommodation system partially engages, pushing distance objects out of focus.[54]
* Nearwork-induced transient myopia (NITM): short-term myopic far point shift immediately following a sustained near visual task.[57] Some authors argue for a link between NITM and the development of permanent myopia.[58]
* Instrument myopia: over-accommodation when looking into an instrument such as a microscope.[53]
* Induced myopia, also known as acquired myopia, results from various medications, increases in glucose levels, nuclear sclerosis, oxygen toxicity (e.g., from diving or from oxygen and hyperbaric therapy) or other anomalous conditions.[54] Sulphonamide therapy can cause ciliary body edema, resulting in anterior displacement of the lens, pushing the eye out of focus.[51] Elevation of blood-glucose levels can also cause edema (swelling) of the crystalline lens as a result of sorbitol accumulating in the lens. This edema often causes temporary myopia. Scleral buckles, used in the repair of retinal detachments may induce myopia by increasing the axial length of the eye.[59]
* Index myopia is attributed to variation in the index of refraction of one or more of the ocular media.[48] Cataracts may lead to index myopia.[60]
* Form deprivation myopia occurs when the eyesight is deprived by limited illumination and vision range,[61] or the eye is modified with artificial lenses[62] or deprived of clear form vision.[63] In lower vertebrates, this kind of myopia seems to be reversible within short periods of time. Myopia is often induced this way in various animal models to study the pathogenesis and mechanism of myopia development.[64]

### Degree

The degree of myopia is described in terms of the power of the ideal correction, which is measured in diopters:[65]

* Myopia between −0.00 and −0.50 diopters is usually classified as emmetropia.
* Low myopia usually describes myopia between −0.50 and −3.00 diopters.[48]
* Moderate myopia usually describes myopia between −3.00 and −6.00 diopters.[48] Those with moderate amounts of myopia are more likely to have pigment dispersion syndrome or pigmentary glaucoma.[66]
* High myopia usually describes myopia of −6.00 or more.[48][67] People with high myopia are more likely to have retinal detachments[68] and primary open angle glaucoma.[69] They are also more likely to experience floaters, shadow-like shapes which appear in the field of vision.[70] In addition to this, high myopia is linked to macular degeneration, cataracts, and significant visual impairment.[71][72][73][74]

### Age at onset

Myopia is sometimes classified by the age at onset:[65]

* Congenital myopia, also known as infantile myopia, is present at birth and persists through infancy.[54]
* Youth onset myopia occurs in early childhood or teenage, and the ocular power can keep varying until the age of 21, before which any form of corrective surgery is usually not recommended by ophthalmic specialists around the world.[54]
* School myopia appears during childhood, particularly the school age years.[75] This form of myopia is attributed to the use of the eyes for close work during the school years.[48] A 2004–2015 Singapore–Sydney study of children of Chinese descent found that time spent on outdoor activities was a factor.[76]
* Adult onset myopia

* Early adult onset myopia occurs between ages 20 and 40.[54]
* Late adult onset myopia occurs after age 40.[54]

## Prevention

Various methods have been employed in an attempt to decrease the progression of myopia, although studies show mixed results.[77] Many myopia treatment studies have a number of design drawbacks: small numbers, lack of adequate control group, and failure to mask examiners from knowledge of treatments used. Among myopia specialists, mydriatic eyedrops are the most favored approach, applied by almost 75% in North America and more than 80% in Australia[citation needed]. A 2015 review suggested that increased outdoor time protects young children from myopia.[7] A 2020 study of global practice patterns used by paediatric ophthalmologists to decrease the progression of myopia showed behavioral intervention (counseling to spend more time outdoors and less time with near-work) to be favored by 25% of specialists, usually in addition to medications.[78]

### Glasses and contacts

The use of reading glasses when doing close work may improve vision by reducing or eliminating the need to accommodate. Altering the use of eyeglasses between full-time, part-time, and not at all does not appear to alter myopia progression.[79][80] The American Optometric Association's Clinical Practice Guidelines found evidence of effectiveness of bifocal lenses and recommends it as the method for "myopia control".[54] In some studies, bifocal and progressive lenses have not shown differences in altering the progression of myopia compared to placebo.[77]

In 2019, contact lenses to prevent the worsening of nearsightedness in children were approved for use in the United States. This "MiSight" type claims to work by focusing peripheral light in front of the retina.[81]

### Medication

Anti-muscarinic topical medications in children under 18 years of age may slow the worsening of myopia.[82][83] These treatments include pirenzepine gel, cyclopentolate eye drops, and atropine eye drops. While these treatments were shown to be effective in slowing the progression of myopia, side effects included light sensitivity and near blur.[82]

### Other methods

Scleral reinforcement surgery is aimed to cover the thinning posterior pole with a supportive material to withstand intraocular pressure and prevent further progression of the posterior staphyloma. The strain is reduced, although damage from the pathological process cannot be reversed. By stopping the progression of the disease, vision may be maintained or improved.[84]

## Treatment

Glasses are commonly used to address near-sightedness.

The National Institutes of Health says there is no known way of preventing myopia, and the use of glasses or contact lenses does not affect its progression, unless the glasses or contact lenses are too strong of a prescription.[85] There is no universally accepted method of preventing myopia and proposed methods need additional study to determine their effectiveness.[54] Optical correction using glasses or contact lenses is the most common treatment; other approaches include orthokeratology, and refractive surgery.[54]: 21–26 Medications (mostly atropine) and vision therapy can be effective in addressing the various forms of pseudomyopia.[citation needed]

Compensating for myopia using a corrective lens.

### Glasses and contacts

Prismatic color distortion shown with a camera set for near-sighted focus, and using –9.5 diopter eyeglasses to correct the camera's myopia (left). Close-up of color shifting through corner of eyeglasses. The light and dark borders visible between color swatches do not exist (right).

Corrective lenses bend the light entering the eye in a way that places a focused image accurately onto the retina. The power of any lens system can be expressed in diopters, the reciprocal of its focal length in meters. Corrective lenses for myopia have negative powers because a divergent lens is required to move the far point of focus out to the distance. More severe myopia needs lens powers further from zero (more negative). However, strong eyeglass prescriptions create distortions such as prismatic movement and chromatic aberration. Strongly near-sighted wearers of contact lenses do not experience these distortions because the lens moves with the cornea, keeping the optic axis in line with the visual axis and because the vertex distance has been reduced to zero.[citation needed]

### Surgery

Refractive surgery includes procedures which alter the corneal curvature of some structure of the eye or which add additional refractive means inside the eye.[citation needed]

#### Photorefractive keratectomy

Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) involves ablation of corneal tissue from the corneal surface using an excimer laser. The amount of tissue ablation corresponds to the amount of myopia. While PRK is a relatively safe procedure for up to 6 dioptres of myopia, the recovery phase post-surgery is usually painful.[86][87]

#### LASIK

In a LASIK pre-procedure, a corneal flap is cut into the cornea and lifted to allow the excimer laser beam access to the exposed corneal tissue. After that, the excimer laser ablates the tissue according to the required correction. When the flap again covers the cornea, the change in curvature generated by the laser ablation proceeds to the corneal surface. Though LASIK is usually painless and involves a short rehabilitation period post-surgery, it can potentially result in flap complications and loss of corneal stability (post-LASIK keratectasia).[88][89]

#### Phakic intra-ocular lens

Instead of modifying the corneal surface, as in laser vision correction (LVC), this procedure involves implanting an additional lens inside the eye (i.e., in addition to the already existing natural lens). While it usually results in good control of the refractive change, it can induce potential serious long-term complications such as glaucoma, cataract and endothelial decompensation.[90][91][92]

### Orthokeratology

Main article: Medicine:Orthokeratology

Orthokeratology or simply Ortho-K is a temporary corneal reshaping process using rigid gas permeable (RGP) contact lenses.[93] Overnight wearing of specially designed contact lenses will temporarily reshape cornea, so patients may see clearly without any lenses in daytime. Orthokeratology can correct myopia up to -6D.[94] Several studies shown that Ortho-K can reduce myopia progression also.[95][96] Risk factors of using Ortho-K lenses include microbial keratitis,[95] corneal edema,[97] etc. Other contact lens related complications like corneal aberration, photophobia, pain, irritation, redness etc. are usually temporary conditions, which may be eliminated by proper usage of lenses.[97]

### Intrastromal corneal ring segment

The Intrastromal corneal ring segment (ICRS), commonly used in keratoconus treatment now, was originally designed to correct mild to moderate myopia.[98] The thickness is directly related to flattening and the diameter of the ring is proportionally inverse to the flattening of cornea. So, if diameter is smaller or thickness is greater, resulting myopia correction will be greater.[99]

### Alternative medicine

A number of alternative therapies have been claimed to improve myopia, including vision therapy, "behavioural optometry", various eye exercises and relaxation techniques, and the Bates method.[100] Scientific reviews have concluded that there was "no clear scientific evidence" that eye exercises are effective in treating near-sightedness[101] and as such they "cannot be advocated".[102]

## Epidemiology

Global refractive errors have been estimated to affect 800 million to 2.3 billion.[103] The incidence of myopia within sampled population often varies with age, country, sex, race, ethnicity, occupation, environment, and other factors.[104][105] Variability in testing and data collection methods makes comparisons of prevalence and progression difficult.[106]

The prevalence of myopia has been reported as high as 70–90% in some Asian countries, 30–40% in Europe and the United States, and 10–20% in Africa.[105] Myopia is about twice as common in Jewish people than in people of non-Jewish ethnicity.[107] Myopia is less common in African people and associated diaspora.[104] In Americans between the ages of 12 and 54, myopia has been found to affect African Americans less than Caucasians.[108]

### Asia

Estimated myopia rate in 20-year-olds in Asia.[109]

In some parts of Asia, myopia is very common.

* Singapore is believed to have the highest prevalence of myopia in the world; up to 80% of people there have myopia, but the accurate figure is unknown.[110]
* China 's myopia rate is 31%: 400 million of its 1.3 billion people are myopic. The prevalence of myopia in high school in China is 77%, and in college is more than 80%.[111]
* In some areas, such as China and Malaysia, up to 41% of the adult population is myopic to 1.00 dpt,[112] and up to 80% to 0.5 dpt.[113]
* A study of Jordanian adults aged 17 to 40 found over half (54%) were myopic.[114]
* Some research suggests the prevalence of myopia in Indian children is less than 15%.[115]

### Europe

Myopia rate in Europe by birth decade (1910 to 1970).[116]

* In first-year undergraduate students in the United Kingdom 50% of United Kingdom whites and 53% of British Asians were myopic.[117]
* A recent review found 27% of Western Europeans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 5% have at least −5.00 diopters.[118]

### North America

Myopia is common in the United States , with research suggesting this condition has increased dramatically in recent decades. In 1971–1972, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey provided the earliest nationally representative estimates for myopia prevalence in the U.S., and found the prevalence in persons aged 12–54 was 25%. Using the same method, in 1999–2004, myopia prevalence was estimated to have climbed to 42%.[119]

A study of 2,523 children in grades 1 to 8 (age, 5–17 years) found nearly one in 10 (9%) have at least −0.75 diopters of myopia.[120] In this study, 13% had at least +1.25 D hyperopia (farsightedness), and 28% had at least 1.00-D difference between the two principal meridians (cycloplegic autorefraction) of astigmatism. For myopia, Asians had the highest prevalence (19%), followed by Hispanics (13%). Caucasian children had the lowest prevalence of myopia (4%), which was not significantly different from African Americans (7%).[120]

A recent review found 25% of Americans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 5% have at least −5.00 diopters.[118]

### Australia

In Australia , the overall prevalence of myopia (worse than −0.50 diopters) has been estimated to be 17%.[121] In one recent study, less than one in 10 (8%) Australian children between the ages of four and 12 were found to have myopia greater than −0.50 diopters.[122] A recent review found 16% of Australians aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 3% have at least −5.00 diopters.[118]

### South America

In Brazil , a 2005 study estimated 6% of Brazilians between the ages of 12 and 59 had −1.00 diopter of myopia or more, compared with 3% of the indigenous people in northwestern Brazil.[123] Another found nearly 1 in 8 (13%) of the students in the city of Natal were myopic.[124]

## History

The difference between the near-sighted and far-sighted people was noted already by Aristotle.[125] Graeco-Roman physician Galen first used the term "myopia" (from Greek words "myein" meaning "to close or shut" and "ops" (gen. opos) meaning "eye") for near-sightedness.[125] The first spectacles for correcting myopia were invented by a German cardinal in the year 1451.[126] Johannes Kepler in his Clarification of Ophthalmic Dioptrics (1604) first demonstrated that near-sightedness was due to the incident light focusing in front of the retina. Kepler also showed that near-sightedness could be corrected by concave lenses.[125] In 1632, Vopiscus Fortunatus Plempius examined a myopic eye and confirmed that myopia was due to a lengthening of its axial diameter.[127]

## Society and culture

The terms "myopia" and "myopic" (or the common terms "short-sightedness" or "short-sighted", respectively) have been used metaphorically to refer to cognitive thinking and decision making that is narrow in scope or lacking in foresight or in concern for wider interests or for longer-term consequences.[128] It is often used to describe a decision that may be beneficial in the present, but detrimental in the future, or a viewpoint that fails to consider anything outside a very narrow and limited range. Hyperopia, the biological opposite of myopia, may also be used metaphorically for a value system or motivation that exhibits "farsighted" or possibly visionary thinking and behavior; that is, emphasizing long-term interests at the apparent expense of near-term benefit.[129]

### Correlations

Numerous studies have found correlations between myopia, on the one hand, and intelligence and academic achievement, on the other;[130] it is not clear whether there is a causal relationship.[131] Myopia is also correlated with increased microsaccade amplitude, suggesting that blurred vision from myopia might cause instability in fixational eye movements.[132][133]

## See also

* Myopia in animals
* Myopic crescent
* Instrument myopia

## References

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 "Facts About Refractive Errors". October 2010. https://nei.nih.gov/health/errors/errors.
2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 "Epidemiology of myopia". Eye 28 (2): 202–8. February 2014. doi:10.1038/eye.2013.280. PMID 24406412.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 "Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia". Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics 32 (1): 3–16. January 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2011.00884.x. PMID 22150586.
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5. ↑ "Myopia - EyeWiki". https://eyewiki.aao.org/Myopia.
6. ↑ Ocular anatomy and physiology (2nd ed.). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK. 2008. p. 158. ISBN 9781556427923. https://books.google.com/books?id=Cphm_fxwvl8C&pg=PA158.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "A review of environmental risk factors for myopia during early life, childhood and adolescence". Clinical & Experimental Optometry 98 (6): 497–506. November 2015. doi:10.1111/cxo.12346. PMID 26497977.
8. ↑ "Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta-analysis and systematic review". Acta Ophthalmologica 95 (6): 551–566. September 2017. doi:10.1111/aos.13403. PMID 28251836.
9. ↑ "Myopia and daylight in schools: a neglected aspect of public health?". Perspectives in Public Health 136 (1): 50–5. January 2016. doi:10.1177/1757913915576679. PMID 25800796.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "The age-specific prevalence of myopia in Asia: a meta-analysis". Optometry and Vision Science 92 (3): 258–66. March 2015. doi:10.1097/opx.0000000000000516. PMID 25611765.
11. ↑ "Prevalence And Time Trends Of Myopia In Children And Adolescents In China: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis". Retina (Philadelphia, Pa.) 40 (3): 399–411. March 2020. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000002590. PMID 31259808.
12. ↑ μυωπία, μυωπίασις, μύωψ, μύειν, ὤψ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
13. ↑ Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series. 2. With the assistance of Lucien van Beek. Leiden, Boston: Brill. 2010. pp. 988–9. ISBN 9789004174184.
14. ↑ "μυωπία" (in el). http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/triantafyllides/search.html?lq=μυωπία&dq=.
15. ↑ Template:OED2
16. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "myopia". Online Etymology Dictionary. https://www.etymonline.com/?term=myopia.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 "Update on Myopia Risk Factors and Microenvironmental Changes". Journal of Ophthalmology 2019: 4960852. 2019. doi:10.1155/2019/4960852. PMID 31781378.
18. ↑ "The Association between Near Work Activities and Myopia in Children-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". PLOS ONE 10 (10): e0140419. 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140419. PMID 26485393. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1040419H.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "The Increasing Burden of Myopia in Israel among Young Adults over a Generation: Analysis of Predisposing Factors". Ophthalmology 126 (12): 1617–1626. December 2019. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.06.025. PMID 31474440.
20. ↑ "The cause(s) of myopia and the efforts that have been made to prevent it". Clinical & Experimental Optometry 95 (6): 572–82. November 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1444-0938.2012.00781.x. PMID 22845416.
21. ↑ Cai, Xue-Bi; Shen, Shou-Ren; Chen, De-Fu; Zhang, Qingjiong; Jin, Zi-Bing (2019-11-01). "An overview of myopia genetics" (in en). Experimental Eye Research 188: 107778. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2019.107778. ISSN 0014-4835. PMID 31472110.
22. ↑ Polderman, Tinca J. C.; Benyamin, Beben; de Leeuw, Christiaan A.; Sullivan, Patrick F.; van Bochoven, Arjen; Visscher, Peter M.; Posthuma, Danielle (2015-07-01). "Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies" (in en). Nature Genetics 47 (7): 702–709. doi:10.1038/ng.3285. ISSN 1546-1718. PMID 25985137. https://www.nature.com/articles/ng.3285.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "The myopia boom". Nature 519 (7543): 276–8. March 2015. doi:10.1038/519276a. PMID 25788077. Bibcode: 2015Natur.519..276D.
24. ↑ "The cause of myopia development and progression: Theory, evidence, and treatment". Survey of Ophthalmology 67 (2): 488–509. June 2021. doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2021.06.005. PMID 34181975.
25. ↑ "Myopia (Nearsightedness)" (in en). http://www.aoa.org/patients-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-conditions/myopia.
26. ↑ "A decade in search of myopia genes". Frontiers in Bioscience 15 (1): 359–72. January 2010. doi:10.2741/3625. PMID 20036825.
27. ↑ "Genome-wide meta-analyses of multiancestry cohorts identify multiple new susceptibility loci for refractive error and myopia". Nature Genetics 45 (3): 314–8. March 2013. doi:10.1038/ng.2554. PMID 23396134.
28. ↑ "Intermixing the OPN1LW and OPN1MW Genes Disrupts the Exonic Splicing Code Causing an Array of Vision Disorders". Genes 12 (8): 1180. August 2021. doi:10.3390/genes12081180. PMID 34440353.
29. ↑ "Unique Variants in OPN1LW Cause Both Syndromic and Nonsyndromic X-Linked High Myopia Mapped to MYP1". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 56 (6): 4150–4155. June 2015. doi:10.1167/iovs.14-16356. PMID 26114493.
30. ↑ "Heritability of refractive error and ocular biometrics: the Genes in Myopia (GEM) twin study". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 47 (11): 4756–61. November 2006. doi:10.1167/iovs.06-0270. PMID 17065484.
31. ↑ "Estimating heritability and shared environmental effects for refractive error in twin and family studies". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 50 (1): 126–31. January 2009. doi:10.1167/iovs.08-2385. PMID 18757506.
32. ↑ "Heritability and familial aggregation of refractive error in the Old Order Amish". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 48 (9): 4002–6. September 2007. doi:10.1167/iovs.06-1388. PMID 17724179.
33. ↑ "APLP2 Regulates Refractive Error and Myopia Development in Mice and Humans". PLOS Genetics 11 (8): e1005432. August 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005432. PMID 26313004.
34. ↑ "Quantifying missing heritability at known GWAS loci". PLOS Genetics 9 (12): e1003993. 2013. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003993. PMID 24385918.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Lieberman, Daniel E. (2013) The Story of the Human Body: Evolution, Health, and Disease. New York: Pantheon Books.[page needed]
36. ↑ "Lack of outdoor play linked to short-sighted children". BBC News. 25 October 2011. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-15427954.
37. ↑ "Outdoor activity and myopia in Singapore teenage children". The British Journal of Ophthalmology 93 (8): 997–1000. August 2009. doi:10.1136/bjo.2008.150979. PMID 19211608.
38. ↑ "Outdoor activity reduces the prevalence of myopia in children". Ophthalmology 115 (8): 1279–85. August 2008. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.12.019. PMID 18294691.
39. ↑ "The myopia boom". Nature 519 (7543): 276–8. March 2015. doi:10.1038/519276a. PMID 25788077. Bibcode: 2015Natur.519..276D.
40. ↑ "Effect of day length on eye growth, myopia progression, and change of corneal power in myopic children". Ophthalmology 120 (5): 1074–9. May 2013. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.10.022. PMID 23380471.
41. ↑ "An updated view on the role of dopamine in myopia". Experimental Eye Research 114: 106–19. September 2013. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2013.02.007. PMID 23434455.
42. ↑ "Ocular diurnal rhythms and eye growth regulation: where we are 50 years after Lauber". Experimental Eye Research 114: 25–34. September 2013. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2012.12.013. PMID 23298452.
43. ↑ Nickla, Debora L.; Jordan, Kelsey; Yang, Jane; Totonelly, Kristen (1 August 2017). "Brief hyperopic defocus or form deprivation have varying effects on eye growth and ocular rhythms depending on the time-of-day of exposure". Experimental Eye Research 161: 132–142. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2017.06.003. PMID 28596085.
44. ↑ "Overminus Lenses Associated with Myopia Progression". https://www.reviewofoptometry.com/article/overminus-lenses-associated-with-myopia-progression.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 https://www.optometrystudents.com/pearl/over-minus-you-probably-do-itstop-it/[unreliable medical source?][full citation needed]
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Borish, Irvin M. (1949). Clinical Refraction. Chicago: The Professional Press.
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Duke-Elder, Sir Stewart (1969). The Practice of Refraction (8th ed.). St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company. ISBN 0-7000-1410-1.
48. ↑ 48.00 48.01 48.02 48.03 48.04 48.05 48.06 48.07 48.08 48.09 Dictionary of Visual Science (4th ed.). Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. 1997. ISBN 978-0-7506-9895-5.
49. ↑ "Mechanisms of myopia in Cohen syndrome mapped to chromosome 8q22". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 43 (5): 1686–93. May 2002. PMID 11980891.
50. ↑ The Eyecare Trust. Night Driving – The Facts. OR Eye care advice for driving in the dark 26 January 2005.'
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 "Review of sulfonamide-induced acute myopia and acute bilateral angle-closure glaucoma". Comprehensive Ophthalmology Update 8 (5): 271–6. September 2007. PMID 18201514.
52. ↑ "Myopia". Diagnosis and management in vision care. Boston: Butterworths. 1988. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-409-95082-3. OCLC 14967262.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Instrument myopia--microscopy". American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics 53 (10): 658–63. October 1976. doi:10.1097/00006324-197610000-00003. PMID 1015520.
54. ↑ 54.00 54.01 54.02 54.03 54.04 54.05 54.06 54.07 54.08 54.09 American Optometric Association (1997). ﻿Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline: Care of the Patient with Myopia﻿ (Report). http://www.aoa.org/documents/optometrists/CPG-15.pdf. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
55. ↑ "Low vision and methods of rehabilitation: a comparison between the past and present". Chang Gung Medical Journal 25 (3): 153–61. March 2002. PMID 12022735.
56. ↑ Cassin, B. and Solomon, S. (2001) Dictionary of Eye Terminology. Gainesville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company. ISBN 0937404632.
57. ↑ "Nearwork-induced transient myopia: a critical review". Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology 91 (1): 57–85. 1995. doi:10.1007/BF01204624. PMID 8861637.
58. ↑ "Nearwork-induced transient myopia (NITM) and permanent myopia--is there a link?". Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics 28 (2): 103–14. March 2008. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2008.00550.x. PMID 18339041.
59. ↑ Vukojević, Nenad; Šikić, Jakov; Ćurković, Tihomir; Juratovac, Zlatko; Katušić, Damir; Šarić, Borna; Jukić, Tomislav (20 June 2005). "Axial Eye Length after Retinal Detachment Surgery". Collegium Antropologicum 29 - Supplement 1 (1): 25–27. PMID 16193671. https://hrcak.srce.hr/27915.
60. ↑ "Myopie et cataracte" (in fr). La Revue du Praticien 43 (14): 1784–6. September 1993. OCLC 116851621. PMID 8310218.
61. ↑ "The effect of nearwork illumination level on monkey refraction". American Journal of Optometry & Archives of American Academy of Optometry 39 (2): 60–7. February 1962. doi:10.1097/00006324-196202000-00002. PMID 14009334.
62. ↑ "In a matter of minutes, the eye can know which way to grow". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 46 (7): 2238–41. July 2005. doi:10.1167/iovs.04-0956. PMID 15980206.
63. ↑ "Local retinal regions control local eye growth and myopia". Science 237 (4810): 73–7. July 1987. doi:10.1126/science.3603011. PMID 3603011. Bibcode: 1987Sci...237...73W.
64. ↑ "Inducing form-deprivation myopia in fish". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 46 (5): 1797–803. May 2005. doi:10.1167/iovs.04-1318. PMID 15851585.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 "A review and a suggested classification system for myopia on the basis of age-related prevalence and age of onset". American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics 64 (7): 545–54. July 1987. doi:10.1097/00006324-198707000-00012. PMID 3307441.
66. ↑ "Glaucoma." EyeMDLink.com. Retrieved 27 August 2006.
67. ↑ Zejmo, Maria; Formińska-Kapuścik, Maria; Pieczara, Ewa; Filipek, Erita; Mrukwa-Kominek, Ewa; Samochowiec-Donocik, Elzbieta; Leszczyński, Rafal; Smuzyńska, Magdalena (September 2009). "Etiopathogenesis and management of high-degree myopia. Part I". Medical Science Monitor 15 (9): RA199-202. INIST:21992936. PMID 19721411. https://www.medscimonit.com/abstract/index/idArt/878169.
68. ↑ Retinal Detachment at eMedicine
69. ↑ "More Information on Glaucoma." AgingEye Times. Retrieved 27 August 2006.
70. ↑ "[Retinal detachment]" (in de). Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin Praxis = Revue Suisse de Médecine Praxis 81 (19): 622–5. May 1992. PMID 1589678.
71. ↑ Banerjee S, Horton J. Lenses and Spectacles to Prevent Myopia Worsening in Children [Internet]. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2021 Apr. Available from:[1]
72. ↑ Walline JJ, Walker MK, Mutti DO, et al. Effect of High Add Power, Medium Add Power, or Single-Vision Contact Lenses on Myopia Progression in Children: The BLINK Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2020;324(6):571-580.
73. ↑ Ruiz-Pomeda A, Perez-Sanchez B, Valls I, Prieto-Garrido FL, Gutierrez-Ortega R, Villa-Collar C. MiSight Assessment Study Spain (MASS). A 2-year randomized clinical trial. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2018;256(5):1011-1021.
74. ↑ Garcia-Del Valle AM, Blazquez V, Gros-Otero J, et al. Efficacy and safety of a soft contact lens to control myopia progression. Clin Exp Optom. 2021;104(1):14-21
75. ↑ "How genetic is school myopia?". Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 24 (1): 1–38. January 2005. doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.06.004. PMID 15555525.
76. ↑ "School based program". http://www.smj.org.sg/article/school-based-programme-address-childhood-myopia-singapore.
77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 "Myopia: attempts to arrest progression". The British Journal of Ophthalmology 86 (11): 1306–1311. November 2002. doi:10.1136/bjo.86.11.1306. PMID 12386095.
78. ↑ "Practice patterns to decrease myopia progression differ among paediatric ophthalmologists around the world". The British Journal of Ophthalmology 104 (4): 535–540. April 2020. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2019-314752. PMID 31409647.
79. ↑ "Effects of spectacle intervention on the progression of myopia in children". Optometry and Vision Science 76 (6): 363–9. June 1999. doi:10.1097/00006324-199906000-00015. PMID 10416930.
80. ↑ "Effect of spectacle use and accommodation on myopic progression: final results of a three-year randomised clinical trial among schoolchildren". The British Journal of Ophthalmology 73 (7): 547–51. July 1989. doi:10.1136/bjo.73.7.547. PMID 2667638.
81. ↑ Office of the Commissioner (15 November 2019). "FDA approves first contact lens indicated to slow the progression of nearsightedness in children" (in en). https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-contact-lens-indicated-slow-progression-nearsightedness-children.
82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 "Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1 (1): CD0O6460. 2020. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004916.pub4. PMID 31930781.
83. ↑ "Controlling myopia progression in children and adolescents". Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics 6: 133–40. 2015. doi:10.2147/AHMT.S55834. PMID 26316834.
84. ↑ "The efficacy and safety of posterior pole buckles in the control of progressive high myopia". Eye 23 (12): 2169–74. December 2009. doi:10.1038/eye.2008.433. PMID 19229272.
85. ↑ Near-sightedness . National Institutes of Health. 2010.
86. ↑ "Excimer laser surgery of the cornea". American Journal of Ophthalmology 96 (6): 710–5. December 1983. doi:10.1016/s0002-9394(14)71911-7. PMID 6660257.
87. ↑ "Excimer laser keratectomy for correction of astigmatism". American Journal of Ophthalmology 105 (2): 117–24. February 1988. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(88)90173-0. PMID 3341427.
88. ↑ "Laser in situ keratomileusis to treat myopia: early experience". Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery 23 (1): 39–49. 1997. doi:10.1016/s0886-3350(97)80149-6. PMID 9100106.
89. ↑ "Corneal ectasia induced by laser in situ keratomileusis". Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery 27 (11): 1796–802. November 2001. doi:10.1016/s0886-3350(01)01090-2. PMID 11709254.
90. ↑ "Rate of cataract formation in 343 highly myopic eyes after implantation of three types of phakic intraocular lenses". Journal of Refractive Surgery 20 (4): 317–24. 2004. doi:10.3928/1081-597X-20040701-03. PMID 15307392.
91. ↑ "Posterior chamber phakic intraocular lens to correct myopia: long-term follow-up". Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery 39 (7): 1023–8. July 2013. doi:10.1016/j.jcrs.2013.01.041. PMID 23664355.
92. ↑ "Incidence rate and occurrence of visually significant cataract formation and corneal decompensation after implantation of Verisyse/Artisan phakic intraocular lens". Clinical Ophthalmology 8: 711–6. 2014. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S59878. PMID 24748765.
93. ↑ "Orthokeratology (Ortho-k) - Corneal Reshaping with GP Contacts". https://www.contactlenses.org/orthok.htm.
94. ↑ "Orthokeratology: A Heated Debate Continues" (in en). https://www.ophthalmologyweb.com/Tech-Spotlights/26435-Orthokeratology-A-Heated-Debate-Continues/.
95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 "Orthokeratology slows myopic progression in young patients" (in en). 17 April 2019. https://www.aao.org/editors-choice/orthokeratology-slows-myopic-progression-in-young-.
96. ↑ "Orthokeratology (Ortho-K) treatment for Myopia Prevention and Control". http://www.myopiaprevention.org/orthokeratology.html.
97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 "Consider Ortho-K For Myopia Control". https://www.reviewofoptometry.com/article/consider-ortho-k-for-myopia-control#:~:text=Safety Concerns and Side Effects&text=As with all contact lens,ocular abrasion or visual distortion..
98. ↑ "The use of intracorneal ring segments in keratoconus". Eye and Vision 3: 8. 15 March 2016. doi:10.1186/s40662-016-0040-z. PMID 26981548.
99. ↑ "ICRS: Corneal biomechanics effects". https://eyewiki.aao.org/ICRS:_Corneal_biomechanics_effects#:~:text=Thus, the smaller the diameter,thickness) with higher myopic correction.&text=This flattening effect on the,separation and increased corneal flattening..
100. ↑ Bates, Wm H (1920) Sight Without Glasses . Ch. 10, p. 106. ISBN 1479118540.
101. ↑ "A systematic review of the applicability and efficacy of eye exercises". Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 42 (2): 82–8. 2005. doi:10.3928/01913913-20050301-02. PMID 15825744.
102. ↑ "A critical evaluation of the evidence supporting the practice of behavioural vision therapy". Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics 29 (1): 4–25. January 2009. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2008.00607.x. PMID 19154276.
103. ↑ Dunaway D, Berger I. "Worldwide Distribution of Visual Refractive Errors and What to Expect at a Particular Location" . infocusonline.org.
104. ↑ 104.0 104.1 Phakic Intraocular Lens (IOL) for Myopia Correction at eMedicine
105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 "Myopia". BMJ 324 (7347): 1195–9. May 2002. doi:10.1136/bmj.324.7347.1195. PMID 12016188.
106. ↑ National Research Council Commission (1989). Myopia: Prevalence and Progression , Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, ISBN 0-309-04081-7
107. ↑ Jensen, A.R. (1998) The g Factor. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, ISBN 0275961036
108. ↑ "Prevalence of myopia in the United States". Archives of Ophthalmology 101 (3): 405–7. March 1983. doi:10.1001/archopht.1983.01040010405011. PMID 6830491.
109. ↑ "The epidemics of myopia: Aetiology and prevention". Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 62: 134–149. January 2018. doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.09.004. PMID 28951126.
110. ↑ "Discovery of Gene May Provide Treatment for Near-sightedness". Disabled-world.com. 12 September 2010. http://www.disabled-world.com/disability/types/vision/near-sighted-gene.php. [yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
111. ↑ 全国近视眼人数近4亿 近视已影响国人健康 . Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved on 21 April 2013.
112. ↑ "Comparative study of refractive errors in West Malaysia". The British Journal of Ophthalmology 56 (6): 492–5. June 1972. doi:10.1136/bjo.56.6.492. PMID 5069190.
113. ↑ "Does education explain ethnic differences in myopia prevalence? A population-based study of young adult males in Singapore". Optometry and Vision Science 78 (4): 234–9. April 2001. doi:10.1097/00006324-200104000-00012. PMID 11349931.
114. ↑ "Refractive error and ocular biometry in Jordanian adults". Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics 25 (4): 302–9. July 2005. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2005.00306.x. PMID 15953114.
115. ↑ "Incidence and progression of myopia and associated factors in urban school children in Delhi: The North India Myopia Study (NIM Study)". PLOS ONE 12 (12): e0189774. 2017. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189774. PMID 29253002. Bibcode: 2017PLoSO..1289774S.
116. ↑ "Increasing Prevalence of Myopia in Europe and the Impact of Education". Ophthalmology 122 (7): 1489–97. July 2015. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.03.018. PMID 25983215.
117. ↑ "Ametropia and ocular biometry in a U.K. university student population". Optometry and Vision Science 82 (4): 261–6. April 2005. doi:10.1097/01.OPX.0000159358.71125.95. PMID 15829853.
118. ↑ 118.0 118.1 118.2 "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia". Archives of Ophthalmology 122 (4): 495–505. April 2004. doi:10.1001/archopht.122.4.495. PMID 15078666.
119. ↑ "Increased prevalence of myopia in the United States between 1971-1972 and 1999-2004". Archives of Ophthalmology 127 (12): 1632–9. December 2009. doi:10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.303. PMID 20008719.
120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 "Refractive error and ethnicity in children". Archives of Ophthalmology 121 (8): 1141–7. August 2003. doi:10.1001/archopht.121.8.1141. PMID 12912692.
121. ↑ "Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia". Archives of Ophthalmology 117 (5): 658–63. May 1999. doi:10.1001/archopht.117.5.658. PMID 10326965.
122. ↑ "Little evidence for an epidemic of myopia in Australian primary school children over the last 30 years". BMC Ophthalmology 5: 1. February 2005. doi:10.1186/1471-2415-5-1. PMID 15705207.
123. ↑ "Refractive status of indigenous people in the northwestern Amazon region of Brazil". Optometry and Vision Science 82 (4): 267–72. April 2005. doi:10.1097/01.OPX.0000159371.25986.67. PMID 15829854.
124. ↑ "[Prevalence of refractive errors in students in Northeastern Brazil]". Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia 68 (3): 321–5. June 2005. doi:10.1590/S0004-27492005000300009. PMID 16059562.
125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 125.2 Pathologic Myopia. Springer Science & Business Media. 2013. p. 2. ISBN 978-1461483380. https://books.google.com/books?id=X1u4BAAAQBAJ.
126. ↑ "Myopia - Birth Story". http://birthstory.net/tag/myopia/.
127. ↑ "The biology of myopia". The New England Journal of Medicine 283 (15): 796–800. October 1970. doi:10.1056/NEJM197010082831507. PMID 4917270.
128. ↑ Brooks, David (19 March 2009). Perverse Cosmic Myopia . New York Times.
129. ↑ "Don't Work All the Time". Wired 17 (8). 17 September 2009. https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/magazine/17-08/by_work.
130. ↑ "Phenotypic and genotypic correlation between myopia and intelligence". Scientific Reports 7 (1): 45977. April 2017. doi:10.1038/srep45977. PMID 28383074. Bibcode: 2017NatSR...745977W.
131. ↑ "A novel review of the evidence linking myopia and high intelligence". Journal of Ophthalmology 2015: 271746. 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/271746. PMID 25653868.
132. ↑ "Uncorrected Myopic Refractive Error Increases Microsaccade Amplitude". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 56 (4): 2531–5. April 2015. doi:10.1167/iovs.14-15882. PMID 25678690.
133. ↑ "Microsaccade Characteristics in Neurological and Ophthalmic Disease". Frontiers in Neurology 9: 144. 2018. doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.00144. PMID 29593642.

## External links

Classification|

* ICD-10: H52.1
* ICD-9-CM: 367.1
* MeSH: D009216
* DiseasesDB: 8729

|

External resources|

* MedlinePlus: 001023

* v
* t
* e

* Diseases of the human eye (H00–H59
* 360–379)

Adnexa

| Eyelid|

| Inflammation|

* Stye
* Chalazion
* Blepharitis

|

* Entropion
* Ectropion
* Lagophthalmos
* Blepharochalasis
* Ptosis
* Blepharophimosis
* Xanthelasma

Eyelash|

* Trichiasis
* Madarosis

Lacrimal apparatus|

* Dacryoadenitis
* Epiphora
* Dacryocystitis
* Xerophthalmia

Orbit|

* Exophthalmos
* Enophthalmos
* Orbital cellulitis
* Orbital lymphoma
* Periorbital cellulitis

Conjunctiva|

* Conjunctivitis
* allergic
* Pterygium
* Pinguecula
* Subconjunctival hemorrhage

Globe

| Fibrous tunic|

| Sclera|

* Scleritis
* Episcleritis

|

Cornea|

* Keratitis
* herpetic
* acanthamoebic
* fungal
* Corneal ulcer
* Photokeratitis
* Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
* Corneal dystrophy
* Fuchs'
* Meesmann
* Corneal ectasia
* Keratoconus
* Pellucid marginal degeneration
* Keratoglobus
* Terrien's marginal degeneration
* Post-LASIK ectasia
* Keratoconjunctivitis
* sicca
* Corneal neovascularization
* Kayser–Fleischer ring
* Haab's striae
* Arcus senilis
* Band keratopathy

Vascular tunic|

* Iris
* Ciliary body

* Uveitis
* Intermediate uveitis
* Hyphema
* Rubeosis iridis
* Persistent pupillary membrane
* Iridodialysis
* Synechia

|

Choroid|

* Choroideremia
* Choroiditis
* Chorioretinitis

Lens|

* Cataract
* Congenital cataract
* Childhood cataract
* Aphakia
* Ectopia lentis

Retina|

* Retinitis
* Chorioretinitis
* Cytomegalovirus retinitis
* Retinal detachment
* Retinoschisis
* Ocular ischemic syndrome / Central retinal vein occlusion
* Central retinal artery occlusion
* Branch retinal artery occlusion
* Retinopathy
* diabetic
* hypertensive
* Purtscher's
* of prematurity
* Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
* Coats' disease
* Macular degeneration
* Retinitis pigmentosa
* Retinal haemorrhage
* Central serous retinopathy
* Macular edema
* Epiretinal membrane (Macular pucker)
* Vitelliform macular dystrophy
* Leber's congenital amaurosis
* Birdshot chorioretinopathy

Other|

* Glaucoma / Ocular hypertension / Primary juvenile glaucoma
* Floater
* Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
* Red eye
* Globe rupture
* Keratomycosis
* Phthisis bulbi
* Persistent fetal vasculature / Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous
* Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
* Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy

Pathways

| Optic nerve
Optic disc|

* Optic neuritis
* optic papillitis
* Papilledema
* Foster Kennedy syndrome
* Optic atrophy
* Optic disc drusen

Optic neuropathy|

* Ischemic
* anterior (AION)
* posterior (PION)
* Kjer's
* Leber's hereditary
* Toxic and nutritional

Strabismus
Extraocular muscles
Binocular vision
Accommodation|

| Paralytic strabismus|

* Ophthalmoparesis
* Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
* Kearns–Sayre syndrome

palsies|

* Oculomotor (III)
* Fourth-nerve (IV)
* Sixth-nerve (VI)

Other strabismus|

* Esotropia / Exotropia
* Hypertropia
* Heterophoria
* Esophoria
* Exophoria
* Cyclotropia
* Brown's syndrome
* Duane syndrome

Other binocular|

* Conjugate gaze palsy
* Convergence insufficiency
* Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
* One and a half syndrome

Refraction|

* Refractive error
* Hyperopia
* Myopia
* Astigmatism
* Anisometropia / Aniseikonia
* Presbyopia

Vision disorders
Blindness|

* Amblyopia
* Leber's congenital amaurosis
* Diplopia
* Scotoma
* Color blindness
* Achromatopsia
* Dichromacy
* Monochromacy
* Nyctalopia
* Oguchi disease
* Blindness / Vision loss / Visual impairment

Anopsia|

* Hemianopsia
* binasal
* bitemporal
* homonymous
* Quadrantanopia

subjective|

* Asthenopia
* Hemeralopia
* Photophobia
* Scintillating scotoma

Pupil|

* Anisocoria
* Argyll Robertson pupil
* Marcus Gunn pupil
* Adie syndrome
* Miosis
* Mydriasis
* Cycloplegia
* Parinaud's syndrome

Other|

* Nystagmus
* Childhood blindness

Infections

* Trachoma
* Onchocerciasis

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