Paranoia

Paranoia, in psychiatry, is the belief that everything is about the person who is experiencing the paranoia. Paranoid thinking concerns how the paranoid person thinks. For example, a paranoid person may believe people are concerned with everything they are doing (for example, "Everyone is watching me", or "Talking about me"). These beliefs can also be persecutory beliefs, or beliefs of conspiracy concerning a perceived threat towards oneself (e.g., "Everyone is out to get me"). Paranoia is an instinct or thought process that is believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety, suspicion, or fear, often to the point of delusion and irrationality.[1] Paranoia is distinct from phobias, which also involve irrational fear, but usually no blame.

Making false accusations and carrying a general distrust of other people also frequently accompany paranoia.[2] For example, a paranoid person might believe an incident was intentional when most people would view it as an accident or coincidence. Paranoia is a central symptom of psychosis.[3]

## Contents

* 1 Signs and symptoms
* 2 Causes
* 2.1 Social and environmental
* 2.2 Psychological
* 2.3 Physical
* 3 Diagnosis
* 4 Treatment
* 5 History
* 6 Relations to violence
* 7 Paranoid social cognition
* 7.1 Situational antecedents
* 7.2 Dysphoric self-consciousness
* 7.3 Hypervigilance and rumination
* 7.4 Judgmental and cognitive biases
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 9.1 Sources
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links

## Signs and symptoms

A common symptom of paranoia is attribution bias. These individuals typically have a biased perception of reality, often exhibiting more hostile beliefs than average.[4] A paranoid person may view someone else's accidental behavior as though it is intentional or signifies a threat.

An investigation of a non-clinical paranoid population found that characteristics such as feeling powerless and depressed, isolating oneself, and relinquishing activities, were associated with more frequent paranoia.[5] Some scientists have created different subtypes for the various symptoms of paranoia, including erotic, persecutory, litigious, and exalted.[6]

Some research suggests that symptoms of paranoid personality disorder are associated with a higher number of divorces, likely due to how paranoid patterns of thinking hinder relationships.[7] This seems to fall in line with some older sources, which allege that paranoid individuals tend to be of a single status.[8]

Some researchers have arranged types of paranoia by commonality. The least common types of paranoia at the very top of the hierarchy would be those involving more serious threats. Social anxiety is at the bottom of this hierarchy as the most frequently exhibited level of paranoia.[9]

## Causes

### Social and environmental

Social circumstances appear to be highly influential on paranoid beliefs. According to a mental health survey distributed to residents of Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua (in Mexico) and El Paso, Texas (in the United States), paranoid beliefs seem to be associated with feelings of powerlessness and victimization, enhanced by social situations. Paranoid symptoms were associated with an attitude of mistrust and an external locus of control. Citing research showing that women and those with lower socioeconomic status are more prone to locating locus of control externally, the researchers suggested that women may be especially affected by the effects of socioeconomic status on paranoia.[10]

Surveys have revealed that paranoia can develop from difficult parental relationships and untrustworthy environments, for instance those that were highly disciplinary, strict, and unstable, could contribute to paranoia. Some sources have also noted that indulging and pampering the child could contribute to greater paranoia, via disrupting the child's understanding of their relationship with the world.[11] Experiences found to enhance or create paranoia included frequent disappointment, stress, and a sense of hopelessness.[12]

Discrimination has also been reported as a potential predictor of paranoid delusions. Such reports that paranoia seemed to appear more in older patients who had experienced greater discrimination throughout their lives. Immigrants are more subject to some forms of psychosis than the general population, which may be related to more frequent experiences of discrimination and humiliation.[13]

### Psychological

Many more mood-based symptoms, for example grandiosity and guilt, may underlie functional paranoia.[14]

Colby (1981) defined paranoid cognition as "persecutory delusions and false beliefs whose propositional content clusters around ideas of being harassed, threatened, harmed, subjugated, persecuted, accused, mistreated, killed, wronged, tormented, disparaged, vilified, and so on, by malevolent others, either specific individuals or groups" (p. 518). Three components of paranoid cognition have been identified by Robins & Post: "a) suspicions without enough basis that others are exploiting, harming, or deceiving them; b) preoccupation with unjustified doubts about the loyalty, or trustworthiness, of friends or associates; c) reluctance to confide in others because of unwarranted fear that the information will be used maliciously against them" (1997, p. 3).

Paranoid cognition has been conceptualized by clinical psychology almost exclusively in terms of psychodynamic constructs and dispositional variables. From this point of view, paranoid cognition is a manifestation of an intra-psychic conflict or disturbance. For instance, Colby (1981) suggested that the biases of blaming others for one's problems serve to alleviate the distress produced by the feeling of being humiliated, and helps to repudiate the belief that the self is to blame for such incompetence. This intra-psychic perspective emphasizes that the cause of paranoid cognitions is inside the head of the people (social perceiver), and dismisses the possibility that paranoid cognition may be related to the social context in which such cognitions are embedded. This point is extremely relevant because when origins of distrust and suspicion (two components of paranoid cognition) are studied many researchers have accentuated the importance of social interaction, particularly when social interaction has gone awry. Even more, a model of trust development pointed out that trust increases or decreases as a function of the cumulative history of interaction between two or more persons.[15]

Another relevant difference can be discerned among "pathological and non-pathological forms of trust and distrust". According to Deutsch, the main difference is that non-pathological forms are flexible and responsive to changing circumstances. Pathological forms reflect exaggerated perceptual biases and judgmental predispositions that can arise and perpetuate them, are reflexively caused errors similar to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

It has been suggested that a "hierarchy" of paranoia exists, extending from mild social evaluative concerns, through ideas of social reference, to persecutory beliefs concerning mild, moderate, and severe threats.[16]

### Physical

A paranoid reaction may be caused from a decline in brain circulation as a result of high blood pressure or hardening of the arterial walls.[11]

Drug-induced paranoia, associated with cannabis and stimulants like amphetamines or methamphetamine, has much in common with schizophrenic paranoia; the relationship has been under investigation since 2012. Drug-induced paranoia has a better prognosis than schizophrenic paranoia once the drug has been removed.[17] For further information, see stimulant psychosis and substance-induced psychosis.

Based on data obtained by the Dutch NEMESIS project in 2005, there was an association between impaired hearing and the onset of symptoms of psychosis, which was based on a five-year follow up. Some older studies have actually declared that a state of paranoia can be produced in patients that were under a hypnotic state of deafness. This idea however generated much skepticism during its time.[18]

## Diagnosis

In the DSM-IV-TR, paranoia is diagnosed in the form of:[19]

* Paranoid personality disorder[20] (F60.0)
* Paranoid schizophrenia (a subtype of schizophrenia) (F20.0)
* The persecutory type of delusional disorder[21] (F22.8)

According to clinical psychologist P. J. McKenna, "As a noun, paranoia denotes a disorder which has been argued in and out of existence, and whose clinical features, course, boundaries, and virtually every other aspect of which is controversial. Employed as an adjective, paranoid has become attached to a diverse set of presentations, from paranoid schizophrenia, through paranoid depression, to paranoid personality--not to mention a motley collection of paranoid 'psychoses', 'reactions', and 'states'--and this is to restrict discussion to functional disorders. Even when abbreviated down to the prefix para-, the term crops up causing trouble as the contentious but stubbornly persistent concept of paraphrenia".[22]

At least 50% of the diagnosed cases of schizophrenia experience delusions of reference and delusions of persecution.[23][24] Paranoia perceptions and behavior may be part of many mental illnesses, such as depression and dementia, but they are more prevalent in three mental disorders: paranoid schizophrenia, delusional disorder (persecutory type), and paranoid personality disorder.

## Treatment

Paranoid delusions are often treated with antipsychotic medication, which exert a medium effect size.[25] Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) lessens paranoid delusions relative to control conditions according to a meta-analysis.[26] A meta-analysis of 43 studies reported that metacognitive training (MCT) reduces (paranoid) delusions at a medium to large effect size relative to control conditions.[27]

## History

The word paranoia comes from the Greek παράνοια (paránoia), "madness",[28] and that from παρά (pará), "beside, by"[29] and νόος (nóos), "mind".[30] The term was used to describe a mental illness in which a delusional belief is the sole or most prominent feature. In this definition, the belief does not have to be persecutory to be classified as paranoid, so any number of delusional beliefs can be classified as paranoia.[31] For example, a person who has the sole delusional belief that they are an important religious figure would be classified by Kraepelin as having "pure paranoia". The word "paranoia" is associated from the Greek word "para-noeo".[32] Its meaning was "derangement", or "departure from the normal". However, the word was used strictly and other words were used such as "insanity" or "crazy", as these words were introduced by Aulus Cornelius Celsus. The term "paranoia" first made an appearance during plays of Greek tragedians, and was also used by philosophers such as Plato and Hippocrates. Nevertheless, the word "paranoia" was the equivalent of "delirium" or "high". Eventually, the term fell out of use for two millennia. "Paranoia" was revived in the 18th century, appearing in the works of nosologists such as François Boissier de Sauvage (1759) and Rudolph August Vogel (1772).[32]

According to Michael Phelan, Padraig Wright, and Julian Stern (2000),[33] paranoia and paraphrenia are debated entities that were detached from dementia praecox by Kraepelin, who explained paranoia as a continuous systematized delusion arising much later in life with no presence of either hallucinations or a deteriorating course, and paraphrenia as an identical syndrome to paranoia but with hallucinations. Even at the present time, a delusion need not be suspicious or fearful to be classified as paranoid. A person might be diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia without delusions of persecution, simply because the delusions refer mainly to the self.

## Relations to violence

It has generally been agreed upon that individuals with paranoid delusions will have the tendency to take action based on their beliefs.[34] More research is needed on the particular types of actions that are pursued based on paranoid delusions. Some researchers have made attempts to distinguish the different variations of actions brought on as a result of delusions. Wessely et al. (1993) did just this by studying individuals with delusions of which more than half had reportedly taken action or behaved as a result of these delusions. However, the overall actions were not of a violent nature in most of the informants. The authors note that other studies such as one by Taylor (1985), have shown that violent behaviors were more common in certain types of paranoid individuals, mainly those considered to be offensive such as prisoners.[35]

Other researchers have found associations between childhood abusive behaviors and the appearance of violent behaviors in psychotic individuals. This could be a result of their inability to cope with aggression as well as other people, especially when constantly attending to potential threats in their environment.[36] The attention to threat itself has been proposed as one of the major contributors of violent actions in paranoid people, although there has been much deliberation about this as well.[37] Other studies have shown that there may only be certain types of delusions that promote any violent behaviors, persecutory delusions seem to be one of these.[38]

Having resentful emotions towards others and the inability to understand what other people are feeling seem to have an association with violence in paranoid individuals. This was based on a study of people with paranoid schizophrenia (one of the common mental disorders that exhibit paranoid symptoms) theories of mind capabilities in relation to empathy. The results of this study revealed specifically that although the violent patients were more successful at the higher level theory of mind tasks, they were not as able to interpret others' emotions or claims.[39]

## Paranoid social cognition

Social psychological research has proposed a mild form of paranoid cognition, paranoid social cognition, that has its origins in social determinants more than intra-psychic conflict.[40][41][42][43][44] This perspective states that in milder forms, paranoid cognitions may be very common among normal individuals. For instance, it is not considered strange to have self-centered thoughts of being talked about, or to be suspicious of others' intentions, or to assume ill-will or hostility (e.g., a feeling of everything going against them). According to Kramer (1998), these milder forms of paranoid cognition may be considered an adaptive response to cope with or make sense of a disturbing and threatening social environment.

Paranoid cognition captures the idea that dysphoric self-consciousness may be related to the position a person occupies in a social system. This self-consciousness conduces to a hypervigilant and ruminative mode to process social information that finally will stimulate a variety of paranoid-like forms of social misperception and misjudgment.[45] This model identifies four components that are essential to understanding paranoid social cognition: situational antecedents, dysphoric self-consciousness, hypervigilance and rumination, and judgmental biases.

### Situational antecedents

Perceived social distinctiveness, perceived evaluative scrutiny and uncertainty about the social standing.

* Perceived social distinctiveness: According to the social identity theory,[46] people categorize themselves in terms of characteristics that made them unique or different from others under certain circumstances.[47][46] Gender, ethnicity, age, or experience may become extremely relevant to explain people's behavior when these attributes make them unique in a social group. This distinctive attribute may have influence not only in how people are perceived, but may also affect the way they perceive themselves.
* Uncertainty about social standing: Knowledge about social standing is another factor that may induce paranoid social cognition. Many researchers have argued that experiencing uncertainty about a social position in a social system constitutes an adverse psychological state, one which people are highly motivated to reduce.

### Dysphoric self-consciousness

An aversive form of heightened 'public self-consciousness' is characterized by the feelings that one is under intensive evaluation or scrutiny.[42][48] Becoming self-tormenting will increase the odds of interpreting others' behaviors in a self-referential way.

### Hypervigilance and rumination

Self-consciousness was characterized as an aversive psychological state. According to this model, people experiencing self-consciousness will be highly motivated to reduce it, trying to make sense of what they are experiencing. These attempts promote hypervigilance and rumination in a circular relationship: more hypervigilance generates more rumination, whereupon more rumination generates more hypervigilance. Hypervigilance can be thought of as a way to appraise threatening social information, but in contrast to adaptive vigilance, hypervigilance will produce elevated levels of arousal, fear, anxiety, and threat perception.[49] Rumination is another possible response to threatening social information. Rumination can be related to the paranoid social cognition because it can increase negative thinking about negative events, and evoke a pessimistic explanatory style.

### Judgmental and cognitive biases

Three main judgmental consequences have been identified:[41]

* The sinister attribution error: This bias captures the tendency that social perceivers have to overattribute lack of trustworthiness to others.
* The overly personalistic construal of social interaction: Refers to the inclination that paranoid perceiver has to interpret others' action in a disproportional self-referential way, increasing the belief that they are the target of others' thoughts and actions. A special kind of bias in the biased punctuation of social interaction, which entail an overperception of causal linking among independent events.
* The exaggerated perception of conspiracy: Refers to the disposition that the paranoid perceiver has to overattribute social coherence and coordination to others' actions.

Meta-analyses have confirmed that individuals with paranoia tend to jump to conclusions and are incorrigible in their judgements, even for delusion-neutral scenarios.[50][51]

## See also

* Anxiety
* Apophenia
* Borderline personality disorder
* Case of Aimée
* Conspiracy theory
* Delusions of reference
* Distrust
* Fusion paranoia
* Hysteria
* Ideas of reference
* Monomania
* Narcissistic personality disorder
* Paranoid fiction
* Paranoid personality disorder
* Post-traumatic stress disorder
* Pronoia
* Querulant
* Schizophrenia
* Schizotypal personality disorder
* Whispers: The Voices of Paranoia

## References

1. ↑ World English Dictionary (Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition, 2009, William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.) 3. informal sense: intense fear or suspicion, esp when unfounded
2. ↑ "Don't Freak Out: Paranoia Quite Common". Associated Press. November 12, 2008. https://www.livescience.com/3064-freak-paranoia-common.html.
3. ↑ Green, C., Freeman, D., Kuipers, E., Bebbington, P., Fowler, D., Dunn, G., & Garety, P. (2008). Measuring ideas of persecution and social reference: the Green et al. Paranoid Thought Scales (GPTS). Psychological Medicine, 38, 101 – 111.
4. ↑ Bentall and Taylor (2006), p. 289
5. ↑ Freeman et al. (2005)
6. ↑ Deutsch and Fishman p. 1414-1415
7. ↑ Disney, Krystle L.; Weinstein, Yana; Oltmanns, Thomas F. (December 2012). "Personality disorder symptoms are differentially related to divorce frequency". Journal of Family Psychology 26 (6): 959–965. doi:10.1037/a0030446. ISSN 1939-1293. PMID 23244459.
8. ↑ Deutch and Fishman (1963), p.1416
9. ↑ Freeman et al. (2005), p.433
10. ↑ Mirowski and Ross (1983)
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Deutsch and Fishman (1963), p. 1408
12. ↑ Deutsch and Fishman (1963), p. 1412
13. ↑ Bentall and Taylor (2006), p. 280
14. ↑ Lake, C. R. (2008-11-01). "Hypothesis: Grandiosity and Guilt Cause Paranoia; Paranoid Schizophrenia is a Psychotic Mood Disorder; a Review" (in en). Schizophrenia Bulletin 34 (6): 1151–1162. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbm132. ISSN 0586-7614. PMID 18056109.
15. ↑ Deutsch, 1958
16. ↑ Freeman, D., Garety, P., Bebbington, P., Smith, B., Rollinson, R., Fowler, D., Kuipers, E., Ray, K., & Dunn, G. (2005). Psychological investigation of the structure of paranoia in a non-clinical population. British Journal of Psychiatry 186, 427 – 435.
17. ↑ Bramness, J. G; Gundersen, Øystein Hoel; Guterstam, J; Rognli, E. B; Konstenius, M; Løberg, E. M; Medhus, S; Tanum, L et al. (2012). "Amphetamine-induced psychosis – a separate diagnostic entity or primary psychosis triggered in the vulnerable?". BMC Psychiatry 12. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-12-221. PMID 23216941.
18. ↑ Bentall and Taylor (2006), p.281
19. ↑ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
20. ↑ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders p.690
21. ↑ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders p.325
22. ↑ McKenna (1997), p.238
23. ↑ Sartorius, N., Jablensky, A., Korten, A., Ernberg, G., Anker, M., Cooper, JE., & Day, R. (1986). Early manifestations and first-contact incidence of schizophrenia in different cultures. Psychological Medicine, 16, 909 – 928.
24. ↑ Cutting, J. (1997). Principles of Psychopathology : Two Worlds–Two Minds–Two Hemispheres. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
25. ↑ "Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 32 oral antipsychotics for the acute treatment of adults with multi-episode schizophrenia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis" (in English). Lancet 394 (10202): 939–951. September 2019. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31135-3. PMID 31303314.
26. ↑ "Corrigendum: Does Cognitive Behavior Therapy for psychosis (CBTp) show a sustainable effect on delusions? A meta-analysis". Frontiers in Psychology 10. 2019-08-28. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01868. PMID 31555162.
27. ↑ "Immediate and Sustained Outcomes and Moderators Associated With Metacognitive Training for Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Psychiatry 79 (5): 417–429. March 2022. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0277. PMID 35320347.
28. ↑ παράνοια , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on perseus Digital Library
29. ↑ παρά , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on perseus Digital Library
30. ↑ νόος , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on perseus Digital Library
31. ↑ Dowbiggin, Ian (2000). "Delusional diagnosis? The history of paranoia as a disease concept in the modern era". History of Psychiatry 11 (41): 037–69. doi:10.1177/0957154X0001104103. PMID 11624609.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Ban, Thomas (30 March 2016). "Paranoia: Historical development of the diagnostic concept, An unexplored area of research in neuropsychopharmacology". http://inhn.org/archives/ban-collection/paranoia.html.
33. ↑ Phelan, Wright, and Stern (2000)
34. ↑ Bental and Taylor (2006), p. 286
35. ↑ Wessely et al. (1993)
36. ↑ Bentall and Taylor(2006), p. 287
37. ↑ Bentall and Taylor (2006), p. 287-288
38. ↑ Bjorkly (2002)
39. ↑ Abu-Akel and Abushua'leh (2004)
40. ↑ Fenigstein, A., & Vanable, P. A. (1992). "Paranoia and self-consciousness." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 129 – 138.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Kramer, R. M. (1994). "The sinister attribution error: Origins and consequences of collective paranoia." Motivation and Emotion, 18, 199 – 230.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Kramer, R. M. (1995a). "In dubious battle: Heightened accountability, dysphoric cognition, and self-defeating bargaining behavior." In R. M. Kramer & D. M. Messick (Eds.), Negotiation in its social context (pp. 95 – 120). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
43. ↑ Kramer, R. M. (1995b). "Power, paranoia, and distrust in organizations: The distorted view from the top." Research on Negotiation in Organizations, 5, 119 – 154.
44. ↑ Zimbardo, P. G., Andersen, S. M., & Kabat, L. G. (1981). "Induced hearing deficit generates experimental paranoia." Science, 212, 1529 – 1531.
45. ↑ Kramer, R. M. (1998). "Revisiting the Bay of Pigs and Vietnam decisions twenty-five years later: How well has the group think hypothesis stood the test of time?" Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 73, 236 – 271.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Turner, J. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
47. ↑ Cota, A. A., & Dion, K. L. (1986). "Salience of gender and sex composition of ad-hoc groups: An experimental test of distinctiveness theory." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 770 – 776.
48. ↑ Sutton, R. I., & Galunic, D. C. (1996). "Consequences of public scrutiny for leaders and their organizations." In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 18, pp. 201–250). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
49. ↑ Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
50. ↑ McLean, Benjamin F.; Mattiske, Julie K.; Balzan, Ryan P. (2017-03-01). "Association of the Jumping to Conclusions and Evidence Integration Biases With Delusions in Psychosis: A Detailed Meta-analysis". Schizophrenia Bulletin 43 (2): 344–354. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbw056. ISSN 1745-1701. PMID 27169465.
51. ↑ Dudley, Robert; Taylor, Peter; Wickham, Sophie; Hutton, Paul (2016). "Psychosis, Delusions and the "Jumping to Conclusions" Reasoning Bias: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Schizophrenia Bulletin 42 (3): 652–665. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv150. ISSN 1745-1701. PMID 26519952.

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## Further reading

* American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders (4th ed). Washington DC: Author.
* Arnold, K.; Vakhrusheva, J. (2015). "Resist the negation reflex: Minimizing reactance in psychotherapy of delusions" (PDF). Psychosis 8 (2): 1–10. doi:10.1080/17522439.2015.1095229. https://www.academia.edu/18748834. * Canneti, Elias (1962). Crowds and Power. Translated from the German by Carol Stewart. Gollancz, London. 1962.
* Colby, K. (1981). Modeling a paranoid mind. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 515 – 560.
* Deutsch, M. (1958). Trust and suspicion. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 265 – 279.
* Messinger, Emanuel (1963). "The encyclopedia of mental health, Vol IV". The Encyclopedia of Mental Health. IV. New York, NY, US: Franklin Watts. pp. 1407–1420. doi:10.1037/11547-024. http://psycnet.apa.org.lp.hscl.ufl.edu/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid=2007-15050-024. Retrieved April 4, 2014.
* Farrell, John (2006). Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau. Cornell University Press.
* Freeman, D. & Garety, P. A. (2004). Paranoia: The Psychology of Persecutory Delusions. Hove: Psychology Press. ISBN 1-84169-522-X
* Igmade (Stephan Trüby et al., eds.), 5 Codes: Architecture, Paranoia and Risk in Times of Terror, Birkhäuser 2006. ISBN 3-7643-7598-1
* Kantor, Martin (2004). Understanding Paranoia: A Guide for Professionals, Families, and Sufferers. Westport: Praeger Press. ISBN 0-275-98152-5
* Munro, A. (1999). Delusional disorder. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-58180-X
* Mura, Andrea (2016). "National Finitude and the Paranoid Style of the One". Contemporary Political Theory 15: 58–79. doi:10.1057/cpt.2015.23. http://research.gold.ac.uk/19373/1/Mura - National Finitude and the Paranoid Style of the One.pdf.
* Robins, R., & Post, J. (1997). Political paranoia: The politics of hatred. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
* Sant, P. (2005). Delusional disorder. Punjab: Panjab University Chandigarh. ISBN 0-521-58180-X
* Sims, A. (2002). Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology (3rd edition). Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 0-7020-2627-1
* Siegel, Ronald K. (1994). Whispers: The Voices of Paranoia. New York: Crown. ISBN 978-0-684-80285-5.

## External links

Classification|

* ICD-11: MB25–MB26 (thought symptoms), 6A20 (schizophrenia) + 6A25.0 (positive symptoms), 6A24 (delusional disorder)
* ICD-10: F20.0 (paranoid schizophrenia), F22 (persistent delusional disorders), F60.0 (paranoid personality disorder)
* ICD-9-CM: 295.3 (paranoid type schizophrenia), 297.1 (delusional disorder), 297.2 (paraphrenia)
* MeSH: D010259

|

* v
* t
* e

Mental and behavioral disorders (F00–F99 & 290–319)

Adult personality and behavior

| Gender dysphoria|

* Ego-dystonic sexual orientation
* Paraphilia
* Fetishism
* Voyeurism
* Sexual maturation disorder
* Sexual relationship disorder

|

Other|

* Factitious disorder
* Munchausen syndrome
* Impulse control disorder
* Dermatillomania
* Kleptomania
* Pyromania
* Trichotillomania
* Personality disorder

Childhood and learning

| Emotional and behavioral|

* ADHD
* Conduct disorder
* ODD
* Emotional and behavioral disorders
* Separation anxiety disorder
* Movement disorders
* Stereotypic
* Social functioning
* DAD
* RAD
* Selective mutism
* Speech
* Stuttering
* Cluttering
* Tic disorder
* Tourette syndrome

|

Intellectual disability|

* X-linked intellectual disability
* Lujan–Fryns syndrome

Psychological development
(developmental disabilities)|

* Pervasive
* Specific

Mood (affective)

* Bipolar
* Bipolar I
* Bipolar II
* Bipolar NOS
* Cyclothymia
* Depression
* Atypical depression
* Dysthymia
* Major depressive disorder
* Melancholic depression
* Seasonal affective disorder
* Mania

Neurological and symptomatic

| Autism spectrum|

* Autism
* Asperger syndrome
* High-functioning autism
* PDD-NOS
* Savant syndrome

|

Dementia|

* AIDS dementia complex
* Alzheimer's disease
* Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
* Frontotemporal dementia
* Huntington's disease
* Mild cognitive impairment
* Parkinson's disease
* Pick's disease
* Sundowning
* Vascular dementia
* Wandering

Other|

* Delirium
* Organic brain syndrome
* Post-concussion syndrome

Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform

| Adjustment|

* Adjustment disorder with depressed mood

|

Anxiety|

| Phobia|

* Agoraphobia
* Social anxiety
* Social phobia
* Anthropophobia
* Specific social phobia
* Specific phobia
* Claustrophobia

|

Other|

* Generalized anxiety disorder
* OCD
* Panic attack
* Panic disorder
* Stress
* Acute stress reaction
* PTSD

Dissociative|

* Depersonalization disorder
* Dissociative identity disorder
* Fugue state
* Psychogenic amnesia

Somatic symptom|

* Body dysmorphic disorder
* Conversion disorder
* Ganser syndrome
* Globus pharyngis
* Da Costa's syndrome
* Hypochondriasis
* Mass psychogenic illness
* Neurasthenia
* Nosophobia
* Psychalgia
* Somatization disorder

Physiological and physical behavior

| Eating|

* Anorexia nervosa
* Bulimia nervosa
* Rumination syndrome
* Other specified feeding or eating disorder

|

Nonorganic
sleep|

* Hypersomnia
* Insomnia
* Parasomnia
* Night terror
* Nightmare
* REM sleep behavior disorder

Postnatal|

* Postpartum depression
* Postpartum psychosis

Sexual dysfunction|

| Arousal|

* Erectile dysfunction
* Female sexual arousal disorder

|

Desire|

* Hypersexuality
* Hypoactive sexual desire disorder

Orgasm|

* Anorgasmia
* Delayed ejaculation
* Premature ejaculation
* Sexual anhedonia

Pain|

* Nonorganic dyspareunia
* Nonorganic vaginismus

Psychoactive substances, substance abuse and substance-related

* Drug overdose
* Intoxication
* Physical dependence
* Rebound effect
* Stimulant psychosis
* Substance dependence
* Withdrawal

Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional

| Delusional|

* Delusional disorder
* Folie à deux

|

Psychosis and
schizophrenia-like|

* Brief reactive psychosis
* Schizoaffective disorder
* Schizophreniform disorder

Schizophrenia|

* Childhood schizophrenia
* Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia
* Paranoid schizophrenia
* Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia
* Simple-type schizophrenia

Symptoms and uncategorized

* Catatonia
* False pregnancy
* Intermittent explosive disorder
* Klüver–Bucy syndrome
* Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures
* Psychomotor agitation
* Stereotypy

* v
* t
* e

Conspiracy theories

List of conspiracy theories

Core topics|

* Cabals
* Civil
* Criminal
* Deception
* Espionage
* Fiction
* Political
* Secrecy
* Secret societies
* Urban legend

Psychology|

* Attitude polarization
* Cognitive dissonance
* Communal reinforcement
* Confirmation bias
* Locus of control
* Mass hysteria
* Paranoia
* Psychological projection

Deaths and
disappearances

| Assassinations and
avoidable accidents|

* Geoffrey Chaucer (1400)
* Princes in the Tower (1483)
* Kaspar Hauser (1833)
* Abraham Lincoln (1865)
* Ludwig II of Bavaria (1886)
* Franz Ferdinand (1914)
* Lord Kitchener (1916)
* Michael Collins (1922)
* Sergey Kirov (1934)
* Władysław Sikorski (1943)
* Subhas Chandra Bose (1945)
* Dag Hammarskjöld (1961)
* Patrice Lumumba (1961)
* Marilyn Monroe (1962)
* John F. Kennedy (1963)
* Lee Harvey Oswald (1963)
* Dorothy Kilgallen (1965)
* Martin Luther King Jr. (1968)
* Robert F. Kennedy (1968)
* Juscelino Kubitschek (1976)
* Pope John Paul I (1978)
* Airey Neave (1979)
* Francisco de Sá Carneiro and Adelino Amaro da Costa (1980)
* Olof Palme (1986)
* Zia-ul-Haq (1988)
* Vince Foster (1993)
* Yitzhak Rabin (1995)
* Diana, Princess of Wales (1997)
* Nepalese royal family (2001)
* Jeffrey Epstein (2019)
* Chan Yin-lam (2019)

|

False flag
attacks|

* USS Maine (1898)
* RMS Lusitania (1915)
* Reichstag fire (1933)
* Pearl Harbor (1941)
* USS Liberty (1967)
* Widerøe Flight 933 (1982)
* KAL Flight 007 (1983)
* Mozambican presidential jet (1986)
* Pan Am Flight 103 (1988)
* Oklahoma City bombing (1995)
* 9/11 attacks (2001)
* Advance knowledge
* WTC collapse
* Madrid train bombing (2004)
* London bombings (2005)
* Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (2014)

Other|

* RMS Titanic (1912)
* Phar Lap (1932)
* Gas chambers for Poles in Warsaw (1940s)
* Mass murder of German POWs after World War II (1940s)
* Adolf Hitler's death (1945)
* Yemenite Children (1948–54)
* Cairo Fire (1952)
* Dyatlov Pass incident (1959)
* Lost Cosmonauts (1950s / 1960s)
* Elvis Presley's death (1977)
* Jonestown (1978)
* Satanic ritual abuse (blood libel)
* MS Estonia (1994)
* Kurt Cobain (1994)
* Hello Garci scandal
* Osama bin Laden (2011)
* Lahad Datu, Malaysia standoff (2013)
* Zamboanga City crisis (2013)
* Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (2014)

New World Order|

| Topics|

* Bilderberg Group
* Black helicopters
* Bohemian Grove
* Chatham House
* Council on Foreign Relations
* Denver International Airport
* Eurabia
* Georgia Guidestones
* Illuminati
* Judeo-Masonic plot
* Jews
* The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
* Kalergi Plan
* Freemasons
* North American Union
* Catholics
* Jesuits
* Vatican
* ODESSA
* Rothschild family
* Skull and Bones
* The Fellowship
* Trilateral Commission
* Zionist Occupation Government

|

By region|

* Conspiracy theories in the Arab world
* Israeli animal theories
* Temple denial
* Conspiracy theories in Turkey

UFOs|

| General|

* Alien abduction
* Area 51
* Bermuda Triangle
* Black Knight satellite
* Cryptoterrestrial hypothesis
* Extraterrestrial hypothesis
* Interdimensional hypothesis
* Dulce Base
* Estimate of the Situation (1948)
* Majestic 12
* Men in black
* Nazi UFOs
* Project Serpo
* Reptilian humanoids

|

Incidents|

* Tunguska (1908)
* Foo Fighters (1940s)
* Los Angeles (1942)
* Ghost Rockets (1946)
* Maury Island (1947)
* Roswell (1947)
* Gorman Dogfight (1948)
* Mantell (1948)
* McMinnville (1950)
* Lubbock (1951)
* Washington, D.C. (1952)
* Barney and Betty Hill Abduction (1961)
* Kecksburg (1965)
* Westall (1966)
* Jimmy Carter (1969)
* Frederick Valentich (1978)
* Rendlesham Forest (1980)
* Cash-Landrum (1980)
* Japan Air Lines (1986)
* Varginha (1996)
* Phoenix Lights (1997)
* USS Nimitz (2004)
* Chicago (2006)

United States
government

* Apollo Moon landings
* Barack Obama's citizenship / religion / parentage
* Belgrade Chinese embassy bombing (1999)
* Black genocide
* CIA-Kennedy assassination link
* Allegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin Laden
* Dulles' Plan
* FEMA concentration camps
* HAARP
* Jade Helm 15 (2015)
* Montauk Project
* October Surprise (1980)
* Pizzagate (2016)
* Philadelphia Experiment (1943)
* Project Azorian (1974)
* QAnon
* Sandy Hook shooting (2012)
* Seth Rich (2016)
* Sovereign citizen / Redemption movement
* Vast right-wing conspiracy
* Vietnam War POW / MIA issue
* TWA Flight 800 (1996)

Health, energy,
environment

* Chemtrails
* Electronic harassment
* Free energy suppression
* Global warming
* HIV/AIDS origins
* HIV/AIDS denialism
* SARS (2003)
* Vaccine controversies
* Water fluoridation

Other|

* 2012 phenomenon
* Agenda 21 (1992)
* Andinia Plan
* Cancellation of the Avro Arrow (1959)
* Bible
* Clockwork Orange (1970s)
* Conspiracy Encyclopedia
* Cultural Marxism
* "Death" of Paul McCartney (1969)
* Judeo-Bolshevism
* Judeopolonia
* Homintern
* Homosexual recruitment
* Knights Templar
* Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet (1987)
* Love Jihad
* Mexican Reconquista
* New Coke (1985)
* Phantom time / New Chronology
* Red mercury
* Soft coup
* George Soros
* War against Islam
* White genocide

See also|

* Denial of mass killings (list)
* Genocide denial

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoia. Read more

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