Schizoid personality disorder

People with schizoid personality disorder often prefer solitary activities.
Pronunciation|

* /ˈskɪtsɔɪd, ˈskɪdzɔɪd, ˈskɪzɔɪd/

Specialty| Psychiatry, clinical psychology
Symptoms| Pervasive emotional detachment, reduced affect, lack of close friends, apathy, anhedonia, unintentional insensitivity to social norms, sexual abstinence, preoccupation with fantasy,[1] autistic thinking without loss of skill to recognize reality[2]
Usual onset| Late childhood or adolescence[1]
Duration| Life long
Types| Languid schizoid, remote schizoid, depersonalized schizoid, affectless schizoid (Millon's subtypes)
Causes| Family history; cold, indifferent, or intrusive parenting; traumatic brain injury; low birth weight; prenatal malnutrition
Risk factors| Family history[3]
Diagnostic method| Based on symptoms
Differential diagnosis| Other mental disorders with psychotic symptoms (schizophrenia, delusional disorder, and a bipolar or depressive disorder with psychotic features), personality change due to another medical condition, substance use disorders, autism spectrum disorder, other personality disorders and personality traits
Treatment| Psychodynamic psychotherapy; Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Medication| Not general practice but may include low dose benzodiazepines, β-blockers, nefazodone, bupropion[4]
Prognosis| Typically poor[5][6][7]
Frequency| 0.8%[3][5][8]
Personality disorders

Cluster A (odd)

* Paranoid
* Schizoid
* Schizotypal

Cluster B (dramatic)

* Antisocial
* Borderline
* Histrionic
* Narcissistic

Cluster C (anxious)

* Avoidant
* Dependent
* Obsessive–compulsive

Not specified

* Depressive
* Haltlose
* Passive–aggressive
* Sadistic
* Self-defeating
* Psychopathic

* v
* t
* e

Schizoid personality disorder (/ˈskɪtsɔɪd, ˈskɪdzɔɪd, ˈskɪzɔɪd/, often abbreviated as SzPD or ScPD) is a personality disorder characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships,[9] a tendency toward a solitary or sheltered lifestyle, secretiveness, emotional coldness, detachment, and apathy. Affected individuals may be unable to form intimate attachments to others and simultaneously possess a rich and elaborate but exclusively internal fantasy world.[10][11] Other associated features include stilted speech, a lack of deriving enjoyment from most activities, feeling as though one is an "observer" rather than a participant in life, an inability to tolerate emotional expectations of others, apparent indifference when praised or criticized, a degree of asexuality, and idiosyncratic moral or political beliefs.[12]

Symptoms typically start in late childhood or adolescence.[10] The cause of SzPD is uncertain, but there is some evidence of links and shared genetic risk between SzPD, other cluster A personality disorders, and schizophrenia.[13][14][15][16][17] Thus, SzPD is considered to be a "schizophrenia-like personality disorder".[3][18] It is diagnosed by clinical observation, and it can be very difficult to distinguish SzPD from other mental disorders or conditions (such as autism spectrum disorder, with which it may sometimes overlap).[19][20]

The effectiveness of psychotherapeutic and pharmacological treatments for the disorder has yet to be empirically and systematically investigated. This is largely because people with SzPD rarely seek treatment for their condition.[10] Originally, low doses of atypical antipsychotics were also used to treat some symptoms of SzPD, but their use is no longer recommended.[21] The substituted amphetamine bupropion may be used to treat associated anhedonia.[4] However, it is not general practice to treat SzPD with medications, other than for the short-term treatment of acute co-occurring disorders (e.g. depression).[22] Talk therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may not be effective, because people with SzPD may have a hard time forming a good working relationship with a therapist.[10]

SzPD is a poorly studied disorder, and there is little clinical data on SzPD because it is rarely encountered in clinical settings. Studies have generally reported a prevalence of less than 1%.[3][8][23] It is more commonly diagnosed in males than in females.[8] SzPD is linked to negative outcomes, including a significantly compromised quality of life, reduced overall functioning even after 15 years, and one of the lowest levels of "life success" of all personality disorders (measured as "status, wealth and successful relationships").[5][24][25] Bullying is particularly common towards schizoid individuals.[26][27] Suicide may be a running mental theme for schizoid individuals, though they are not likely to attempt it.[28] Some symptoms of SzPD (e.g. solitary lifestyle, emotional detachment, loneliness, and impaired communication), however, have been stated as general risk factors for serious suicidal behavior.[29][30]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Epidemiology
* 3 Etiology
* 3.1 Environmental
* 3.2 Genetic
* 3.3 Neurological
* 4 Prognosis
* 5 Signs and symptoms
* 5.1 Social isolation
* 5.2 Sexuality
* 5.3 Emotions
* 5.4 Feelings of unreality
* 5.5 Internal fantasy
* 5.6 Suicide and self-harm
* 5.7 Low weight
* 5.8 Substance abuse
* 5.9 Secret schizoids
* 5.10 Comorbid disorders
* 5.10.1 Asperger's syndrome
* 6 Treatment
* 6.1 Medication
* 6.2 Psychotherapy
* 7 Controversy
* 8 Diagnosis
* 8.1 Guntrip criteria
* 8.2 Millon's subtypes
* 8.3 Akhtar's profile
* 8.4 Differential diagnosis
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 11 External links

## History

The term schizoid was coined in 1908 by Eugen Bleuler to describe a human tendency to direct attention toward one's inner life and away from the external world.[12] Bleuler labeled the exaggeration of this tendency the "schizoid personality". He described these personalities as "comfortably dull and at the same time sensitive, people who in a narrow manner pursue vague purposes".[31] In 1910, August Hoch introduced a very similar concept called the "shut-in" personality. Characteristics of it were reticence, reclusiveness, shyness and a preference for living in fantasy worlds, among others. In 1925, Russian psychiatrist Grunya Sukhareva described a "schizoid psychopathy" in a group of children, resembling today's SzPD and ASD. About a decade later Pyotr Gannushkin also included Schizoids and Dreamers in his detailed typology of personality types.[32]

The descriptive tradition began in 1925 with the description of observable schizoid behaviors by Ernst Kretschmer. He organized those into three groups of characteristics:[33]

1. Unsociability, quietness, reservedness, seriousness and eccentricity.
2. Timidity, shyness with feelings, sensitivity, nervousness, excitability, fondness of nature and books.
3. Pliability, kindliness, honesty, indifference, silence and cold emotional attitudes.[33]

These characteristics were the precursors of the DSM-III division of the schizoid character into three distinct personality disorders: schizotypal, avoidant and schizoid. Kretschmer himself, however, did not conceive of separating these behaviors to the point of radical isolation but considered them to be simultaneously present as varying potentials in schizoid individuals. For Kretschmer, the majority of schizoid people are not either oversensitive or cold, but they are oversensitive and cold "at the same time" in quite different relative proportions, with a tendency to move along these dimensions from one behavior to the other.[33]

The second path, that of dynamic psychiatry, began in 1924 with observations by Eugen Bleuler,[34] who observed that the schizoid person and schizoid pathology were not things to be set apart. Ronald Fairbairn's seminal work on the schizoid personality, from which most of what is known today about schizoid phenomena is derived, was presented in 1940. Here, Fairbairn delineated four central schizoid themes:

1. The need to regulate interpersonal distance as a central focus of concern.
2. The ability to mobilize self-preservative defenses and self-reliance.
3. A pervasive tension between the anxiety-laden need for attachment and the defensive need for distance that manifests in observable behavior as indifference.
4. An overvaluation of the inner world at the expense of the outer world.

Following Fairbairn's derivation of SzPD from a combination of derealization, depersonalization, splitting, the oral stage of making all subjects into partial objects, and intellectualization;[35] the dynamic psychiatry tradition has continued to produce rich explorations on the schizoid character, most notably from writers Nannarello (1953), Laing (1965), Winnicott (1965),[36] Guntrip (1969), Khan (1974), Akhtar (1987), Seinfeld (1991), Manfield (1992) and Klein (1995).

The DSM-I had the diagnosis of schizoid personality, which was defined by avoidance of close relationships, inability to express aggressive feelings, and autistic thinking (thinking which is preoccupied with one's inner experience).[37] The DSM-II later updated the definition to include daydreaming, detachment from reality, and sensitivity.[38] It was incorporated into the DSM-III as schizoid personality disorder to describe difficulties forming meaningful social relationships and a persistent pattern of disconnection and apathy.[39][40] The diagnosis of SzPD made it to the DSM-IV and DSM-V.[41]

## Epidemiology

It remains unclear how prevalent the disorder is. It may be present in anywhere from 0.5% to 7% of the population and possibly 14% of the homeless population.[42] Gender differences in this disorder are also unclear.[39][43] Some research has suggested that this disorder may occur more frequently in men than women.[44][45][46] SzPD is uncommon in clinical settings (about 2.2%) and occurs more commonly in males. It is rare compared with other personality disorders.[3][47][48] Philip Manfield suggests that the "schizoid condition", which roughly includes the DSM schizoid, avoidant and schizotypal personality disorders, is represented by "as many as forty percent of all personality disorders." Manfield adds "This huge discrepancy [from the ten percent reported by therapists for the condition] is probably largely because someone with a schizoid disorder is less likely to seek treatment than someone with other axis-II disorders."[49][50] A 2008 study assessing personality and mood disorder prevalence among homeless people at New York City drop-in centers reported an SzPD rate of 65% among this sample. The study did not assess homeless people who did not show up at drop-in centers, and the rates of most other personality and mood disorders within the drop-in centers were lower than that of SzPD. The authors noted the limitations of the study, including the higher male-to-female ratio in the sample and the absence of subjects outside the support system or receiving other support (e.g., shelters) as well as the absence of subjects in geographical settings outside New York City, a large city often considered a magnet for disenfranchised people.[51] A University of Colorado Colorado Springs study comparing personality disorders and Myers–Briggs Type Indicator types found that the disorder had a significant correlation with the Introverted (I) and Thinking (T) preferences.[52]

## Etiology

### Environmental

Perfectionist and hypercritical parenting or cold,[53] neglectful, and distant parenting contribute to the onset of SzPD.[42][44][54] For a person with SzPD, their parents likely were intolerant of their emotional experiences.[55] They may have been forced to repress and compartmentalize their emotions, possibly resulting in the onset of difficulties expressing and processing emotional experiences.[56] These difficulties lead to the child feeling rejected and developing the belief that the only safe environment is one where they are alone and inexpressive.[57][58][59][60] People with SzPD may also have internalized the belief that their emotions are dangerous to themselves and others due to the negative responses received from others.[61][62][63] In their status of isolation and emotional bluntness they can be self-sufficient and safe.[64][65][self-published source] Childhood trauma can also contribute to feelings of emptiness in adulthood.[66] Alcoholism in parents is associated with a heightened risk of developing SzPD.[67]

### Genetic

Sula Wolff, who did extensive research and clinical work with children and teenagers with schizoid symptoms, stated that "schizoid personality has a constitutional, probably genetic, basis."[68] Research on heritability and this disorder is lacking.[39] Twin studies with SzPD traits (e.g., low sociability and low warmth) suggest that these traits are inherited. Besides this indirect evidence, the direct heritability estimates of SzPD range from 50% to 59%.[13][69] Other research has found the heritability rate to be 29%.[70]

The pathophysiology of SzPD remains unclear. Genetic relationships with people who have schizophrenia spectrum disorders increase the risk of developing schizoid personality disorder.[71][72][73][74] People with SzPD can have a history of schizotypy before developing the disorder.[75][76][77][78] SzPD symptoms can be premorbid to schizophrenia.[79][80][81][82][83][84]

### Neurological

Prenatal malnutrition,[85][86] premature birth, and low birth weight are all thought to play a role in the development of SzPD.[87][88][89][90] SzPD is associated with reduced serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways in areas such as the frontal lobe, amygdala, and striatum.[91][92][93][94] Traumatic brain injuries to the frontal lobe may also contribute to the onset of SzPD as that area of the brain controls areas such as emotion and socialization.[95][66][96] Deficits in the right hemisphere of the brain may also be associated with SzPD.[97] Lower levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol may be correlated with the presence of schizoid traits in women.[98] Excess indices in the left hemisphere may also be related to SzPD.[99]

## Prognosis

Traits of schizoid personality disorder appear in childhood and adolescence. Children with this disorder usually have poor relationships with others,[100][101] social anxiety, internal fantasies, strange behavior, and hyperactivity. These behaviors can result in teasing and bullying at the hands of others.[102][103] It is common for people with SzPD to have had major depressive disorder in childhood.[48][104] SzPD is associated with lower levels of achievement, a compromised quality of life,[48][105] and a worse outcome of treatment.[106] Treatment for this disorder is under-studied and poorly understood.[107] There is no widely accepted and approved psychotherapy or medication for this disorder. It is one of the most poorly researched psychiatric disorders.[92] Professionals may misunderstand the disorder and the client, potentially reinforcing a feeling of failure and negatively impacting their willingness to continue to commit to treatment.[89] Clinicians tend to worry that they are incapable of properly treating the patient.[108] It is rare for someone with this disorder to voluntarily seek treatment without a comorbid disorder or pressure from family or friends.[109] In treatment, people with SzPD are usually disinterested and often minimize symptoms. Patients with SzPD may fear losing their independence through therapy. Many schizoid individuals will avoid making the efforts required to establish a proper relationship with the therapist. It can be difficult for them to open up or discuss their emotions in therapy.[60] Although people with this disorder can still improve, it is unlikely they will ever experience significant joy through social interaction.[39]

## Signs and symptoms

### Social isolation

People with SzPD are often socially isolated.

SzPD is associated with a dismissive-avoidant attachment style.[60][110][111][112] People with this disorder will rarely maintain close relationships and often exclusively choose to participate in solitary activities.[113][114][115] People with schizoid personality disorder typically have no close friends or confidants, except for a close relative on occasions. They usually prefer hobbies and activities that do not require interaction with others.[116][117] People with SzPD may be averse to social situations due to difficulties deriving pleasure from physical or emotional sensations, rather than social anhedonia.[118][119] One potential motivation for avoiding social situations is that they feel that it intrudes on their freedom.[66][120] Relationships can feel suffocating for people with SzPD,[121] and they may think of them as opportunities for entrapment.[47][122] Patients with this disorder are often independent and turn to themselves as sources of validation. They tend to be the happiest when in relationships in which their partner places few emotional or intimate demands on them and does not expect phatic or social niceties. It is not necessarily people they want to avoid, but negative or positive emotional expectations, emotional intimacy, and self-disclosure.[89][123] Patients with SzPD can feel as if close emotional bonds are dangerous to themselves and others.[62][120][124] They may have feelings of inadequacy or shame.[125] Some people with SzPD may experience a deep desire to connect with others, yet will be terrified by the dangers inherent in doing so.[120][126] Avoidance of social situations may be a method of avoiding being hurt or rejected.[127][128] Individuals with SzPD can form relationships with others based on intellectual, physical, familial, occupational, or recreational activities, as long as there is no need for emotional intimacy. Donald Winnicott explains this is because schizoid individuals "prefer to make relationships on their own terms and not in terms of the impulses of other people." Failing to attain that, they prefer isolation.[129] In general, friendship for schizoid individuals is usually limited to one other person, who is often also schizoid, forming what has been called a union of two eccentrics; "within it – the ecstatic cult of personality, outside it – everything is sharply rejected and despised".[130] Their unique lifestyle can lead to social rejection and people with SzPD are at a higher risk of facing bullying or homelessness.[27][131] This social rejection can reinforce their asocial behavior.

### Sexuality

People with this disorder usually have little interest in sexual or romantic acts. They rarely date or marry.[132][133][134] Sex often causes individuals with SzPD to feel that their personal space is being violated, and they commonly feel that masturbation or sexual abstinence is preferable to the emotional closeness they must tolerate when having sex.[135] Significantly broadening this picture are notable exceptions of SzPD individuals who engage in occasional or even frequent sexual activities with others.[135] Individuals with SzPD have long been noted to have an increased rate of unconventional sexual tendencies, though if present, these are rarely acted upon. Schizoid people are often labeled asexual or present with "a lack of sexual identity". Kernberg states that this apparent lack of sexuality does not represent a lack of sexual definition but rather a combination of several strong fixations to cope with the same conflicts. People with SzPD are often able to pursue any fantasies with content on the Internet while remaining completely unengaged with the outside world.[60]

### Emotions

Sensory or emotional experiences typically provide little enjoyment for people with SzPD.[136][137] They rarely display strong emotions or react to anything.[138] People with SzPD can have difficulty expressing themselves and seem to be directionless or passive.[42] Individuals with SzPD can also experience anhedonia.[139] They can also have difficulty understanding others' emotions and social cues.[140][141][142] It can be hard for people with SzPD to assess the impact of their actions in social situations.[143][144] People with this condition are often indifferent towards criticism or praise and can appear distant, aloof, or uncaring to others.[145] They may avoid others and expressing themselves as a method of keeping others distant and preventing themselves from being hurt.[146][58][127] Remaining alone and expressionless can feel safe and comfortable for people with SzPD.[147] Expressing themselves can make them feel shame or discomfort.[42] People with SzPD may feel inadequate and can be sensitive,[148] although they have difficulty expressing it.[21][60] Alexithymia, or difficulties understanding one's own emotions, is common amongst people with SzPD.[149][150][151] This leads to them isolating themselves to avoid the discomfort and stimulation that emotional experiences offer.[60] According to Guntrip, Klein, and others, people with SzPD may possess a hidden sense of superiority and lack dependence on other people's opinions. This is very different from the grandiosity seen in narcissistic personality disorder, which is described as "burdened with envy" and with a desire to destroy or put down others. Additionally, schizoid individuals do not go out of their way to achieve social validation. Unlike narcissists, schizoid people will often keep their creations private to avoid unwelcome attention or the feeling that their ideas and thoughts are being appropriated by the public.[60] When forced to rely on others, a person with SzPD may feel panic or terror.[60]

It is common for people with SzPD to experience depersonalization.

### Feelings of unreality

Patients with SzPD often feel unreal, empty,[89][126] and separate from their own emotions.[152] They tend to perceive themselves as fundamentally different from others and can believe that they are fundamentally unlikeable.[120][153] Other people often seem strange and incomprehensible to a person with SzPD. Reality can feel unenjoyable and uninteresting to people with SzPD. They have difficulty finding motivation and lack ambition.[114][154][155] Patients with SzPD often feel as if they are "going through the motions" or that "life passes them by."[6][156][157] Many describe feeling as if they are observing life from a distance.[158] Aaron Beck and his colleagues report that people with SzPD seem comfortable with their aloof lifestyle and consider themselves observers, rather than participants in the world around them. But they also mention that many of their schizoid patients recognize themselves as socially deviant (or even defective) when confronted with the different lives of ordinary people – especially when they read books or see movies focusing on relationships. Even when schizoid individuals may not long for closeness, they can become weary of being "on the outside, looking in". These feelings may lead to depression, depersonalization, or derealization.[120][6][60] If they do, schizoid people often experience feeling "like a robot" or "going through life in a dream".[159] People with SzPD may try to avoid all physical activity in order to become nobody and disconnect from reality. This can lead to the patient spending a large quantity of time sleeping and ignoring bodily functions such as hygiene.[60]

### Internal fantasy

Although this disorder does not affect the patient's capacity to understand reality, they may engage in excessive daydreaming and introspection.[44][160][161] Their daydreams can grow to consume most of their lives. Real life can become secondary to their fantasy,[7] and they can have complex lives and relationships which exist entirely inside of their internal fantasy. These daydreams may constitute a defense mechanism to protect the patient from the outside world and its difficulties.[62][120][162] Common themes in their internal fantasies are omnipotence and grandiosity.[60] The related schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia are reported to have ties to creative thinking, and it is speculated that the internal fantasy aspect of SzPD may also be reflective of this thinking.[163][164][165] Alternatively, there has been an especially large contribution of people with schizoid symptoms to science and theoretical areas of knowledge, including mathematics, physics, economics, etc. At the same time, people with SzPD are helpless at many practical activities because of their symptoms.[166]

### Suicide and self-harm

Symptoms of SzPD such as isolation and the blunted affect put people with schizoid personality disorder at a higher risk of suicide and non-suicidal self-harm.[167][168][169] This may be because their reduced capacities for emotion prevent them from properly dealing with strife. Their solitary nature may contribute by preventing them from finding relief in relationships.[29] Demonstrative suicides or suicide blackmail, as seen in cluster B personality disorders such as borderline, histrionic, or antisocial, are extremely rare among schizoid individuals.[170] As in other clinical mental health settings, among suicidal inpatients, individuals with SzPD are not as well represented as some other groups. A 2011 study on suicidal inpatients at a Moscow hospital found that schizoid individuals were the least common patients, while those with cluster B personality disorders were the most common.[170]

### Low weight

A study that looked at the body mass index (BMI) of a sample of both male adolescents diagnosed with SzPD and those diagnosed with Asperger Syndrome found that the BMI of all patients was significantly below normal. Clinical records indicated abnormal eating behavior by some patients. Some patients would only eat when alone and refused to eat out. Restrictive diets and fears of disease were also found. It was suggested that the anhedonia of SzPD may also affect eating, leading schizoid individuals to not enjoy it.[171] Alternatively, it was suggested that schizoid individuals may not feel hunger as strongly as others or not respond to it, a certain withdrawal "from themselves".[87]

### Substance abuse

Very little data exists for rates of substance use disorder among people with SzPD, but existing studies suggest they are less likely to have substance abuse problems than the general population. One study found that significantly fewer boys with SzPD had alcohol problems than a control group of non-schizoid people.[172] Another study evaluating personality disorder profiles in substance abusers found that substance abusers who showed schizoid symptoms were more likely to abuse one substance rather than many, in contrast to other personality disorders such as borderline, antisocial, or histrionic, which were more likely to abuse many.[173] American psychotherapist Sharon Ekleberry states that the impoverished social connections experienced by people with SzPD limit their exposure to the drug culture and that they have limited inclination to learn how to do illegal drugs. Describing them as "highly resistant to influence", she additionally states that even if they could access illegal drugs, they would be disinclined to use them in public or social settings, and because they would be more likely to use alcohol or cannabis alone than for social disinhibition, they would not be particularly vulnerable to negative consequences in early use.[174] People with SzPD are at a lower risk of substance abuse issues than people with other personality disorders.[175][176] They may form relationships with their substances as a substitute for human contact or to cope with emotional issues.[177][178] People with SzPD may desire psychedelic drugs more than other kinds.[179]

### Secret schizoids

Many schizoid individuals display an engaging, interactive personality, contradicting the observable characteristic emphasized by the DSM-5 and ICD-10 definitions of the schizoid personality. Guntrip (using ideas of Klein, Fairbairn, and Winnicott) classifies these individuals as "secret schizoids", who behave with socially available, interested, engaged, and involved interaction yet remain emotionally withdrawn and sequestered within the safety of the internal world.[180][181] Klein distinguishes between a "classic" SzPD and a "secret" SzPD, which occur "just as often" as each other. Klein cautions one should not misidentify the schizoid person as a result of the patient's defensive, compensatory interaction with the external world. He suggests one ask the person what their subjective experience is, to detect the presence of the schizoid refusal of emotional intimacy and preference for objective fact.[180] A 2013 study looking at personality disorders and Internet use found that being online more hours per day predicted signs of SzPD. Additionally, SzPD correlated with lower phone call use and fewer Facebook friends.[182]

Descriptions of the schizoid personality as "hidden" behind an outward appearance of emotional engagement have been recognized since 1940, with Fairbairn's description of "schizoid exhibitionism", in which the schizoid individual can express a great deal of feeling and make what appear to be impressive social contacts yet, in reality, gives nothing and loses nothing. Because they are "playing a part", their personality is not involved. According to Fairbairn, the person disowns the part they are playing, and the schizoid individual seeks to preserve their personality intact and immune from compromise.[183] The schizoid person's false persona is based on what those around them define as normal or good behavior, as a form of compliance.[60] Further references to the secret schizoid come from Masud Khan,[184] Jeffrey Seinfeld,[185] and Philip Manfield.[50] These scholars described secret schizoids as people who enjoy public speaking engagements but experience great difficulty during the breaks when audience members would attempt to engage them emotionally. These references expose the problems in relying on outer observable behavior for assessing the presence of personality disorders in certain individuals.

### Comorbid disorders

* Agoraphobia[186]
* Avoidant personality disorder[42]
* Borderline personality disorder[42][187]
* Coronary artery disease[188]
* Post-traumatic stress disorder[187]
* Major depressive disorder[189][42]
* Generalized anxiety disorder[3]
* Panic disorder[190]
* Paranoid personality disorder[42]
* Social anxiety disorder[3]
* Schizotypal personality disorder[42][191]
* Obsessive-compulsive disorder[187]

#### Asperger's syndrome

Several studies have reported an overlap or comorbidity with the autism spectrum disorder Asperger syndrome.[19][20][87][192][193][194] Asperger syndrome had traditionally been called "schizoid disorder of childhood",[195][196][197] and Eugen Bleuler coined both the terms "autism" and "schizoid" to describe withdrawal to an internal fantasy, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance.[198] In a 2012 study of a sample of 54 young adults with Asperger syndrome, it was found that 26% of them also met the criteria for SzPD, the highest comorbidity out of any personality disorder in the sample (the other comorbidities were 19% for obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, 13% for avoidant personality disorder and one female with schizotypal personality disorder). Additionally, twice as many men with Asperger syndrome met the criteria for SzPD than women. While 41% of the whole sample were unemployed with no occupation, this rose to 62% for the Asperger's and SzPD comorbid group.[19] Tantam suggested that Asperger syndrome may confer an increased risk of developing SzPD.[87] A 2019 study found that 54% of a group of males aged 11 to 25 with Asperger syndrome showed significant SzPD traits, with 6% meeting full diagnostic criteria for SzPD, compared to 0% of a control group.[20]

In the 2012 study, it was noted that the DSM may complicate diagnosis by requiring the exclusion of a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) before establishing a diagnosis of SzPD. The study found that social interaction impairments, stereotyped behaviors, and specific interests were more severe in the individuals with Asperger syndrome also fulfilling SzPD criteria, against the notion that social interaction skills are unimpaired in SzPD. The authors believe that a substantial subgroup of people with autism spectrum disorder or PDD have clear "schizoid traits" and correspond largely to the "loners" in Lorna Wing's classification The autism spectrum (Lancet 1997), described by Sula Wolff.[19] The authors of the 2019 study hypothesized that it is extremely likely that historic cohorts of adults diagnosed with SzPD either also had childhood-onset autistic syndromes or were misdiagnosed. They stressed that further research to clarify overlap and distinctions between these two syndromes was strongly warranted, especially given that high-functioning autism spectrum disorders are now recognized in around 1% of the population.[199]

## Treatment

### Medication

There are no effective medications for schizoid personality disorder. However, certain medications may reduce the symptoms of SzPD and treat co-occurring mental disorders. Since the symptoms of SzPD mirror the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, antipsychotics have been suggested as a potentially effective medication for SzPD.[22][7][200][201] Originally, low doses of atypical antipsychotics like risperidone or olanzapine were used to alleviate social deficits and blunted affect.[202][203][204][205] However, a 2012 review concluded that atypical antipsychotics were ineffective for treating personality disorders.[21] Antidepressants,[89] SSRIs,[206] anxiolitics,[60] bupropion,[204] modafinil,[207] benzodiazepines,[208][209] and biofeedback[210] may also be effective treatments.

Basic tenets of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, a kind of Psychotherapy used to treat SzPD

### Psychotherapy

Treatment for this disorder uses a combination of cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic psychotherapy.[89][211][212] These techniques can be used to help patients identify their defense mechanisms and change them.[47][213][214] Therapists attempt to establish healthy relationships with their clients,[215] helping to combat their internalized belief that relationships are harmful and unhelpful. Relationships with a therapist can seem terrifying and intrusive to a person with SzPD.[216][217] They may feel as if they need to alter or hide their feelings to meet the therapist's demands or expectations. To combat this, therapists try to gradually increase their patient's emotional expression. Expressing too much too early can lead to their ending therapy. Treatment must be person centered, with clients feeling understood and well regarded.[127][218][219] This can allow them to connect with and understand their emotions.[220][221][222] When people with SzPD do not have their feelings validated, this will confirm their belief that expressing themselves is dangerous.[60] Therapists attempt to avoid intruding on their patients' lives or restricting their freedoms,[60] as to prevent them from feeling as if therapy is intolerable.[6] Because of this, therapy is usually less structured than treatment programs for other disorders.[60] Patients may benefit from long-term treatment lasting several years.[223][21] Inpatient care may be effective for treating SzPD and other Cluster A disorders.[224]

## Controversy

The original concept of the schizoid character developed by Ernst Kretschmer in the 1920s comprised a mix of avoidant, schizotypal, and schizoid traits. It was not until 1980 and the work of Theodore Millon that led to splitting this concept into three personality disorders (now schizoid, schizotypal, and avoidant). This caused debate about whether this was accurate or if these traits were different expressions of a single personality disorder.[31] It has also been argued due to the poor consistency and efficiency of diagnosis due to overlapping traits that SzPD should be removed altogether from the DSM.[192] A 2012 article suggested that two different disorders may better represent SzPD: one affect-constricted disorder (belonging to schizotypal PD) and a seclusive disorder (belonging to avoidant PD). They called for the replacement of the SzPD category from future editions of the DSM with a dimensional model which would allow for the description of schizoid traits on an individual basis.[48]

Some critics such as Nancy McWilliams of Rutgers University and Panagiotis Parpottas of European University Cyprus argue that the definition of SzPD is flawed due to cultural bias and that it does not constitute a mental disorder but simply an avoidant attachment style requiring a more distant emotional proximity.[127][225] If that is true, then many of the more problematic reactions these individuals show in social situations may be partly accounted for by the judgments commonly imposed on people with this style.

Similarly, John Oldham, using a dimensional approach, thinks that most people with schizoid character features do not have a full-blown personality disorder.[226] Impairment is mandatory for any behavior to be diagnosed as a personality disorder.

## Diagnosis

### Guntrip criteria

Ralph Klein, Clinical Director of the Masterson Institute, delineates the following nine characteristics of the schizoid personality as described by Harry Guntrip:[120]: 13–23

* Introversion
* Withdrawnness
* Narcissism
* Self-sufficiency
* A sense of superiority
* Loss of affect
* Loneliness
* Depersonalization
* Regression

The description of Guntrip's nine characteristics should clarify some differences between the traditional DSM portrait of SzPD and the traditional informed object relations view. All nine characteristics are consistent. Most, if not all, must be present to diagnose a schizoid disorder.[120]

### Millon's subtypes

Theodore Millon restricted the term "schizoid" to those personalities who lack the capacity to form social relationships. He characterizes their way of thinking as being vague and void of thoughts and as sometimes having a "defective perceptual scanning". Because they often do not perceive cues that trigger affective responses, they experience fewer emotional reactions.[227][228]

For Millon, SzPD is distinguished from other personality disorders in that it is "the personality disorder that lacks a personality." He criticizes that this may be due to the current diagnostic criteria: They describe SzPD only by an absence of certain traits, which results in a "deficit syndrome" or "vacuum". Instead of delineating the presence of something, they mention solely what is lacking. Therefore, it is hard to describe and research such a concept.[229]

He identified four subtypes of SzPD. Any schizoid individual may exhibit none or one of the following:[229][230]

Subtype  | Features

|

Languid schizoid (including dependent and depressive features)  | Marked inertia; deficient activation level; intrinsically phlegmatic, lethargic, weary, leaden, lackadaisical, exhausted, enfeebled. Unable to act with spontaneity or seeks simplest pleasures, may experience profound angst, yet lack the vitality to express it strongly.
Remote schizoid (including avoidant features)  | Distant and removed; inaccessible, solitary, isolated, homeless, disconnected, secluded, aimlessly drifting; peripherally occupied. Seen among people who would have been otherwise capable of developing normal emotional life but having been subjected to intense hostility lost their innate capability to form bonds. Some residual anxiety is present.
Depersonalized schizoid (including schizotypal features)  | Disengaged from others and self; self is disembodied or distant object; body and mind sundered, cleaved, dissociated, disjoined, eliminated. Often seen as simply staring into the empty space or being occupied with something substantial while actually being occupied with nothing at all.
Affectless schizoid (including compulsive features)  | Passionless, unresponsive, unaffectionate, chilly, uncaring, unstirred, spiritless, lackluster, unexcitable, unperturbed, cold; all emotions diminished. Combines the preference for rigid schedule (obsessive–compulsive feature) with the coldness of the schizoid.

### Akhtar's profile

American psychoanalyst Salman Akhtar provided a comprehensive phenomenological profile of SzPD in which classic and contemporary descriptive views are synthesized with psychoanalytic observations. This profile is summarized in the table reproduced below that lists clinical features that involve six areas of psychosocial functioning and are organized by "overt" and "covert" manifestations.

"Overt" and "covert" are intended to denote seemingly contradictory aspects that may both simultaneously be present in an individual.[12] These designations do not necessarily imply their conscious or unconscious existence. The covert characteristics are by definition difficult to discern and not immediately apparent. Additionally, the lack of data on the frequency of many of the features makes their relative diagnostic weight difficult to distinguish at this time. However, Akhtar states that his profile has several advantages over the DSM in terms of maintaining historical continuity of the use of the word schizoid, valuing depth and complexity over descriptive oversimplification and helping provide a more meaningful differential diagnosis of SzPD from other personality disorders.[12]

Clinical features of schizoid personality disorder[231] Area  | Overt characteristics  | Covert characteristics

|
|

Self-concept |

* compliant
* stoic
* noncompetitive
* self-sufficient
* lacking assertiveness
* feeling inferior and an outsider in life

* cynical
* inauthentic
* depersonalized
* alternately feeling empty, robot-like and full of omnipotent, vengeful fantasies
* hidden grandiosity

Interpersonal relations  |

* withdrawn
* aloof
* have few close friends
* impervious to others' emotions
* afraid of intimacy

* exquisitely sensitive
* deeply curious about others
* hungry for love
* envious of others' spontaneity
* intensely needy of involvement with others
* capable of excitement with carefully selected intimates

Social adaptation |

* prefer solitary occupational and recreational activities
* marginal or eclectically sociable in groups
* vulnerable to esoteric movements owing to a strong need to belong
* tend to be lazy and indolent

* lack clarity of goals
* weak ethnic affiliation
* usually capable of steady work
* quite creative and may make unique and original contributions
* capable of passionate endurance in certain spheres of interest

Love and sexuality  |

* asexual, sometimes celibate
* free of romantic interests
* averse to sexual gossip and innuendo

* secret voyeuristic interests
* vulnerable to erotomania
* tendency towards compulsive perversions

Ethics, standards, and ideals  |

* idiosyncratic moral and political beliefs
* tendency towards spiritual, mystical and para-psychological interests

* moral unevenness
* occasionally strikingly amoral and vulnerable to odd crimes, at other times altruistically self-sacrificing

Cognitive style |

* absent-minded
* engrossed in fantasy
* vague and stilted speech
* alternations between eloquence and inarticulateness

* autistic thinking
* fluctuations between sharp contact with external reality and hyperreflectiveness about the self
* autocentric use of language

### Differential diagnosis

Psychological condition  | Features

|

Other mental disorders with psychotic symptoms | Symptoms of SzPD can appear during the course of disorder with psychotic features such as delusional disorder. However, SzPD does not require the presence of any psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations or delusions.[232]
Depression | People who have SzPD may also have clinical depression. However, this is not always the case. Unlike people with depression, persons with SzPD generally do not consider themselves inferior to others. They may recognize instead that they are "different".
Autism spectrum disorder | There may be substantial difficulty in distinguishing Asperger syndrome (AS), sometimes called "schizoid disorder of childhood", from SzPD. But while AS is an autism spectrum disorder, SzPD is classified as a "schizophrenia-like" personality disorder. There is some overlap, as some people with autism also qualify for a diagnosis of schizotypal or schizoid PD. However, one of the distinguishing features of schizoid PD is a restricted affect and an impaired capacity for emotional experience and expression. Persons with AS are "hypo-mentalizers", i.e., they fail to recognize social cues such as verbal hints, body language and gesticulation, but those with schizophrenia-like personality disorders tend to be "hyper-mentalizers", overinterpreting such cues in a generally suspicious way.[233][234][235] Although they may have been socially isolated from childhood onward, most people with SzPD displayed well-adapted social behavior as children, along with apparently normal emotional function. SzPD also does not require impairments in nonverbal communication such as a lack of eye contact, unusual prosody or a pattern of restricted interests or repetitive behaviors.[236]
Personality change due to another medical condition  | Traits of SzPD can appear due to damage to the central nervous system.[232]
Substance use disorders | Traits of SzPD can appear due to substance abuse.[232]
Other personality disorders and personality traits

## See also

Note: This topic belongs to "Psychology " portal

* Alexithymia
* Asociality
* Counterphobic attitude
* Dissociation (psychology)
* Hermit
* Hikikomori
* Recluse
* Schizothymia
* Schizotypy
* Sluggish cognitive tempo
* Social disorder
* Social isolation
* Schizoid avoidant behavior
* Schizotypal personality disorder

## References

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2. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (1968). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D. C.. p. 42. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890420355.dsm-ii. ISBN 978-0-89042-035-5. https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.books.9780890420355.dsm-ii.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 "Cluster A Personality Disorders: Schizotypal, Schizoid and Paranoid Personality Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 32 (4): 515–528. December 2010. doi:10.1007/s10862-010-9183-8. PMID 21116455.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Chapter 3, Schizoid Personality Disorder" (in en). Personality Disorders: New Symptom-Focused Drug Therapy. Psychology Press. 1997. pp. 45–56. ISBN 9780789001344. https://books.google.com/books?id=KEoPC3_1AGAC&pg=PA45.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 (in en) Personality Disorders. Taylor & Francis. 19 December 2013 (published December 19, 2013). p. 54. ISBN 978-131-783-477-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=RwNmAgAAQBAJ.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 "Cluster A personality disorders: considering the 'odd-eccentric' in psychiatric nursing". International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 16 (1): 15–21. February 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1447-0349.2006.00439.x. PMID 17229270.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "Peer-professional first person account: before psychosis--schizoid personality from the inside". Schizophrenia Bulletin 40 (3): 483–486. May 2014. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt182. PMID 24353095. PMC 3984520. https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/40/3/483/1905514. Retrieved 2022-09-26.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Schizoid personality disorder". Journal of Personality Disorders 26 (6): 919–926. December 2012. doi:10.1521/pedi.2012.26.6.919. PMID 23281676. https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/10.1521/pedi.2012.26.6.919.
9. ↑ "Measuring Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation in Older Adults: Construct Validity of the Dutch BIS/BAS Scales". Assessment 29 (5): 1061–1074. July 2022. doi:10.1177/10731911211000123. PMID 33736472. https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/672419.
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11. ↑ (in en) The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (4th ed.). London; New York: Penguin Books. 2009. p. 706. ISBN 978-014-103-024-1. OCLC 288985213. https://books.google.com/books?id=BIpPEAAAQBAJ.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Akhtar, Salman (2000-01-01) (in en). Broken Structures: Severe Personality Disorders and Their Treatment. Jason Aronson, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-4616-2768-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=bU0eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Dimensional representations of DSM-IV cluster A personality disorders in a population-based sample of Norwegian twins: a multivariate study". Psychological Medicine 36 (11): 1583–1591. November 2006. doi:10.1017/S0033291706008609. PMID 16893481. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/abs/dimensional-representations-of-dsmiv-cluster-a-personality-disorders-in-a-populationbased-sample-of-norwegian-twins-a-multivariate-study/7FCB8A9197B4BB25A78ED768491581BB.
14. ↑ "Psychosis" (in en-US). CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology 21 (3): 715–736. 2015. doi:10.1212/01.CON.0000466662.89908.e7. ISSN 1080-2371. PMID 26039850. PMC 4455840. https://journals.lww.com/continuum/Abstract/2015/06000/Psychosis.15.aspx.
15. ↑ "The heritability of cluster A personality disorders assessed by both personal interview and questionnaire". Psychological Medicine 37 (5): 655–665. May 2007. doi:10.1017/S0033291706009755. PMID 17224098. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/abs/heritability-of-cluster-a-personality-disorders-assessed-by-both-personal-interview-and-questionnaire/12C9CFFF17A2070F77E01EB6548F3F27.
16. ↑ "Factors of schizoid personality". The British Journal of Clinical Psychology 28 (1): 31–40. February 1989. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1989.tb00809.x. PMID 2924025.
17. ↑ "Behavioral signs of schizoidia and schizotypy in social anhedonics". Schizophrenia Research 78 (2–3): 309–322. October 2005. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.04.021. PMID 15950438.
18. ↑ (in en) Neurobiology of Mental Illness. Oxford University Press, USA. 2005-07-21. pp. 240. ISBN 978-0-19-518980-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=en-mwwlzYqgC&pg=PA240.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 "Personality disorders and autism spectrum disorders: what are the connections?". Comprehensive Psychiatry 53 (4): 333–340. May 2012. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.05.014. PMID 21821235. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010440X11001325.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 "On the Continuity Between Autistic and Schizoid Personality Disorder Trait Burden: A Prospective Study in Adolescence". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 208 (2): 94–100. February 2020. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000001105. PMID 31856140.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 ""I am not complaining"--ambivalence construct in schizoid personality disorder". American Journal of Psychotherapy 63 (2): 147–167. 2009-04-01. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2009.63.2.147. PMID 19711768. https://psychotherapy.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2009.63.2.147.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Schizoid personality disorder - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic" (in en). August 17, 2017. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizoid-personality-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354419.
23. ↑ "Schizoid Personality Disorder (pp. 652–655)". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (2013). American Psychiatric Association. 2013. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse.
24. ↑ "Personality disorder types proposed for DSM-5". Journal of Personality Disorders 25 (2): 136–169. April 2011. doi:10.1521/pedi.2011.25.2.136. PMID 21466247. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51019147.
25. ↑ "Dimensions of DSM-IV personality disorders and life-success". Journal of Personality Disorders 21 (6): 657–663. December 2007. doi:10.1521/pedi.2007.21.6.657. PMID 18072866.
26. ↑ Personality Disorders in Modern Life. [electronic resource]. Library Genesis. Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons. 2004 (published November 8, 2004). ISBN 978-0-471-66850-3. http://archive.org/details/personalitydisor00mill.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Descriptions from DSM-III (1980) and DSM-5 (2013):"Schizoid PD, Associated features (p. 310)" and "Schizoid PD (p. 652–655)".
28. ↑ (in en) Disorders of the Self – The Masterson Approach. New York: Taylor & Francis. 17 June 2013 (published June 17, 2013). pp. 25–27; pp. 54–55; pp. 95–143 (therapy). ISBN 978-087-630-786-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=PytkjA3HNqQC. Alt URL
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31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 "The DSM-III Distinction between schizoid and avoidant personality disorders". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 31 (1): 59–62. February 1986. doi:10.1177/070674378603100112. PMID 3948107.
32. ↑ Both types shared a detachment from the world but Schizoids also showed eccentricity and paradoxicality of emotional life and behavior, emotional coldness and dryness, unpredictability combined with lack of intuition and ambivalence (e.g., simultaneous presence of both stubbornness and submissiveness). Characteristic of Dreamers were tenderness and fragility, receptiveness to beauty, weak-willedness and listlessness, luxuriant imagination, dereism and usually an inflated self-concept. (From: Gannushkin, P.B (1933). Manifestations of psychopathies: statics, dynamics, systematic aspects.)
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Physique and Character. London: Routledge (International Library of Psychology,1999). 1931. ISBN 978-0-415-21060-7. OCLC 858861653.
34. ↑ Eugen Bleuler – Textbook of Psychiatry, New York: Macmillan (1924)
35. ↑ Fairnbairn, Ronald (1992). Psychoanalytic Studies of Personality. Routledge. pp. 1–20. ISBN 0-415-05174-6.
36. ↑ Donald Winnicott (1965): The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development. Karnac Books. ISBN 9780946439843.
37. ↑ "Schizoid personality" (in en). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (1st ed.). Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. p. 35. http://www.turkpsikiyatri.org/arsiv/dsm-1952.pdf.
38. ↑ "Schizoid personality" (in en). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. 1968. p. 42. https://www.madinamerica.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DSM-II.pdf.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 "Schizoid Personality Disorder" (in en). StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. 2022. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559234/. Retrieved 2022-09-24.
40. ↑ American Psychiatric Association; American Psychiatric Association. Work Group to Revise DSM-III (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-III-R. Internet Archive. Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Association. ISBN 978-0-89042-018-8. http://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis00amer_1.
41. ↑ "DSM-IV Personality Disorders" (in en). Personality Disorders and States of Aloneness. Value Inquiry Book Series. 246. Brill. 2012-01-01. pp. 351–359. doi:10.1163/9789401207706_016. ISBN 978-94-012-0770-6. https://brill.com/view/book/9789401207706/B9789401207706-s016.xml.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.5 42.6 42.7 42.8 "Schizoid Personality Disorder (ScPD) - Psychiatric Disorders" (in en-GB). https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/psychiatric-disorders/personality-disorders/schizoid-personality-disorder-scpd?ruleredirectid=382.
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45. ↑ "Cluster A maladaptive personality patterns in a non-clinical adolescent population". Psicothema 25 (2): 171–178. 2013. doi:10.7334/psicothema2012.74. PMID 23628530.
46. ↑ "Gender bias in diagnostic criteria for personality disorders: an item response theory analysis". Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116 (1): 166–175. February 2007. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.1.166. PMID 17324027.
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 (in en) Personality Disorders. Taylor & Francis. 19 December 2013 (published December 19, 2013). p. 54. ISBN 978-131-783-477-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=RwNmAgAAQBAJ.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 "Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder in Great Britain". The British Journal of Psychiatry 188 (5): 423–431. May 2006. doi:10.1192/bjp.188.5.423. PMID 16648528.
49. ↑ (in en) Split self/split object: understanding and treating borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid disorders.. Jason Aronson. 1992. pp. 204–207. ISBN 978-0-87668-460-3. https://archive.org/details/splitselfsplitob00manf/page/204.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Maturity of ego defenses in relation to DSM-III axis II personality disorder". Archives of General Psychiatry 42 (6): 597–601. June 1985. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790290079009. PMID 4004502. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/493590.
51. ↑ "Personality disorders in homeless drop-in center clients". Journal of Personality Disorders 22 (6): 573–588. December 2008. doi:10.1521/pedi.2008.22.6.573. PMID 19072678. http://www.ncsinc.org/images/pdfs/JPD_article_winter_2008.pdf.
52. ↑ "An Empirical Investigation of Jung's Personality Types and Psychological Disorder Features". Journal of Psychological Type/University of Colorado Colorado Springs. 2001. http://www.uccs.edu/Documents/dsegal/An-empirical-investigation-Jungs-types-and-PD-features-JPT-2.pdf.
53. ↑ "Common syndromes in child psychiatry: II. The schizoid child." (in en). American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 16 (2): 255–261. 1946. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1946.tb05379.x. ISSN 1939-0025. http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1111/j.1939-0025.1946.tb05379.x.
54. ↑ "Personality disorders and romantic adult attachment: a comparison of secure and insecure attached child molesters". International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 50 (2): 139–147. April 2006. doi:10.1177/0306624X05278515. PMID 16510885.
55. ↑ "A source, a cascade, a schizoid: a heuristic proposal from the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders". Development and Psychopathology 22 (4): 867–881. November 2010. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000519. PMID 20883587.
56. ↑ "Schizoid personality disorder-the peculiarities of their interpersonal relationships and existential roles: Complex case" (in en). Personality and Mental Health 6 (1): 69–74. 2012. doi:10.1002/pmh.1182. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pmh.1182.
57. ↑ "The Black Hole: Exploring the Schizoid Personality Disorder, Dysfunction, and Deprivation with their Roots in the Prenatal and Perinatal Period" (in en). Journal of Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology & Health 33 (1). 2018. ProQuest 2183511090. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2183511090. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 "Schizoid personality disorder-the peculiarities of their interpersonal relationships and existential roles: Complex case" (in en). Personality and Mental Health 6 (1): 69–74. 2012. doi:10.1002/pmh.1182. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pmh.1182.
59. ↑ "Commentary about social avoidance and its significance in adolescents and young adults". Psychiatry Research 297: 113718. March 2021. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113718. PMID 33465524.
60. ↑ 60.00 60.01 60.02 60.03 60.04 60.05 60.06 60.07 60.08 60.09 60.10 60.11 60.12 60.13 60.14 60.15 Wheeler Z (December 2013). Treatment of schizoid personality: An analytic psychotherapy handbook (PDF) (PsyD thesis). Pepperdine University. Archived from the original on April 4, 2021.
61. ↑ "Psychotherapy of Schizoid Process" (PDF). Transactional Analysis Journal 31 (1): 7–23. December 28, 2017. doi:10.1177/036215370103100103. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.549.1050&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 "Schizoid anxiety: a reappraisal of the manic defense and the depressive position". American Journal of Psychotherapy 55 (1): 105–121. 2001-01-01. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2001.55.1.105. PMID 11291187.
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64. ↑ "Anatomy of regret: a developmental view of the depressive position and a critical turn toward love and creativity in the transforming schizoid personality". American Journal of Psychoanalysis 64 (1): 39–76. March 2004. doi:10.1023/B:TAJP.0000017991.56175.ea. PMID 14993841.
65. ↑ (in en) Trauma in Personality Disorder: A Clinician'S Handbook the Masterson Approach. AuthorHouse. 2012-03-31. pp. 120–123. ISBN 978-1-4685-5814-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=jLNaIyVgYzAC.
66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 "Schizoid personality disorder linked to unbearable and inescapable loneliness". The European Journal of Psychiatry 24 (1): 38–45. 2010. doi:10.4321/S0213-61632010000100005. ISSN 0213-6163. https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0213-61632010000100005&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en.
67. ↑ "Gender-related influences of parental alcoholism on the prevalence of psychiatric illnesses: analysis of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 34 (10): 1759–1767. October 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01263.x. PMID 20645936.
68. ↑ (in en) Loners: The Life Path of Unusual Children. Psychology Press. 1995. pp. 35. ISBN 978-0-415-06665-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=Oo9kWqaGqkoC.
69. ↑ (in en) Oxford Textbook of Psychopathology. Oxford University Press. 2014-08-22. pp. 649. ISBN 978-0-19-981184-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=NQ0bBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA639.
70. ↑ "The genetic epidemiology of personality disorders". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 12 (1): 103–114. 2010. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.1/trkjennerud. PMID 20373672.
71. ↑ "Morbidity risk of psychiatric disorders among the first degree relatives of schizophrenia patients in Taiwan" (in En). Schizophrenia Bulletin 28 (3): 379–392. January 1, 2002. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a006947. PMID 12645671.
72. ↑ "Prediction of prodromal symptoms and schizophrenia-spectrum personality disorder traits by positive and negative schizotypy: A 3-year prospective study". PLOS ONE 13 (11): e0207150. 2018-11-08. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207150. PMID 30408119. Bibcode: 2018PLoSO..1307150R.
73. ↑ "Validity of the family history method for diagnosing schizophrenia, schizophrenia-related psychoses, and schizophrenia-spectrum personality disorders in first-degree relatives of schizophrenia probands". Schizophrenia Research 68 (2–3): 309–317. June 2004. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00081-1. PMID 15099612.
74. ↑ "Taxometric analyses of paranoid and schizoid personality disorders". Psychiatry Research 196 (1): 123–132. March 2012. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.10.010. PMID 22377573.
75. ↑ "A developmentally-stable pattern of premorbid schizoid-schizotypal features predicts psychotic transition from the clinical high-risk for psychosis state". Comprehensive Psychiatry 90: 95–101. April 2019. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2019.02.003. PMID 30831438.
76. ↑ "Avoidant personality disorder is a separable schizophrenia-spectrum personality disorder even when controlling for the presence of paranoid and schizotypal personality disorders The UCLA family study". Schizophrenia Research 91 (1–3): 192–199. March 2007. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2006.12.023. PMID 17306508.
77. ↑ "Factor Analysis Demonstrates a Common Schizoidal Phenotype within Autistic and Schizotypal Tendency: Implications for Neuroscientific Studies". Frontiers in Psychiatry 5: 117. 2014. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00117. PMID 25221527.
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79. ↑ "Schizophrenia at adolescence: the relationship between schizophrenia self-reported symptoms and substance abuse, schizoid personality disorder symptoms and migration history". 2013. https://dugi-doc.udg.edu/handle/10256/10537.
80. ↑ "Family History of Psychiatric Disorders and Clinical Factors Associated With a Schizophrenia Diagnosis". Inquiry 58: 469580211060797. 2021. doi:10.1177/00469580211060797. PMID 34845937.
81. ↑ "Personality Traits and Disorders in Adolescents at Clinical High Risk for Psychosis: Toward a Clinically Meaningful Diagnosis". Frontiers in Psychiatry 11: 562835. 2020. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.562835. PMID 33363479.
82. ↑ "Pre-morbid characteristics and co-morbidity of methamphetamine users with and without psychosis". Psychological Medicine 33 (8): 1407–1414. November 2003. doi:10.1017/S0033291703008353. PMID 14672249. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/abs/premorbid-characteristics-and-comorbidity-of-methamphetamine-users-with-and-without-psychosis/867A38591939F3A64E9A1821BF075A76.
83. ↑ "Social Disconnection in Schizophrenia and the General Community". Schizophrenia Bulletin 44 (2): 242–249. February 2018. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx082. PMID 28637195.
84. ↑ "Schizophrenia spectrum personality disorders in psychometrically identified schizotypes at two-year follow-up". Psychiatry Research 252: 289–295. June 2017. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.03.014. PMID 28288440.
85. ↑ "Prenatal famine and adult health". Annual Review of Public Health 32: 237–262. 2011. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101230. PMID 21219171.
86. ↑ "Prenatal undernutrition and cognitive function in late adulthood". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (39): 16881–16886. September 2010. doi:10.1073/pnas.1009459107. PMID 20837515.
87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 87.3 Personality Disorders in Modern Life. [electronic resource]. Library Genesis. Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons. 2004 (published November 8, 2004). ISBN 978-0-471-66850-3. http://archive.org/details/personalitydisor00mill.
88. ↑ "Birth weight, schizophrenia, and adult mental disorder: is risk confined to the smallest babies?". Archives of General Psychiatry 67 (9): 923–930. September 2010. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.100. PMID 20819986. http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/67/9/923.
89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 89.3 89.4 89.5 "An Overview of Schizoid Personality Disorder" (in en). 4th International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2021). Atlantis Press. 24 December 2021. pp. 1657–1663. doi:10.2991/assehr.k.211220.280. ISBN 978-94-6239-495-7. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-21/125967236.
90. ↑ "Associations between body weight and personality disorders in a nationally representative sample" (in en-US). Psychosomatic Medicine 70 (9): 1012–1019. November 2008. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e318189a930. PMID 18842749.
91. ↑ "Prediction of detached personality in healthy subjects by low dopamine transporter binding". The American Journal of Psychiatry 157 (2): 290–292. February 2000. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.2.290. PMID 10671406.
92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 "Differential profile of three overlap psychiatric diagnoses using temperament and character model: A systematic review and meta-analysis of avoidant personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, and social anxiety disorder" (in en). Annals of Indian Psychiatry 6 (1): 15. 2022-01-01. doi:10.4103/aip.aip_148_21. ISSN 2588-8358. https://www.anip.co.in/article.asp?issn=2588-8358;year=2022;volume=6;issue=1;spage=15;epage=26;aulast=Hemmati;type=0.
93. ↑ "Relationship between 5-HT function and impulsivity and aggression in male offenders with personality disorders". The British Journal of Psychiatry 178 (4): 352–359. April 2001. doi:10.1192/bjp.178.4.352. PMID 11282815.
94. ↑ "Reward Processing, Neuroeconomics, and Psychopathology". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 13: 471–495. May 2017. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-044957. PMID 28301764.
95. ↑ "Head injuries can make children loners" (in en). 2014-04-09. https://news.byu.edu/news/head-injuries-can-make-children-loners.
96. ↑ "Developmental instability in social anhedonia: an examination of minor physical anomalies and clinical characteristics". Schizophrenia Research 118 (1–3): 162–167. May 2010. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2009.10.028. PMID 19944570.
97. ↑ "'Schizoid' personality in childhood and adult life. I: The vagaries of diagnostic labelling". The British Journal of Psychiatry 159 (5): 615–620. November 1991. doi:10.1192/bjp.159.5.615. PMID 1756336.
98. ↑ "Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Is a Possible Blood Biomarker of Schizoid Personality Traits among Females". Journal of Personalized Medicine 12 (2): 131. January 2022. doi:10.3390/jpm12020131. PMID 35207620.
99. ↑ "Neuropsychological findings in personality disorders: A.R. Luria's Approach." (in en). Psychology in Russia: State of the Art 8 (2): 113–125. 2015-06-01. doi:10.11621/pir.2015.0210. ISSN 2074-6857. http://psychologyinrussia.com/volumes/pdf/2015_2/2015_2_113-125.pdf.
100. ↑ (in en) Understanding Personality Disorders: An Introduction: An Introduction. ABC-CLIO. 2007-01-30. pp. 17–21. ISBN 978-0-313-06804-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=rpFxDwAAQBAJ.
101. ↑ "A unifying perspective on personality pathology across the life span: developmental considerations for the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders". Development and Psychopathology 21 (3): 687–713. 2009. doi:10.1017/S095457940900039X. PMID 19583880.
102. ↑ Kagan D (2004-05-04). Positive reinforcement as an intervention for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and schizoid personality disorder (MA thesis). Rowan University. Archived from the original on September 25, 2022.
103. ↑ "Potential markers of aggressive behavior: the fear of other persons' laughter and its overlaps with mental disorders". PLOS ONE 7 (5): e38088. 2012-05-31. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038088. PMID 22675438. Bibcode: 2012PLoSO...738088W.
104. ↑ "Child and adolescent psychiatric disorders predicting adult personality disorder: a follow-up study". Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 57 (1): 23–28. 2003-01-01. doi:10.1080/psc.57.1.23. PMID 12745785.
105. ↑ "Subjective quality of life in recent onset of psychosis patients and its association with sociodemographic variables, psychotic symptoms and clinical personality traits". Early Intervention in Psychiatry 13 (3): 525–531. June 2019. doi:10.1111/eip.12515. PMID 29278295.
106. ↑ "Six months of treatment for depression: outcome and predictors of the course of illness". The American Journal of Psychiatry 163 (1): 95–100. January 2006. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.95. PMID 16390895.
107. ↑ "The prevalence of personality disorders, psychotic disorders and affective disorders amongst the patients seen by a community mental health team in London". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 37 (5): 225–229. May 2002. doi:10.1007/s00127-002-0533-z. PMID 12107714. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-002-0533-z.
108. ↑ "Patient personality and therapist response: an empirical investigation". The American Journal of Psychiatry 171 (1): 102–108. January 2014. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13020224. PMID 24077643. https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13020224.
109. ↑ "The role of personality disorder in 'difficult to reach' patients with depression: findings from the ODIN study". European Psychiatry 22 (3): 153–159. April 2007. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2006.07.003. PMID 17127039. https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/handle/10197/5863.
110. ↑ "An attachment perspective on psychopathology". World Psychiatry 11 (1): 11–15. February 2012. doi:10.1016/j.wpsyc.2012.01.003. PMID 22294997.
111. ↑ "Clinical assessment of attachment patterns and personality disorder in adolescents and adults". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74 (6): 1065–1085. December 2006. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.1065. PMID 17154736.
112. ↑ (in en) Handbook of Diagnosis and Treatment of DSM-5 Personality Disorders: Assessment, Case Conceptualization, and Treatment, Third Edition (3rd ed.). Routledge. 2016-05-12. ISBN 978-1-135-01922-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=AMsmDAAAQBAJ.
113. ↑ "Antisocial and Schizoid Personality Disorder Scales: Conceptual bases and preliminary findings". Romanian Journal of Applied Psychology (Romania: West University of Timisoara Publishing Hous) 19 (1). June 30, 2017. doi:10.24913/rjap.19.1.02. http://www.rjap.psihologietm.ro/Download/rjap191_2.pdf.
114. ↑ 114.0 114.1 "Development and Preliminary Psychometric Evaluation of the Dimensional Clinical Personality Inventory - Schizoid Personality Disorder Scale" (in en). Avaliação Psicológica 19 (3): 289–297. 2020. doi:10.15689/ap.2020.1903.16758.07. ISSN 1677-0471. http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1677-04712020000300008&lng=pt&nrm=iso&tlng=en.
115. ↑ "The relationship between five-factor personality measurements and ICD-10 personality disorder dimensions: results from a sample of 229 subjects". Journal of Personality Disorders 14 (3): 282–290. 2000-09-01. doi:10.1521/pedi.2000.14.3.282. PMID 11019751.
116. ↑ "Personality Disorders" (in en). Mental Health Disorders in Adolescents. Rutgers University Press. 2010-12-22. pp. 192–202. doi:10.36019/9780813552347-016. ISBN 978-0-8135-5234-7. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.36019/9780813552347-016/html.
117. ↑ "Social anhedonia as a predictor of the development of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders". Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107 (4): 558–565. November 1998. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.558. PMID 9830243. http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/T_Kwapil_Social_1998.pdf.
118. ↑ "Positive and negative symptoms of schizotypy and the Five-factor model: a domain and facet level analysis". Journal of Personality Assessment (Psychology Faculty Publications) 79 (1): 53–72. August 2002. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA7901_04. PMID 12227668. https://ecommons.udayton.edu/psy_fac_pub/15/?utm_source=ecommons.udayton.edu/psy_fac_pub/15&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages.
119. ↑ "Evidence for the Discriminant Validity of the Revised Social Anhedonia Scale From Social Anxiety". Assessment 23 (5): 544–556. October 2016. doi:10.1177/1073191115590851. PMID 26092042.
120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 120.2 120.3 120.4 120.5 120.6 120.7 (in en) Disorders of the Self: New Therapeutic Horizons: The Masterson Approach. Routledge. June 23, 2015. ISBN 978-113-888-374-1. https://www.routledge.com/Disorders-of-the-Self-New-Therapeutic-Horizons-The-Masterson-Approach/Masterson-MD-Klein-MD/p/book/9781138883741. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
121. ↑ "Schizoid Personality Disorder" (in en). The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (1st ed.). Wiley. 2020-09-18. pp. 181–185. doi:10.1002/9781119547181.ch294. ISBN 978-1-119-05747-5.
122. ↑ "Homicidal Ideation and Forensic Psychopathology: Evidence From the 2016 Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS)". Journal of Forensic Sciences 65 (1): 154–159. January 2020. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.14156. PMID 31404481.
123. ↑ Split self/split object: understanding and treating borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid disorders.. Jason Aronson. 1992. pp. 204–207. ISBN 978-0-87668-460-3. https://archive.org/details/splitselfsplitob00manf/page/204.
124. ↑ "A study of Fairbairn's theory of schizoid reactions". The British Journal of Medical Psychology 25 (2–3): 86–103. September 1952. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1952.tb00791.x. PMID 12987588.
125. ↑ "Refining personality disorder diagnosis: integrating science and practice". The American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (8): 1350–1365. August 2004. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1350. PMID 15285958. https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1350.
126. ↑ 126.0 126.1 "Some thoughts about schizoid dynamics". Psychoanalytic Review 93 (1): 1–24. February 2006. doi:10.1521/prev.2006.93.1.1. PMID 16637769.
127. ↑ 127.0 127.1 127.2 127.3 "A critique on the use of standard psychopathological classifications in understanding human distress: The example of 'schizoid personality disorder'." (in en). Counselling Psychology Review (Cyprus) 27 (1): 44–52. 2012. doi:10.53841/bpscpr.2011.27.1.44. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-08620-004. Retrieved 2022-09-26.
128. ↑ "The distinction between needs and wishes: implications for psychoanalytic theory and technique". Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 47 (1): 113–151. 1999. doi:10.1177/00030651990470010201. PMID 10367274.
129. ↑ The Family and Individual Development. Routledge. 2006. p. 73. ISBN 978-0415402774.
130. ↑ Ernst Kretschmer (March 2013). "Chapter 10. Schizoid temperaments" (in ru). Body structure and character. Studies on the constitution and theory of temperaments. Ripol Classic. ISBN 9785458358392. http://sbiblio.com/biblio/archive/krechmer_stroenie/04.aspx.
131. ↑ "Schizoid Personality Traits Among the Homeless Mentally Ill: A uantitative and Qualitative Report" (in en). Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 9 (2): 127–141. April 2000. doi:10.1023/A:1009470318513. ISSN 1573-658X.
132. ↑ "Altruism and Reproductive Limitations" (in en). Evolutionary Psychology 7 (2): 147470490900700. 2009-04-01. doi:10.1177/147470490900700207. ISSN 1474-7049.
133. ↑ "Sociodemographic and diagnostic characteristics of homicidal and nonhomicidal sexual offenders". Journal of Forensic Sciences 56 (6): 1626–1631. November 2011. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01933.x. PMID 21981447.
134. ↑ "Above and beyond Short-Term Mating, Long-Term Mating is Uniquely Tied to Human Personality" (in en). Evolutionary Psychology 11 (5): 1101–1129. 2013-12-01. doi:10.1177/147470491301100514. ISSN 1474-7049. PMID 24342881.
135. ↑ 135.0 135.1 "Schizoid". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 118 (3): 237–249. September 1953. doi:10.1097/00005053-195309000-00004. PMID 13118367.
136. ↑ "Development and Preliminary Psychometric Evaluation of a Brief Self-Report Questionnaire for the Assessment of the DSM-5 level of Personality Functioning Scale: The LPFS Brief Form (LPFS-BF)". Personality Disorders 7 (2): 192–197. April 2016. doi:10.1037/per0000159. PMID 26595344. http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/per0000159.
137. ↑ "Temperament, character and personality disorders as predictors of response to interpersonal psychotherapy and cognitive-behavioural therapy for depression". The British Journal of Psychiatry 190 (6): 503–508. June 2007. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.024737. PMID 17541110.
138. ↑ "Asexuality: a mixed-methods approach". Archives of Sexual Behavior 39 (3): 599–618. June 2010. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9434-x. PMID 19082703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9434-x.
139. ↑ "Social anhedonia, but not positive schizotypy, is associated with poor affective control". Personality Disorders 3 (3): 263–272. July 2012. doi:10.1037/a0024488. PMID 22452767.
140. ↑ "Cognitive Empathy and Emotional Empathy in Human Behavior and Evolution" (in en). The Psychological Record 56 (1): 3–21. 2006-01-01. doi:10.1007/BF03395534. ISSN 2163-3452. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395534.
141. ↑ "Theory of Mind (ToM) Performance in High Functioning Autism (HFA) and Schizotypal-Schizoid Personality Disorders (SSPD) Patients". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 49 (8): 3376–3386. August 2019. doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04058-1. PMID 31104261.
142. ↑ "Assessing mentalization in psychotherapy: first validation of the Mentalization Imbalances Scale". Research in Psychotherapy 21 (3): 339. December 2018. doi:10.4081/ripppo.2018.339. PMID 32913774.
143. ↑ "The Inner Self in the Schizoid Condition". The Divided Self: an Existential Study in Sanity and Madness. Harmondsworth, Middlesex; Baltimore: Penguin Books. 1965. pp. 82–100. ISBN 9780140207347. OCLC 5212085. https://books.google.com/books?id=4JT-12rMtJsC&pg=PT87.
144. ↑ (in en) Personality Disorders. Infobase Publishing. 2007. pp. 21. ISBN 978-1-4381-1839-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=EGZZgqcIkm0C.
145. ↑ "Preliminary study of relationships between hypnotic susceptibility and personality disorder functioning styles in healthy volunteers and personality disorder patients". BMC Psychiatry 11 (1): 121. July 2011. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-11-121. PMID 21801440.
146. ↑ "Shut in or split up? A commentary on Dr. Nirestean and colleagues' 'Schizoid personality disorder-the peculiarities of their interpersonal relationships and existential roles': Shut in or split up?" (in en). Personality and Mental Health 6 (1): 77–82. 2012. doi:10.1002/pmh.1179. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pmh.1179.
147. ↑ "Engaging With the Schizoid Compromise: A Response to Erskine's "Relational Withdrawal, Attunement to Silence: Psychotherapy of the Schizoid Process"" (in en). International Journal of Integrative Psychotherapy 11 (1): 29–54. 2021-03-12. ISSN 2156-9703. http://integrative-journal.com/index.php/ijip/article/view/165.
148. ↑ "Schizoid personality disorder: a synthesis of developmental, dynamic, and descriptive features". American Journal of Psychotherapy 41 (4): 499–518. October 1987. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1987.41.4.499. PMID 3324773.
149. ↑ Disorders of Affect Regulation: Alexithymia in Medical and Psychiatric Illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1997. pp. 162–165. ISBN 978-0-521-45610-4.
150. ↑ "Chapter 5. Hope and Alexithymia" (in en). Mixed Feelings. De Gruyter. 2013-05-02. pp. 153–157. doi:10.1515/9783110319453.145. ISBN 978-3-11-031945-3. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110319453.145/html.
151. ↑ "Are alexithymia and schizoid personality disorder synonymous diagnoses?". Comprehensive Psychiatry 54 (2): 141–148. February 2013. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.07.005. PMID 23021894.
152. ↑ Newberry MT. An exploration of the trauma histories, dissociative experiences and psychopathic features of murderers (Ph.D. thesis). London: Brunel University. Archived from the original on September 25, 2022.
153. ↑ "Reliability and cultural applicability of the Greek version of the International Personality Disorders Examination". BMC Psychiatry 2 (1): 6. May 2002. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-2-6. PMID 12019033.
154. ↑ Mullins-Sweatt S (2004-06-04). Personality Disorders as Maladaptive Variants of General Personality Traits: A Subclinical Approach (MA thesis). Morehead State University. Archived from the original on September 25, 2022. Retrieved September 25, 2022.
155. ↑ "An Integrative Model and Dynamic Nosology of Personality Disorder: Part 2: Symptom-based pharmacotherapy". Psychiatria Danubina 31 (1): 2–17. March 2019. doi:10.24869/psyd.2019.2. PMID 30948684. https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/324300.
156. ↑ "Mental Disorders and Criminal Behavior" (in en). Criminal Trials and Mental Disorders. New York University Press. 2019-02-05. pp. 36–37. doi:10.18574/nyu/9781479804856.003.0002. ISBN 978-1-4798-5075-4. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.18574/nyu/9781479804856.003.0002/html.
157. ↑ "Fairbairn, Winnicott, and Guntrip on the social significance of schizoids" (in en). History of the Human Sciences 35 (3–4): 144–167. April 29, 2021. doi:10.1177/09526951211008078. ISSN 0952-6951.
158. ↑ Restructuring Personality Disorders: A Short-Term Dynamic Approach. New York: The Guilford Press. 1997. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-57230-185-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=zlFVfzH8orMC&pg=PA236.
159. ↑ "Chapter 7 Schizoid and Schizotypal PD (p.120-146)". Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders (1st ed.). The Guilford Press. 1990. pp. 125 (Millon),127–129 (cognitive therapy conceptualization). ISBN 9780898624342. OCLC 906420553.
160. ↑ (in en) Playing and Reality. Psychology Press. 1991. pp. 26–28. ISBN 978-0-415-03689-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=JHMdZC08HhcC.
161. ↑ "Sensitivity, isolation, and loneliness in the treatment of schizoid personality disorder". Modern Psychoanalysis 45 (2): 155–175. December 1, 2021.
162. ↑ "Compulsions and Personality Disorders: Homicides and Suicides: a Social Health Issue Based on Bioenergetic Analysis" (in en). Bioenergetic Analysis 29 (1): 79–97. 2019-04-01. doi:10.30820/0743-4804-2019-29-79. ISSN 2747-8882. https://bioenergetic-analysis.com/article/view/0743-4804-2019-29-79.
163. ↑ "Six subclinical spectrum traits in normal creativity". Creativity Research Journal 13 (1): 5–16. 2001. doi:10.1207/s15326934crj1301_2.
164. ↑ "Creativity and Ego Defense Mechanisms: Some Exploratory Empirical Evidence". Creativity Research Journal 14 (1): 17–25. 2002. doi:10.1207/S15326934CRJ1401_2.
165. ↑ "Creativity in Offspring of Schizophrenic and Control Parents: An Adoption Study". Creativity Research Journal 13 (1): 17–25. 2001. doi:10.1207/S15326934CRJ1301_3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233244470.
166. ↑ (in ru) Очерки душевной патологии. И возможности ее коррекции соотносительно с духовным измерением бытия. Litres. 2017-09-05. ISBN 9785040548330. https://books.google.com/books?id=Xw_JDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT215. "Especially important is the contribution of schizoid scientists in the theoretical fields of knowledge: mathematics, physics, economics. At the same time, schizoid individuals are absolutely helpless in practical activities."
167. ↑ "Suicidality in Individuals with Schizoid Personality Disorder or Traits: A Clinical Mini-Review of a Probably Underestimated Issue". Psychiatria Danubina 33 (3): 261–265. 2021. doi:10.24869/psyd.2021.261. PMID 34795159. https://www.psychiatria-danubina.com/UserDocsImages/pdf/dnb_vol33_no3/dnb_vol33_no3_261.pdf.
168. ↑ "Personality and psychotic symptoms as predictors of self-harm and attempted suicide". Psychiatria Danubina 27 (Suppl 1): S285–S291. September 2015. PMID 26417781.
169. ↑ "Mental pain and its communication in medically serious suicide attempts: an "impossible situation"". Journal of Affective Disorders 111 (2–3): 244–250. December 2008. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.02.022. PMID 18436309.
170. ↑ 170.0 170.1 "Расстройства Личности у Пациентов, Совершивших Суицидальные Попытки". Российский психиатрический журнал (3): 48–51. 2011. ISSN 1560-957X. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/rasstroystva-lichnosti-u-patsientov-sovershivshih-suitsidalnye-popytki.
171. ↑ "Low body weight in male children and adolescents with schizoid personality disorder or Asperger's disorder". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 96 (1): 64–67. July 1997. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1997.tb09906.x. PMID 9259226.
172. ↑ "'Schizoid' personality and antisocial conduct: a retrospective case not study". Psychological Medicine 16 (3): 677–687. August 1986. doi:10.1017/S0033291700010424. PMID 3763781.
173. ↑ "Comorbidity in a clinical sample of substance abusers". The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 27 (1): 45–64. February 2001. doi:10.1081/ADA-100103118. PMID 11373036.
174. ↑ "Cluster A - Schizoid Personality Disorder and Substance Use Disorders". Integrated Treatment for Co-Occurring Disorders: Personality Disorders and Addiction. Routledge. 2008. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-0789036933. https://books.google.com/books?id=O5HY1xcfjEcC&pg=PA31.
175. ↑ "Self-change and therapy change of smoking behavior: A comparison of processes of change in cessation and maintenance" (in en). Addictive Behaviors 7 (2): 133–142. January 1982. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(82)90038-7. ISSN 0306-4603. PMID 7102444. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(82)90038-7.
176. ↑ "Disparities in the management of cardiovascular risk factors in patients with psychiatric disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Psychological Medicine 48 (16): 2693–2701. December 2018. doi:10.1017/s0033291718000302. PMID 29490716. https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/disparities-in-the-management-of-cardiovascular-risk-factors-in-patients-with-psychiatric-disorders(fc8193c9-de51-447e-8626-62542e98b347).html.
177. ↑ "Mood regulation, alexithymia, and personality disorders in female patients with opioid use disorders". Middle East Current Psychiatry 29 (1): 57. 2022-08-01. doi:10.1186/s43045-022-00222-z. ISSN 2090-5416.
178. ↑ "Schizoid phenomena in substance abusers". Journal of Addictive Diseases 21 (3): 73–85. 2002-06-17. doi:10.1300/J069v21n03_06. PMID 12095001.
179. ↑ (in en) Integrated Treatment for Co-Occurring Disorders: Personality Disorders and Addiction. Routledge. 2011-04-27. ISBN 978-1-136-91493-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=3gbGBQAAQBAJ.
180. ↑ 180.0 180.1 (in en) Disorders of the Self – The Masterson Approach. New York: Taylor & Francis. 17 June 2013 (published June 17, 2013). pp. 25–27; pp. 54–55; pp. 95–143 (therapy). ISBN 978-087-630-786-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=PytkjA3HNqQC. Alt URL
181. ↑ Islamic Terror: Conscious and Unconscious Motives. ABC-CLIO. 2008. pp. 98. ISBN 978-0-313-35764-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=tcTpj4MMqxIC&pg=PA98.
182. ↑ "Is Facebook creating "iDisorders"? The link between clinical symptoms of psychiatric disorders and technology use, attitudes and anxiety". Computers in Human Behavior 29 (3): 1243–1254. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.012. ISSN 0747-5632.
183. ↑ Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality. Routledge. 2013. pp. 3–17. ISBN 978-1-134-84213-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=LwxoUHnyvj0C.
184. ↑ "The Role of phobic and counter-phobic mechanisms and separation anxiety in schizoid character formation". The Privacy of the Self – Papers on Psychoanalytic Theory and Technique. New York: International Universities Press. 1974. p. 70. ISBN 978-0823643103.
185. ↑ The Empty Core: An Object Relations Approach to Psychotherapy of the Schizoid Personality. J. Aronson. 1991. ISBN 978-0-87668-611-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=r9ZrAAAAMAAJ. "Seinfeld writes: "The schizoid may also seem to be sociable and involved in relationships. However, he is frequently playing a role and not 'fully' involved, unconsciously disowning this role...""
186. ↑ "Review of pharmacologic treatment in cluster A personality disorders". The Mental Health Clinician 6 (2): 75–81. March 2016. doi:10.9740/mhc.2016.03.75. PMID 29955451.
187. ↑ 187.0 187.1 187.2 Pietrzak, Robert H.; Goldstein, Risë B.; Southwick, Steven M.; Grant, Bridget F. (May 2011). "Personality Disorders Associated with Full and Partial Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the U.S. Population: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions". Journal of Psychiatric Research 45 (5): 678–686. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.09.013. ISSN 0022-3956. PMID 20950823.
188. ↑ "The Co-Occurrence of Trauma Related Disorder and Borderline Personality Disorder: AQ Study on a Clinical Sample of Patients Seeking Psychotherapy Treatment". Psychiatry Research 295: 113587. January 2021. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113587. PMID 33349435. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178120332480.
189. ↑ Corruble, E.; Ginestet, D.; Guelfi, J.D. (April 1996). "Comorbidity of personality disorders and unipolar major depression: A review". Journal of Affective Disorders 37 (2–3): 157–170. doi:10.1016/0165-0327(95)00091-7. ISSN 0165-0327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-0327(95)00091-7.
190. ↑ Navinés, Ricard; Egmond, Elfi; Martín-Santos, Rocío (2016), Nardi, Antonio Egidio; Freire, Rafael Christophe R., eds., "Panic Disorder and Personality Disorder Comorbidity" (in en), Panic Disorder: Neurobiological and Treatment Aspects (Cham: Springer International Publishing): pp. 169–184, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-12538-1_10, ISBN 978-3-319-12538-1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12538-1_10, retrieved 2023-12-30
191. ↑ "Schizotypal personality: neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2 (1): 291–326. 2006-04-01. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095318. PMID 17716072.
192. ↑ 192.0 192.1 "Poor Validity of the DSM-IV Schizoid Personality Disorder Construct as a Diagnostic Category". Journal of Personality Disorders 29 (3): 334–346. June 2015. doi:10.1521/pedi_2014_28_159. PMID 25248009.
193. ↑ "Association of schizophrenia spectrum and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms in children with ASD and clinic controls". Research in Developmental Disabilities 34 (4): 1289–1299. April 2013. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.01.011. PMID 23417134.
194. ↑ "'Schizoid' personality in childhood and adult life. III: The childhood picture". The British Journal of Psychiatry 159 (5): 629–635. November 1991. doi:10.1192/bjp.159.5.629. PMID 1756338. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/abs/schizoid-personality-in-childhood-and-adult-life-iii-the-childhood-picture/1EA3B194FADC3226A671286BA57A98F1.
195. ↑ "Schizoid personality in childhood: a comparative study of schizoid, autistic and normal children". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 20 (1): 29–46. January 1979. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1979.tb01704.x. PMID 422686.
196. ↑ "Schizoid Personality in Childhood and Asperger Syndrome" (in en). Asperger Syndrome (1st ed.). New York City: The Guilford Press. 18 February 2000 (published February 18, 2020). pp. 278–309. ISBN 978-157-230-534-2. http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/76260/1/25.pdf.
197. ↑ "The history of autism". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (Springer Publishing) 13 (4): 201–208. August 2004. August 19, 2004. doi:10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5. PMID 15365889. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5.
198. ↑ "Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology". History of Psychiatry 15 (59 Pt 3): 361–366. September 2004. doi:10.1177/0957154X04044603. PMID 15386868. The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.
199. ↑ (in en) Pronounced Overlap of Autistic and Schizoid Personality Trait Burden in Adolescence. 2019-05-03. https://insar.confex.com/insar/2019/webprogram/Paper30221.html.
200. ↑ "Effectiveness of clozapine and olanzapine: a comparison in severe, psychotically ill patients". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 4 (2): 135–137. June 2001. doi:10.1017/S1461145701002309. PMID 11466163.
201. ↑ "Aripiprazole: effectiveness and safety under naturalistic conditions". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 15 (6): 569–575. December 2007. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.15.6.569. PMID 18179310.
202. ↑ (in en) Treatment of Personality Disorders. Springer. 1999. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-6876-3. ISBN 978-1-4419-3326-3. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4757-6876-3.
203. ↑ "The Psychopharmacological Treatment of Personality Disorders" (in en). Biological Psychiatry. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2002-07-30. pp. 1419–1429. doi:10.1002/0470854871.chxxvi9. ISBN 978-0-471-49198-9.
204. ↑ 204.0 204.1 "Chapter 3, Schizoid Personality Disorder" (in en). Personality Disorders: New Symptom-Focused Drug Therapy. Psychology Press. 1997. pp. 45–56. ISBN 9780789001344. https://books.google.com/books?id=KEoPC3_1AGAC&pg=PA45.
205. ↑ "Pharmacotherapy for personality disorders". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 4 (10): 1643–1649. October 2003. doi:10.1517/14656566.4.10.1643. PMID 14521475.
206. ↑ (in en) Psychiatric Drugs in Children and Adolescents. 2014. pp. 477–478. doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1501-5. ISBN 978-3-7091-1500-8. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-7091-1501-5.
207. ↑ "Modafinil effects on cognition and emotion in schizophrenia and its neurochemical modulation in the brain". Neuropharmacology 64: 168–184. January 2013. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.07.011. PMID 22820555.
208. ↑ "Personality Disorders" (in en). The Medical Basis of Psychiatry. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. 2008. pp. 471–483. doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-252-6_28. ISBN 978-1-59745-252-6.
209. ↑ "A retrospective data analysis of the impact of the New York triplicate prescription program on benzodiazepine use in medicaid patients with chronic psychiatric and neurologic disorders". Clinical Therapeutics 26 (2): 322–336. February 2004. doi:10.1016/S0149-2918(04)90030-6. PMID 15038954.
210. ↑ "Effects of Aesthetic Chills on a Cardiac Signature of Emotionality". PLOS ONE 10 (6): e0130117. 2015-06-17. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130117. PMID 26083383. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1030117S.
211. ↑ "Integrating cognitive-behavioral therapy and gratitude therapy for treating somatic symptom disorder with schizoid-avoidant personality features: A case report" (in en). Jurnal Psikologi Ulayat: Indonesian Journal of Indigenous Psychology 7 (2): 113–121. 2020-09-08. doi:10.24854/jpu127. ISSN 2580-1228. https://publication.k-pin.org/index.php/jpu/article/view/127.
212. ↑ "Applying the unified protocol to a single case of major depression with schizoid and depressive personality traits". Psicothema 30 (4): 364–369. November 2018. doi:10.7334/psicothema2018.41. PMID 30353835.
213. ↑ "Increasing Psychosocial Health with Cognitive Therapy in Schizoid Personality Disorder: A Single Subject Design" (in english). Athens Journal of Health & Medical Sciences 6 (4): 197–212. November 29, 2017. doi:10.30958/ajhms.6-4-1. https://www.athensjournals.gr/health/2019-6-4-1-Mankiewicz.pdf.
214. ↑ "Maybe It's Not "Kick Me" After All: Transactional Analysis and Schizoid Personality Disorder". Transactional Analysis Journal 30 (1): 84–90. 2000-01-01. doi:10.1177/036215370003000109. ISSN 0362-1537. https://doi.org/10.1177/036215370003000109.
215. ↑ "Assessment and management of personality disorders". American Family Physician 70 (8): 1505–1512. October 2004. PMID 15526737. https://www.aafp.org/dam/brand/aafp/pubs/afp/issues/2004/1015/p1505.pdf.
216. ↑ "Differential interventions in psychotherapy of borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid personality disorders: the Masterson approach". Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 4 (4): 233–245. 1997. January 5, 1999. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0879(199712)4:4<233::AID-CPP141>3.0.CO;2-F.
217. ↑ "How to play with patients who would rather remain remote". Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 53 (3): 811–834. 2005. doi:10.1177/00030651050530030601. PMID 16187635.
218. ↑ "Schizoid Processes: Working with the Defenses of the Withdrawn Child Ego State". Transactional Analysis Journal 31 (1): 33–43. 2001-01-01. doi:10.1177/036215370103100105. ISSN 0362-1537.
219. ↑ "Relational Withdrawal, Attunement to Silence: Psychotherapy of the Schizoid Process" (in en). International Journal of Integrative Psychotherapy 11 (1): 14–28. 2020-12-23. ISSN 2156-9703. https://www.integrative-journal.com/index.php/ijip/article/view/161.
220. ↑ "Assimilation process in a psychotherapy with a client presenting schizoid personality disorder" (in en). Swiss Archives of Neurology, Psychiatry and Psychotherapy 161 (4): 128–134. 2010-05-26. doi:10.4414/sanp.2010.02162.
221. ↑ "Commentary on 'Schizoid personality disorder-the peculiarities of their interpersonal relationships and existential roles' by Nirestean, et al.: Commentary" (in en). Personality and Mental Health 6 (1): 83–85. 2012. doi:10.1002/pmh.1180. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pmh.1180.
222. ↑ "Schizoid Fantasy: Refuge or Transitional Location?". Clinical Social Work Journal 46 (1): 42–47. 2018. doi:10.1007/s10615-017-0629-2. PMID 29540940.
223. ↑ "Assessing progress in analysis interminable". Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 52 (4): 1185–1214. 2004. doi:10.1177/00030651040520041301. PMID 15686090.
224. ↑ "Patients with cluster a personality disorders in psychotherapy: an effectiveness study" (in english). Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 80 (2): 88–99. 2011. doi:10.1159/000320587. PMID 21196806. https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/320587.
225. ↑ Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. 2011. p. 196. ISBN 9781609184940. https://books.google.com/books?id=BzPOAWB2DncC&pg=PA196.
226. ↑ Hurt, Avery (Jun 28, 2023). "What Is Schizoid Personality Disorder And How Does It Affect Mental Health?". Discover Magazine. https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/what-is-schizoid-personality-disorder-and-how-does-it-affect-mental-health. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
227. ↑ Aaron T. Beck; Arthur Freeman (1990). "Chapter 7 Schizoid and Schizotypal PD (p.120-146)". Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders (1st ed.). The Guilford Press. pp. 125 (Millon), 127–129 (cognitive therapy conceptualization). ISBN 9780898624342. OCLC 906420553
228. ↑ (in en) Understanding Anger Disorders. Oxford University Press, USA. 2007. pp. 207. ISBN 9780195170795. https://books.google.com/books?id=kYsRDAAAQBAJ&q=schizoid+"perceptual+scanning"&pg=PA207.
229. ↑ 229.0 229.1 Personality Disorders in Modern Life. [electronic resource]. Library Genesis. Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons. 2004 (published November 8, 2004). ISBN 978-0-471-66850-3. http://archive.org/details/personalitydisor00mill.
230. ↑ "Millon Theory - Retiring/Schizoid Personality". https://www.millonpersonality.com/theory/diagnostic-taxonomy/schizoid.htm.
231. ↑ Salman Akhtar (1987). "Schizoid Personality Disorder: A Synthesis of Developmental, Dynamic, and Descriptive Features". American Journal of Psychotherapy 41 (4): 499–518. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1987.41.4.499. ISBN 9781461627685. PMID 3324773. https://books.google.com/books?id=bU0eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121. Retrieved 2017-02-10.
232. ↑ 232.0 232.1 232.2 (in En) Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, Virginia: American Psychiatric Association. May 18, 2013. pp. 652–655. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1. https://archive.org/details/info_munsha_DSM5/page/n1/mode/2up.
233. ↑ "Self-referential hypermentalization in schizotypy". Personality Disorders 10 (6): 536–544. November 2019. doi:10.1037/per0000344. PMID 31144838.
234. ↑ "Hypermentalizing as a marker of borderline personality disorder in Italian adolescents: a cross-cultural replication of Sharp and colleagues' (2011) findings". Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation 6: 5. April 2019. doi:10.1186/s40479-019-0104-5. PMID 31007932.
235. ↑ "Schizophrenia and autism as contrasting minds: neural evidence for the hypo-hyper-intentionality hypothesis". Schizophrenia Bulletin 41 (1): 171–179. January 2015. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu124. PMID 25210055.
236. ↑ "The investigation and differential diagnosis of Asperger syndrome in adults". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 110 (45): 755–763. November 2013. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2013.0755. PMID 24290364.

## External links

* David Kishik, "Self Study: Notes on the Schizoid Condition"
* The Biological foundations of the Schizoid Process
* NY Times article "Like a Fish Needs a Bicycle: For Some People, Intimacy Is Toxic"
* Psychology Today (2017): The Disappearance of the Schizoid Personality

Classification|

* ICD-11: 6D10
* ICD-10: F60.1
* ICD-9-CM: 301.20
* MeSH: D012557
* SNOMED CT: 52954000

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External resources|

* MedlinePlus: 000920

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