Online shaming

Short description: Form of public shaming

Online shaming is a form of public shaming in which targets are publicly humiliated on the internet, via social media platforms (e.g. Twitter or Facebook), or more localized media (e.g. email groups). As online shaming frequently involves exposing private information on the Internet, the ethics of public humiliation has been a source of debate over Internet privacy and media ethics. Online shaming takes many forms, including call-outs, cancellation (cancel culture), doxing, negative reviews, and revenge porn.

## Contents

* 1 Description
* 2 Types
* 2.1 Call-outs and cancellation
* 2.2 Doxing
* 2.3 Negative reviews
* 2.4 Revenge porn
* 2.5 Social status shaming
* 3 Examples
* 3.1 Justine Sacco incident
* 3.2 Ashley Madison data breach
* 3.3 Tim Hunt controversy
* 3.4 "Shirtstorm" controversy
* 3.5 Hypatia transracialism controversy
* 3.6 Goblin Valley rock-toppling incident
* 3.7 Dog Poop Girl
* 3.8 Cooks Source incident
* 3.9 Donglegate
* 4 See also
* 5 References
* 6 External links

## Description

Online shaming is a form of public shaming in which internet users are harassed, mocked, or bullied by other internet users online. This shaming may involve commenting directly to or about the shamed; the sharing of private messages; or the posting of private photos. Those being shamed are often accused of committing a social transgression, and other internet users then use public exposure to shame the offender.

People have been shamed online for a variety of reasons, usually consisting of some form of social transgression such as posting offensive comments, posting offensive images or memes, online gossip, or lying.[1] Those who are shamed online have not necessarily committed any social transgression, however. Online shaming may be used to get revenge (for example, in the form of revenge pornography), stalk, blackmail, or to threaten other internet users.[2]

Privacy violation is a major issue in online shaming. Those being shamed may be denied the right to privacy and be subject to defamation. David Furlow, chairman of the Media, Privacy and Defamation Committee of the American Bar Association, has identified the potential privacy concerns raised by websites facilitating the distribution of information that is not part of the public record (documents filed with a government agency) and has said that such websites "just [give] a forum to people whose statements may not reflect truth."[2][3]

There are different philosophical perspectives on the morality of online public shaming. On the one hand, there is the view that public shaming imposes punishments that are not proportional to the offenses or alleged offenses.[4] Martha Nussbaum similarly says that public shaming represents the "justice of the mob", but this alleged justice is not "deliberative, impartial or neutral".[5] On the other hand, there are those who defend the value of public shaming as constructive, if done right; people who defend this view maintain that society often shames people counter-productively but that it can be tweaked or altered in order to be a valuable tool for people's improvement.[6] For instance, holding people accountable for things that they have done wrong can be a powerful way of correcting bad behavior, but it has to be paired with a belief in the possibility of redemption.[7] Some proponents of this approach agree with Plato's view that shame can lead to moral improvements.[8] Everyone in this debate agrees that it is important to avoid what Nussbaum calls a "spoiled identity": to have a spoiled identity is to have the public image of someone who is irredeemable and unwelcome in a community.[9]

Online shaming has become more visible with the rise of social media platforms, where users can quickly share information and express criticism toward individuals or organizations. Platforms such as X (social media platform) allow posts highlighting controversial behavior to spread quickly through reposts, hashtags, and comment threads, enabling large numbers of users to participate in public discussions. Because social media content can be widely circulated and archived through screenshots or reposts, incidents of online shaming may remain visible long after the original event occurred. In some cases, widespread criticism on social media has led to professional or social consequences for the individuals involved, particularly when employers, institutions, or news organizations become aware of the controversy. Researchers studying digital communication have noted that the speed and scale of online networks can amplify these events, turning relatively small incidents into widely discussed public controversies.[10]

## Types

### Call-outs and cancellation

Main article: Social:Cancel culture

Cancel culture or call-out culture describes a form of ostracism in which someone or something is thrust out of social or professional circles, either online on social media, in the real world, or both. They are said to be "canceled".[11] Lisa Nakamura, professor of media studies at the University of Michigan, has defined cancelling as simply a "cultural boycott" in which the act of depriving someone of attention deprives them of their livelihood.[12]

The notion of cancel culture is a variant of the term "call-out culture", and constitutes a form of boycott involving an individual (usually a celebrity) who is deemed to have acted or spoken in a questionable or controversial manner.[13][14][15][16][12]

Cancel culture has been noted as a prominent topic of discussion in American society. Most Americans find the term more associated with social media and entertainment instead of politics. In 2021 Business Insider conducted a poll in conjunction with SurveyMonkey that asked 1,129 respondents "When you hear the term 'cancel culture,' which of the following do you most associate it with? Please select all that apply." 48% of respondents identified cancel culture with social media, 34% identified cancel culture with the entertainment industry, 31% associated it with the news media, 20% listed colleges, and 16% did not know what cancel culture was. Regarding politics, partisan splits on this issue were widespread; for instance, almost half of Republicans associated cancel culture with Democrats.[17]

### Doxing

Main article: Doxing

Doxing involves researching and broadcasting personally identifiable information about an individual, often with the intention of harming that person. This information may include the person's home address, workplace or school, full name, spouse, credit card information, and phone number.[18][19][20][21]

Bruce Schneier, a lecturer and fellow at Harvard Kennedy School, has elaborated that doxing does not just happen to individuals.[22] Companies such as Sony and Ashley Madison have been involved in doxing schemes.

### Negative reviews

User-generated review sites such as Yelp, Google Maps and Trip Advisor have been used to publicly shame or punish businesses.[23][24][25] Research suggests that the quality of the review makes a difference on how the businesses assess their product, as well as the number of negative reviews received.[26] Other studies have shown that not responding to negative reviews has better outcomes than replying to negative reviews, but businesses should reply to negative reviews to avoid other users blaming the company for the problem.[27]

### Revenge porn

Main article: Social:Revenge porn

Non-consensual sharing of sexually explicit material in order to humiliate a person, is frequently distributed by computer hackers or ex-partners. Images and videos of sexual acts are often combined with doxing of a person's private details, such as their home addresses and workplaces.[28][29] In some jurisdictions, revenge porn is a criminal offense.

### Social status shaming

Social status shaming is a form of online shaming that involves bullying others online due to their socioeconomic status.[30] It is often utilized as a vessel for social control among classes, and has been regarded as one of the most effective models in which to examine social status and its influence on controlling those below oneself.[31]

## Examples

### Justine Sacco incident

> Justine Sacco | Twitter
> 
|

> @JustineSacco

> Going to Africa. Hope I don't get AIDS. Just kidding. I'm white!

> December 20, 2013[32]

In December 2013, Justine Sacco, a woman with 170 Twitter followers, tweeted acerbic jokes during a plane trip from New York to Cape Town, such as "'Weird German Dude: You're in First Class. It’s 2014. Get some deodorant.' — Inner monologue as I inhale BO. Thank God for pharmaceuticals."[33] and, in Heathrow; "Going to Africa. Hope I don't get AIDS. Just Kidding. I'm white!" Sacco, a South African herself,[34] claimed that she intended the tweet to mock American ignorance of South Africa, and in a later interview expressed that her intention was to "mimic—and mock what an actual racist, ignorant person would say."[35][36] Sacco slept during her 11-hour plane trip, and woke up to find out that she had lost her job and was the number-one Twitter topic worldwide, with celebrities and new media bloggers all over the globe denouncing her and encouraging all their followers to do the same. Sacco's employer, New York internet firm IAC, declared that she had lost her job as Director of Corporate Communications.[35] People began tweeting "Has Justine landed yet?", expressing schadenfreude at the loss of her career.[35][36] Sam Biddle, the Gawker Media blogger who promoted the #HasJustineLandedYet hashtag, later apologised for his role, admitting that he did so for Internet traffic to his blog,[34] and noting that "it's easy and thrilling to hate a stranger online."[37][38]

According to journalist Jon Ronson, the public does not understand that a vigilante campaign of public shaming, undertaken with the ostensible intention of defending the underdog, may create a mob mentality capable of destroying the lives and careers of the public figures singled out for shaming.[33] Ronson argued that in the early days of Twitter, people used the platform to share intimate details of their lives, and not as a vehicle of shaming. Brooke Gladstone argued that the Sacco affair may deter people from expressing themselves online due to a fear of being misinterpreted.[33] Kelly McBride argues that journalists play a key role in expanding the shame and humiliation of targets of the campaigns by relaying claims to a larger audience, while justifying their actions as simply documenting an event in an impartial manner.[34] She writes: "Because of the mob mentality that accompanies public shaming events, often there is very little information about the target, sometimes only a single tweet. Yet there is a presumption of guilt and swift move toward justice, with no process for ascertaining facts." McBride further notes, "If newspapers ran front-page photos of adulterers in the Middle East being stripped naked and whipped in order to further their shame, we would criticize them as part of a backward system of justice." Ben Adler compared the Sacco incident to a number of Twitter hoaxes, and argued that the media needs to be more careful to fact-check articles and evaluate context.[39]

### Ashley Madison data breach

Main article: Ashley Madison data breach

Online shaming has been characterized as the equivalent of flogging in the town square.

In July 2015, a group hacked the user data of Ashley Madison, a commercial dating website marketed as facilitating extramarital affairs. In August 2015, over 30 million user account details—including names and email addresses—were released publicly.

A variety of security researchers and Internet privacy activists debated the ethics of the release.[33][40][41][42][43]

Clinical psychologists argue that dealing with an affair in a particularly public way increases the pain for spouses and children.[44] Carolyn Gregoire argued "[s]ocial media has created an aggressive culture of public shaming in which individuals take it upon themselves to inflict psychological damage" and more often than not, "the punishment goes beyond the scope of the crime."[44] Charles J. Orlando, who had joined the site to conduct research on women who cheat, said that he felt users of the site were anxious about the release of sexually explicit messages that would humiliate their spouses and children.[45] He wrote that it is alarming that "the mob that is the Internet is more than willing to serve as judge, jury, and executioner" and members of the site "don't deserve a flogging in the virtual town square with millions of onlookers."[45]

### Tim Hunt controversy

In 2015, British biochemist Sir Tim Hunt, who won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, was involved in a highly publicized controversy at the World Conference of Science Journalists (WCSJ) in Seoul. At a lunch for female journalists and scientists, Hunt gave a speech on short notice which was later recounted by an unnamed EU official:[46][47]

> It's strange that such a chauvinist monster like me has been asked to speak to women scientists. Let me tell you about my trouble with girls. Three things happen when they are in the lab: you fall in love with them, they fall in love with you, and when you criticise them they cry. Perhaps we should make separate labs for boys and girls? Now, seriously, I'm impressed by the economic development of Korea. And women scientists played, without a doubt, an important role in it. Science needs women, and you should do science, despite all the obstacles, and despite monsters like me.

In the audience were science journalists Connie St Louis, Deborah Blum and Ivan Oransky, who found Hunt's remarks highly inappropriate. They decided to publicize his remarks on Twitter, giving St Louis the task of writing a short text to be tweeted and corroborated by the other two.[48] The tweet called Hunt sexist and said he had "utterly ruined" the luncheon.[49]

St Louis's tweet went viral, setting off what The Observer described as a "particularly vicious social media campaign."[50] The Royal Society quickly distanced itself from Hunt's comments as reported and emphasized its commitment to equality in the sciences.[51] To ridicule the "sexist scientist", the online feminist magazine The Vagenda urged female scientists to post mundane pictures of themselves at work under the hashtag "#distractinglysexy".[52]

Two days after the speech, Hunt gave a BBC radio interview saying "I did mean the part about having trouble with girls. It is true that I have fallen in love with people in the lab, and that people in the lab have fallen in love with me, and it's very disruptive to science. It's terribly important that, in the lab, people are on a level playing field. And I found these emotional entanglements made life very difficult. I mean, I'm really, really sorry that I caused any offence – that's awful. I certainly didn't mean – I just meant to be honest, actually."[53][54] Hunt went on to say "I'm very sorry if people took offense. I certainly did not mean to demean women, but rather be honest about my own shortcomings."[50][55]

Numerous media outlets reported on the incident and the interview, citing portions of Hunt's original remarks and criticizing them as sexist.[56] The editors of Nature called on "all involved in science [to] condemn the comments".[57] Hunt felt he had made it clear he was joking because he had included the phrase "now seriously" in his statement.[58] The reconstruction of his words by an unnamed EU official corroborated the inclusion of these words.[59]

On June 10 Hunt resigned from his position as an honorary professor with the University College London's Faculty of Life Sciences[60] and from the Royal Society's Biological Sciences Awards Committee.[61] Hunt's wife, immunologist Mary Collins, had been told by a senior [at UCL] that Hunt "had to resign immediately or be sacked".[50] He was consequently required to step down from the science committee of the European Research Council.[50]

Jonathan Dimbleby resigned from an honorary fellowship at UCL in protest of UCL's treatment of Hunt.[62] Author and journalist Jeremy Hornsby wrote University College London out of his will in protest, leaving it "about £100,000 worse off".[63]

Following Hunt's resignation, at least eight Nobel prizewinning scientists and 21 honorary fellows criticized his treatment. Boris Johnson, the mayor of London at that time, and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, expressed similar indignation. A few scientists, such as Hunt's co-Nobelist, Paul Nurse, were critical of Hunt's conduct and said that his resignation was warranted.[64][46][65][66]

In a letter to The Times a group of 29 staff scientists, students and postdoctoral fellows, both male and female, who had worked with Hunt, wrote in support of his character. They described how his help had been "instrumental in the advancement of many other women and men in science beyond those in his own lab" and how he had "actively encouraged an interest in science in schoolchildren and young scientists, arranging for work experience and summer students of both genders to get their first taste of research in his lab". They urged the ERC and UCL to "reconsider their rush to judgment".[67][68]

Hunt has distanced himself from the controversy, commenting that he had been "turned into a straw man that one lot loves to love and the other lot loves to hate and then they just take up sides and hurled utterly vile abuse at everyone".[69]

### "Shirtstorm" controversy

In November 2014, while giving a televised status update on the Rosetta spacecraft, Matt Taylor wore a shirt depicting scantily-clad cartoon women with firearms made by his friend, a female artist.[70][71][72] Taylor's decision to wear the shirt to a press conference drew criticism from a number of commentators,[73][74] who saw a reflection of a culture where women are unwelcome in scientific fields (see gender inequality).[72] Others, including Boris Johnson,[75] Julie Bindel[76] and Tim Stanley,[77] argued against such criticism. The woman who made the shirt for Taylor as a birthday present stated that she "did not expect" the shirt to attract the level of attention that it did.[70] Taylor later made a public apology, saying: "The shirt I wore this week – I made a big mistake, and I offended many people. And I'm very sorry about this".[78][79][80] Some writers expressed appreciation for Taylor's apology.[79][81] A campaign was set up on the crowdfund website Indiegogo,[82] with the objective of raising $3,000 to buy Taylor a gift, as a token of the public's appreciation for the work that he and the team had done.[83] The campaign raised a total of $24,003, of which $23,000 was donated to UNAWE at Taylor's request, the remainder going towards a plaque commemorating the mission.[82][84]

### Hypatia transracialism controversy

Main article: Social:Hypatia transracialism controversy

The feminist philosophy journal Hypatia became involved in a dispute in April 2017 that led to the online shaming of one of its authors.[85] The journal published an article about transracialism by Rebecca Tuvel, an assistant professor of philosophy, comparing the situation of Caitlyn Jenner, a trans woman, to that of Rachel Dolezal, a white woman who identifies as black. The article was criticized on Facebook and Twitter as a source of "epistemic violence", and the author became the subject of personal attacks.[86] Academics associated with Hypatia joined in the criticism.[87] A member of the journal's editorial board became the point of contact for an open letter demanding that the article be retracted, and the journal's board of associate editors issued an unauthorized apology, saying the article should never have been published.[86][88] Rogers Brubaker described the episode in the New York Times as an example of "internet shaming".[85]

### Goblin Valley rock-toppling incident

In October 2013, a delicately balanced hoodoo in Goblin Valley State Park was intentionally knocked over by Boy Scout leaders who had been camping in the area.[89] David Benjamin Hall captured video and shouted encouragement while Glenn Tuck Taylor toppled the formation.[90] They posted the video to Facebook, whereupon it was viewed by thousands and the two men began receiving death threats.[91] Their claim that the hoodoo appeared unstable, and that they vandalized it out of concern for passersby, was rejected by Fred Hayes, director of the Utah Division of State Parks and Recreation.[92] Hall and Taylor were expelled from Boy Scouts and charged with third-degree felonies,[93] ultimately pleading guilty to lesser charges of misdemeanor criminal mischief.[94]

### Dog Poop Girl

Main article: Social:Dog poop girl

In 2005 in South Korea, bloggers targeted a woman who refused to clean up when her dog defecated on the floor of a Seoul subway car, labeling her "Dog Poop Girl" (rough translation of Korean: "개똥녀" into English). Another commuter had taken a photograph of the woman and her dog, and posted it on a popular South Korean website.[95] Within days, she had been identified by Internet vigilantes, and much of her personal information was leaked onto the Internet in an attempt to punish her for the offense. The story received mainstream attention when it was widely reported in South Korean media. The public humiliation led the woman to drop out of her university, according to reports.[96]

The reaction by the South Korean public to the incident prompted several newspapers in South Korea to run editorials voicing concern over Internet vigilantism. One paper quoted Daniel Solove as saying that the woman was the victim of a "cyber-posse, tracking down norm violators and branding them with digital Scarlet Letters."[97] Another called it an "Internet witch-hunt," and went on to say that "the Internet is turning the whole society into a kangaroo court."[98]

### Cooks Source incident

Main article: Social:Cooks Source infringement controversy

The food magazine Cooks Source printed an article by Monica Gaudio without her permission in their October 2010 issue. Learning of the copyright violation, Gaudio emailed Judith Griggs, managing editor of Cooks Source Magazine, requesting that the magazine both apologize and also donate $130 to the Columbia School of Journalism as payment for using her work. Instead she received a very unapologetic letter stating that she (Griggs) herself should be thanked for making the piece better and that Gaudio should be glad that she didn't give someone else credit for writing the article. During the ensuing public outcry, online vigilantes took it upon themselves to avenge Gaudio. The Cooks Source Facebook page was flooded with thousands of contemptuous comments, forcing the magazine's staff to create new pages in an attempt to escape the protest and accuse 'hackers' of taking control of the original page. The magazine's website was stripped of all content by the staff and shut down a week later.[99]

### Donglegate

Donglegate was a 2014 incident in which a woman posted a photograph of two men who were sitting behind her at an almost-all-male conference making sexual double-entendres.[100]

## See also

* Abusive power and control
* Anti-social behaviour
* Anti-fan
* Cancel culture
* Character assassination
* Cringe culture
* Culture of fear
* Cyberbullying
* Deplatforming
* Double standard
* Egosurfing
* Escrache
* Ghosting
* Internet troll
* Internet vigilantism
* Name and shame
* Ostracism
* Peer pressure
* Rage farming
* Real-name reporting
* Review bomb
* Scandal
* Shame campaign
* Shunning
* Smear campaign
* So You've Been Publicly Shamed
* Struggle session
* Twitter

## References

1. ↑ Pundak C, Steinhart Y, Goldenberg J. Nonmaleficence in Shaming: The Ethical Dilemma Underlying Participation in Online Public Shaming. J Consum Psychol. 2021; 31: 478–500. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1227
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Laidlaw, Emily (February 1, 2017). "Online Shaming and the Right to Privacy". Laws 6: 3. doi:10.3390/laws6010003. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313581719. Retrieved April 5, 2020.
3. ↑ Tracy Swartz, RedEye (May 31, 2007). "The Wide World of Cyber Snitching". Chicago Tribune. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2007-05-31/news/0705310470_1_unique-visitors-web-drivers.
4. ↑ See Norlock, Kathryn J. 2017. “Online Shaming.” Social Philosophy Today 33: 187-197.[1] See also Thomason, Krista. 2021. “The Moral Risks of Online Shaming,” in Carissa Véliz, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Digital Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 145-162. [2]
5. ↑ See Nussbaum 2004: 234. Nussbaum, Martha. 2004. Hiding from Humanity: Disgust, Shame, and the Law Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
6. ↑ Campbell, Douglas R (2023). "Cancel Culture, Then and Now: A Platonic Approach to the Shaming of People and the Exclusion of Ideas". Journal of Cyberspace Studies 7 (2): 147–166. https://philpapers.org/archive/CAMCCT-2.pdf.
7. ↑ See, again, Campbell 2023.
8. ↑ Plato's Gorgias is a key text in this case. See Tarnopolsky, C (2010). Prudes, Perverts, and Tyrants: Plato’s Gorgias and the Politics of Shame. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
9. ↑ See Nussbaum 2004: 230, 239.
10. ↑ S.Y., Cheung, Anne (June 2014). "Revisiting Privacy and Dignity: Online Shaming in the Global E-Village" (in en). Laws 3 (2). doi:10.3390/law. ISSN 2075-471X. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-471X/3/2/301.
11. ↑ McDermott, John (November 2, 2019). "Those People We Tried to Cancel? They're All Hanging Out Together". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/02/style/what-is-cancel-culture.html.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Bromwich, Jonah Engel (June 28, 2018). "Everyone Is Canceled". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/28/style/is-it-canceled.html.
13. ↑ "What It Means to Get 'Canceled'" (in en). https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/cancel-culture-words-were-watching.
14. ↑ Sills, Sophie; Pickens, Chelsea; Beach, Karishma; Jones, Lloyd; Calder-Dawe, Octavia; Benton-Greig, Paulette; Gavey, Nicola (March 23, 2016). "Rape culture and social media: young critics and a feminist counterpublic". Feminist Media Studies 16 (6): 935–951. doi:10.1080/14680777.2015.1137962.
15. ↑ Munro, Ealasaid (August 23, 2013). "Feminism: A Fourth Wave?". Political Insight 4 (2): 22–25. doi:10.1111/2041-9066.12021. https://www.psa.ac.uk/psa/news/feminism-fourth-wave. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
16. ↑ Yar, Sanam; Bromwich, Jonah Engel (October 31, 2019). "Tales From the Teenage Cancel Culture". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/31/style/cancel-culture.html.
17. ↑ Lahut, Jake. "Most Americans associate 'cancel culture' with social media and Hollywood, not the government: Insider poll". Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/polling-on-cancel-culture-associate-with-government-social-media-2021-3.
18. ↑ S-W, C.. "What doxxing is, and why it matters". The Economist, UK. https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2014/03/economist-explains-9.
19. ↑ Ryan Goodrich (April 2, 2013). "What is Doxing?". TechNewsDaily.com. http://www.technewsdaily.com/17590-what-is-doxing.html.
20. ↑ James Wray and Ulf Stabe (December 19, 2011). "The FBI's warning about doxing was too little too late". Thetechherald.com. http://www.thetechherald.com/articles/The-FBIs-warning-about-doxing-was-too-little-too-late.
21. ↑ Zurcher, Anthony (March 7, 2014). "Duke freshman reveals porn identity". BBC News (UK). https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-echochambers-26477417.
22. ↑ Schneier, Bruce (2014-12-31). "2015: The year "doxing" will hit home". http://www.betaboston.com/news/2014/12/31/2015-the-year-doxing-will-hit-home/.
23. ↑ George, Jordana; Dorothy, Leidner (March 1, 2019). "From Clicktivism to Hacktivism: Understanding Digital Activism". Information & Organization: 20–24. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.16347.82726. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332738189. Retrieved April 5, 2020.
24. ↑ Chafkin, Max (February 1, 2010). "You've Been Yelped". Inc. Magazine. http://www.inc.com/magazine/20100201/youve-been-yelped_pagen_3.html.
25. ↑ "'Am I being catfished?' An author confronts her number one online critic". October 18, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/18/am-i-being-catfished-an-author-confronts-her-number-one-online-critic.
26. ↑ Lee, Jumin; Park, Do-Hyung; Han, Ingoo (September 2008). "The effect of negative online consumer reviews on product attitude: An information processing view" (in en). Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 7 (3): 341–352. doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2007.05.004. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1567422307000415.
27. ↑ Esmark Jones, Carol L.; Stevens, Jennifer L.; Breazeale, Michael; Spaid, Brian I. (December 2018). "Tell it like it is: The effects of differing responses to negative online reviews: ESMARK JONES et al." (in en). Psychology & Marketing 35 (12): 891–901. doi:10.1002/mar.21142. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mar.21142.
28. ↑ Emily Bazelon,Why Do We Tolerate Revenge Porn?" , Slate (September 25, 2013).
29. ↑ Eric Larson, "It's Still Easy to Get Away With Revenge Porn" , Mashable, October 21, 2013.
30. ↑ Hou, Yubo; Jiang, Tonglin; Wang, Qi (November 2017). "Socioeconomic status and online shaming: The mediating role of belief in a just world" (in en). Computers in Human Behavior 76: 19–25. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.003. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0747563217304156.
31. ↑ Hou, Yubo; Jiang, Tonglin; Wang, Qi (July 2017). "Socioeconomic status and online shaming: The mediating role of belief in a just world". Computers in Human Behavior 76: 19–25. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.003. ISSN 0747-5632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.003.
32. ↑ Sacco, Justine [@JustineSacco] (December 20, 2013). "Going to Africa. Hope I don't get AIDS. Just kidding. I'm white!". https://twitter.com/JustineSacco/status/414052561248075776.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 "Jon Ronson And Public Shaming". http://www.onthemedia.org/story/jon-ronson-and-public-shaming/.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "Journalism and public shaming: Some guidelines". March 11, 2015. https://www.poynter.org/reporting-editing/2015/journalism-and-public-shaming-some-guidelines/.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Ronson, Jon (February 12, 2015). "How One Stupid Tweet Blew Up Justine Sacco's Life". The New York Times Magazine. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/15/magazine/how-one-stupid-tweet-ruined-justine-saccos-life.html.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Choire, Sicha (April 17, 2015). "Jon Ronson's 'So You've Been Publicly Shamed'". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/19/books/review/jon-ronsons-so-youve-been-publicly-shamed.html.
37. ↑ "Journalist apologizes for #HasJustineLandedYet Twitter uproar after PR exec's AIDS joke". December 20, 2014. https://news.yahoo.com/journalist-apologizes-for--hasjustinelandedyet-twitter-uproar-after-pr-exec-s-aids-joke-164616178.html.
38. ↑ Chris Thilk (December 26, 2014). "The Internet Rewards the Meanest People Most". http://observer.com/2014/12/the-internet-rewards-the-meanest-people-most/.
39. ↑ "Trusting Twitter". https://www.cjr.org/news_literacy/news_literacy_twitter.php.
40. ↑ "Early Notes on the Ashley Madison Hack". The Awl. http://www.theawl.com/2015/08/notes-on-the-ashley-madison-hack.
41. ↑ "In the wake of Ashley Madison, towards a journalism ethics of using hacked documents". July 20, 2015. http://onlinejournalismblog.com/2015/07/20/ashley-madison-ethics-journalism-hacked-documents/.
42. ↑ "Ashley Madison hack: The ethics of naming users". August 19, 2015. http://fortune.com/2015/08/19/ashley-madison-media/.
43. ↑ Include Security (August 19, 2015). "Include Security Blog – As the ROT13 turns….: A light-weight forensic analysis of the AshleyMadison Hack". http://blog.includesecurity.com/2015/08/forensic-analysis-of-the-AshleyMadison-Hack.html.
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51. ↑ "Science needs women – Royal Society". June 9, 2015. https://royalsociety.org/news/2015/06/tim-hunt-comments/.
52. ↑ "Female scientists post 'distractingly sexy' photos". BBC News. June 11, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-33099289.
53. ↑ "Sir Tim Hunt 'sorry' over 'trouble with girls' comments". BBC News. June 10, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-33077107.
54. ↑ "BBC Today Programme, 10 June 2015". http://www.dcscience.net/Today-Hunt-StLouis-Rohn, 100615.mp3.
55. ↑ Grierson, Jamie (June 10, 2015). "Tim Hunt apologises for comments on his 'trouble' with female scientists". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/jun/10/tim-hunt-apologises-comments-trouble-female-scientists.
56. ↑ Greenberg, Alissa (June 10, 2015). "A Nobel Scientist Just Made a Breathtakingly Sexist Speech at International Conference". Time (New York City). https://time.com/3915617/women-science-tim-hunt-nobel-sexist/. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
57. ↑ Anon (2015). "Sexism has no place in science". Nature 522 (7556): 255. doi:10.1038/522255a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26085233. Bibcode: 2015Natur.522Q.255..
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59. ↑ Whipple, Tom (June 24, 2015). "Leaked Transcript Shows 'Sexist' Scientist was Joking". The Times. https://www.thetimes.com/uk/science/article/leaked-transcript-shows-sexist-scientist-was-joking-rs2ft8x8wmv.
60. ↑ "Sir Tim Hunt FRS and UCL". UCL. June 10, 2015. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0615/100615-tim-hunt. "UCL was the first university in England to admit women students on equal terms to men, and the university believes that this outcome is compatible with our commitment to gender equality."
61. ↑ Jump, Paul; Else, Holly (June 11, 2015). "Sir Tim Hunt resigns from two posts". https://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/news/sir-tim-hunt-resigns-two-posts.
62. ↑ Meikle, James (June 30, 2015). "Dimbleby resigns from UCL in protest at 'disgraceful' treatment of Sir Tim Hunt". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/jun/30/jonathan-dimbleby-resigns-ucl-sir-tim-hunt.
63. ↑ Mendick, Robert (July 18, 2015). "Author drops UCL from £1m will over Sir Tim Hunt's treatment". The Daily Telegraph (London). https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/11748844/Author-drops-UCL-from-1m-will-over-Sir-Tim-Hunts-treatment.html.
64. ↑ "Boris Johnson defends Sir Tim Hunt's 'sexist' remarks". BBC News. June 15, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-33137497.
65. ↑ Turner, Camilla (June 20, 2015). "Nobel prizewinners defend Sir Tim Hunt amid 'sexism' row". The Telegraph (London). https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/11688134/Nobel-prizewinners-defend-Sir-Tim-Hunt-amid-sexism-row.html.
66. ↑ Knapton, Sarah (July 10, 2015). "Sir Tim Hunt deserved to lose his job over 'chauvinist' comments, Nobel Prize winner says". The Daily Telegraph (London). https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/11732143/Sir-Tim-Hunt-deserved-to-lose-his-job-over-chauvinist-comments-Nobel-Prize-winner-says.html.
67. ↑ "Tim Hunt plaudits (Letter to the editor)". June 23, 2015. https://www.thetimes.com/article/tim-hunt-plaudits-w0pq5g278h3.
68. ↑ Whipple, T. (June 23, 2015). "Women scientists defend 'sexist' Nobel winner". https://www.thetimes.com/uk/science/article/women-scientists-defend-sexist-nobel-winner-rtm367wr6px.
69. ↑ McKie, Robin (December 19, 2015). "Tim Hunt and Mary Collins: 'We're not being chased out of the country. Our new life's an adventure'". https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/dec/19/tim-hunt-mary-collins-weve-not-been-chased-out-of-the-country.
70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Catherine Thompson (November 13, 2014). "Rosetta Scientist Sparks #ShirtStorm With on Shirt". http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/rosetta-scientist-matt-taylor-sexist-shirt.
71. ↑ "#BBCtrending: Rosetta physicist's 'sexist' shirt". BBC Trending. November 14, 2014. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-trending-30055278.
72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Bell, Alice (November 13, 2014). "Why women in science are annoyed at Rosetta mission scientist's clothing". https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/nov/13/why-women-in-science-are-annoyed-at-rosetta-mission-scientists-clothing.
73. ↑ Friedman, Vanessa (November 20, 2014). "The Lessons of a Rosetta Scientist's Shirt". https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/20/fashion/the-lessons-of-a-rosetta-scientists-shirt.html.
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## External links

* Hate Crimes in Cyberspace – by Danielle Keats Citron
* The Outrage Machine: a short documentary by Retro Report that looks at the origin of Internet shaming and what it feels like to be caught up in a case of online shaming gone viral.
* Cyberbullying Reports: an online community dedicated to exposing cyberbullying.

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