LinkedIn

Short description: Social networking website for people in professional occupations

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LinkedIn Corporation

LinkedIn homepage

Type of business| Subsidiary

Type of site

| Social networking service
Available in| Multilingual (24)
Founded| December 28, 2002; 18 years ago (2002-12-28)
Mountain View, California , United States
Headquarters|

Sunnyvale, California

U.S.

Area served| Worldwide
Founder(s)| Reid Hoffman
Allen Blue
Konstantin Guericke
Eric Ly
Jean-Luc Vaillant
CEO| Ryan Roslansky
Industry| Internet
Products| SlideShare
Employees| 15,000+ (2019)[1]
Parent| Microsoft Corporation
Subsidiaries| Learning
Connectifier
Website| www.linkedin.com
Alexa rank|  63 ((As of June 2020))[2]
Advertising| Google, AdSense
Registration| Required
Users| 690+ million members (December 2019)[1]
Launched| May 5, 2003; 18 years ago (2003-05-05)
Current status| Active

LinkedIn (/lɪŋktˈɪn/) is an American business and employment-oriented online service that operates via websites and mobile apps. Launched on May 5, 2003,[3] it is mainly used for professional networking, including employers posting jobs and job seekers posting their CVs. As of 2015, most of the company's revenue came from selling access to information about its members to recruiters and sales professionals.[4] Since December 2016 it has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Microsoft. As of May 2020, LinkedIn had 690+ million registered members in 150 countries.[1]

LinkedIn allows members (both workers and employers) to create profiles and "connections" to each other in an online social network which may represent real-world professional relationships. Members can invite anyone (whether an existing member or not) to become a "connection".[5]

## Contents

* 1 Company overview
* 2 History
* 2.1 Founding to 2010
* 2.2 2011 to present
* 2.3 Acquisitions
* 2.4 Perkins Lawsuit
* 2.5 hiQ Labs v. LinkedIn
* 3 Membership
* 4 Platform and features
* 4.1 User profile network
* 4.1.1 Basic functionality
* 4.2 Applications
* 4.2.1 External, third party applications
* 4.2.2 Embedded in profile
* 4.3 Mobile
* 4.4 Groups
* 4.5 Knowledge graph
* 4.6 Discontinued features
* 5 Usage
* 5.1 Personal branding
* 5.2 Job Seeking
* 5.3 Top Companies
* 5.4 Advertising and for-pay research
* 5.5 Publishing platform
* 6 Future plans
* 6.1 Economic graph
* 7 Reception
* 8 Criticism and controversies
* 8.1 Use of e-mail accounts of members for spam sending
* 8.2 Security and technology
* 8.3 Moving emails to LinkedIn servers
* 8.4 Privacy policy
* 8.5 Potential 2018 breach, or extended impacts from earlier incidents
* 9 International restrictions
* 10 SNA LinkedIn
* 11 Surveillance and NSA program
* 12 Science
* 13 See also
* 14 References
* 15 External links

## Company overview

Former LinkedIn headquarters on Stierlin Court in Mountain View, California

Founded in Mountain View, California, LinkedIn is currently headquartered in San Francisco, California, with 33 global offices in Omaha, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Washington, D.C., São Paulo, London, Dublin, Amsterdam, Graz, Milan, Paris, Munich, Madrid, Stockholm, Singapore, Hong Kong, China, Japan, Australia, Canada, India and Dubai. In May 2020, the company had around 20,500 employees.[6]

LinkedIn's CEO is Ryan Roslansky. Jeff Weiner, previously CEO of LinkedIn, is now the Executive Chairman. Reid Hoffman, founder of LinkedIn, is Chairman of the Board.[7][8] It is funded by Sequoia Capital, Greylock, Bain Capital Ventures,[9] Bessemer Venture Partners and the European Founders Fund.[10] LinkedIn reached profitability in March 2006.[11] Through January 2011, the company had received a total of $103 million of investment.[12]

The site has an Alexa Internet ranking as the 57th most popular website (May 2020).[2] According to the New York Times, US high school students are now creating LinkedIn profiles to include with their college applications.[13] Based in the United States, the site is, as of 2013, available in 24 languages,[7] including Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Romanian, Russian, Turkish, Japanese, Czech, Polish, Korean, Indonesian, Malay, and Tagalog.[14][15] LinkedIn filed for an initial public offering in January 2011 and traded its first shares on May 19, 2011, under the NYSE symbol "LNKD".[16]

## History

### Founding to 2010

The company was founded in December 2002 by Reid Hoffman and founding team members from PayPal and Socialnet.com (Allen Blue, Eric Ly, Jean-Luc Vaillant, Lee Hower, Konstantin Guericke, Stephen Beitzel, David Eves, Ian McNish, Yan Pujante, Chris Saccheri).[17] In late 2003, Sequoia Capital led the Series A investment in the company.[18] In August 2004, LinkedIn reached 1 million users.[19] In March 2006, LinkedIn achieved its first month of profitability.[19] In April 2007, LinkedIn reached 10 million users.[19] In February 2008, LinkedIn launched a mobile version of the site.[20]

In June 2008, Sequoia Capital, Greylock Partners, and other venture capital firms purchased a 5% stake in the company for $53 million, giving the company a post-money valuation of approximately $1 billion.[21] In November 2009, LinkedIn opened its office in Mumbai[22] and soon thereafter in Sydney, as it started its Asia-Pacific team expansion. In 2010, LinkedIn opened an International Headquarters in Dublin, Ireland,[23] received a $20 million investment from Tiger Global Management LLC at a valuation of approximately $2 billion,[24] announced its first acquisition, Mspoke,[25] and improved its 1% premium subscription ratio.[26] In October of that year, Silicon Valley Insider ranked the company No. 10 on its Top 100 List of most valuable startups.[27] By December, the company was valued at $1.575 billion in private markets.[28]

### 2011 to present

LinkedIn office building at 222 Second Street in San Francisco (opened in March 2016)

LinkedIn office in Toronto

LinkedIn filed for an initial public offering in January 2011. The company traded its first shares on May 19, 2011, under the NYSE symbol "LNKD", at $45 per share. Shares of LinkedIn rose as much as 171% on their first day of trade on the New York Stock Exchange and closed at $94.25, more than 109% above IPO price. Shortly after the IPO, the site's underlying infrastructure was revised to allow accelerated revision-release cycles.[7] In 2011, LinkedIn earned $154.6 million in advertising revenue alone, surpassing Twitter, which earned $139.5 million.[29] LinkedIn's fourth-quarter 2011 earnings soared because of the company's increase in success in the social media world.[30] By this point, LinkedIn had about 2,100 full-time employees compared to the 500 that it had in 2010.[31]

In April 2014, LinkedIn announced that it had leased 222 Second Street, a 26-story building under construction in San Francisco's SoMa district, to accommodate up to 2,500 of its employees,[32] with the lease covering 10 years.[33] The goal was to join all San Francisco-based staff (1,250 as of January 2016) in one building, bringing sales and marketing employees together with the research and development team.[33] They started to move in in March 2016.[33] In February 2016, following an earnings report, LinkedIn's shares dropped 43.6% within a single day, down to $108.38 per share. LinkedIn lost $10 billion of its market capitalization that day.[34][35]

In 2016, the access to LinkedIn was blocked by Russian authorities beacause the website wasn't compliant with the 2015 national legislation that have made mandatory for social media networks to store citizens' personal data on servers ubicated in Russia.[36]

On June 13, 2016, Microsoft announced that it would acquire LinkedIn for $196 a share, a total value of $26.2 billion and the largest acquisition made by Microsoft to date. The acquisition would be an all-cash, debt-financed transaction. Microsoft would allow LinkedIn to "retain its distinct brand, culture and independence", with Weiner to remain as CEO, who would then report to Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella. Analysts believed Microsoft saw the opportunity to integrate LinkedIn with its Office product suite to help better integrate the professional network system with its products. The deal was completed on December 8, 2016.[37]

In late 2016, LinkedIn announced a planned increase of 200 new positions in its Dublin office, which would bring the total employee count to 1,200.[38]

As of 2017, 94% of B2B marketers use LinkedIn to distribute content.[39]

Soon after LinkedIn's acquisition by Microsoft, on January 19, 2017, LinkedIn's new desktop version was introduced.[40] The new version was meant to make the user experience seamless across mobile and desktop. Some of the changes were made according to the feedback received from the previously launched mobile app. Features that were not heavily used were removed. For example, the contact tagging and filtering features are not supported any more.[41]

Following the launch of the new user interface (UI), some users, complained about the missing features which were there in the older version, slowness, and bugs in it. The issues were faced by both free and premium users, and with both the desktop version and the mobile version of the site.

In 2019, LinkedIn launched globally the feature Open for Business[42] that enables freelancers to be discovered on the platform. LinkedIn Events was launched in the same year.[43]

In June 2020, Jeff Weiner stepped down as CEO and become executive chairman after 11 years in the role. Ryan Roslansky stepped up as CEO from his previous position as the senior vice president of product.[44]

### Acquisitions

In July 2012, LinkedIn acquired 15 key Digg patents for $4 million including a "click a button to vote up a story" patent.[45]

Number  | Acquisition date  | Company  | Business  | Country  | Price  | Description  | Ref.

|
|
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|
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|
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1  | 2010  | mspoke  | Adaptive personalization of content  |  USA  | $0.6 million[46] | LinkedIn Recommendations  | [47]
2  | 2010  | ChoiceVendor  | Social B2B Reviews  |  USA  | $3.9 million[48] | Rate and review B2B service providers  | [49]
3  | 2011  | CardMunch  | Social Contacts  |  USA  | $1.7 million[46] | Scan and import business cards  | [50]
4  | 2011  | Connected  | Social CRM  |  USA  | \-  | LinkedIn Connected  | [51]
5  | 2011  | IndexTank  | Social search  |  USA  | \-  | LinkedIn Search  | [52]
6  | 2012  | Rapportive  | Social Contacts  |  USA  | $15 million[53] | \-  | [54]
7  | 2012  | SlideShare | Social Content  |  USA  | $119 million  | Give LinkedIn members a way to discover people through content  | [55]
8  | 2013  | Pulse  | Web / Mobile newsreader  |  USA  | $90 million  | Definitive professional publishing platform  | [56]
9  | 2014  | Bright.com  | Job Matching  |  USA  | $120 million  |  | [57]
10  | 2014  | Newsle  | Web application  |  USA  | \-  | Allows users to follow real news about their Facebook friends, LinkedIn contacts, and public figures.  | [58]
11  | 2014  | Bizo  | Web application  |  USA  | $175 million  | Helps advertisers reach businesses and professionals  | [59]
12  | 2015  | Careerify  | Web application  |  Canada  | \-  | Helps businesses hire people using social media  | [60]
13  | 2015  | Refresh.io  | Web application  |  USA  | \-  | Surfaces insights about people in your networks right before you meet them  | [61]
14  | 2015  | Lynda.com  | eLearning  |  USA  | $1.5 billion  | Lets users learn business, technology, software, and creative skills through videos  | [62]
15  | 2015  | Fliptop  | Predictive Sales and Marketing Firm  |  USA  | \-  | Using data science to help companies close more sales  | [63]
16  | 2016  | Connectifier  | Web application  |  USA  | \-  | Helps companies with their recruiting  | [64]
17  | 2016  | PointDrive  | Web application  |  USA  | \-  | Lets salespeople share visual content with prospective clients to help seal the deal  | [65]
18  | 2018  | Glint Inc.  | Web application  |  USA  | \-  | Employee engagement platform.  | [66]
19  | May 28, 2019  | Drawbridge  | Marketing Solutions  |  USA  |  |  | [67]

### Perkins Lawsuit

In 2013, a class action lawsuit entitled Perkins vs. LinkedIn Corp was filed against the company, accusing it of automatically sending invitations to contacts in a member's email address book without permission. The court agreed with LinkedIn that permission had in fact been given for invitations to be sent, but not for the two further reminder emails.[68] LinkedIn settled the lawsuit in 2015 for $13 million.[69] Many members should have received a notice in their email with the subject line "Legal Notice of Settlement of Class Action". The Case No. is 13-CV-04303-LHK.[70]

### hiQ Labs v. LinkedIn

In May 2017, LinkedIn sent a Cease-And-Desist letter to hiQ Labs, a Silicon Valley startup that collects data from public profiles and provides analysis of this data to its customers. The letter demanded that hiQ immediately cease "scraping" data from LinkedIn's servers, claiming violations of the CFAA (Computer Fraud and Abuse Act) and the DMCA (Digital Millennium Copyright Act).

In response, hiQ sued LinkedIn in the Northern District of California in San Francisco, asking the court to prohibit LinkedIn from blocking its access to public profiles while the court considered the merits of its request. The court served a preliminary injunction against LinkedIn, which was then forced to allow hiQ to continue to collect public data. LinkedIn appealed this ruling; in September 2019, the appeals court rejected LinkedIn's arguments and the preliminary injunction was upheld.[71] The dispute is ongoing.

## Membership

Social media websites can also use "traditional" marketing approaches, as seen in these LinkedIn-branded chocolates.

As of 2015, LinkedIn had more than 400 million members in over 200 countries and territories.[7][72] It is significantly ahead of its competitors Viadeo (50 million as of 2013)[73] and XING (11 million as of 2016).[74] In 2011, its membership grew by approximately two new members every second.[75] As of 2020, there are over 690 million LinkedIn members.[1]

## Platform and features

### User profile network

#### Basic functionality

The basic functionality of LinkedIn allows users (workers and employers) to create profiles, which for employees typically consist of a curriculum vitae describing their work experience, education and training, skills, and a personal photo. Employers can list jobs and search for potential candidates. Users can find jobs, people and business opportunities recommended by someone in one's contact network. Users can save (i.e. bookmark) jobs that they would like to apply for. Users also have the ability to follow different companies.

The site also enables members to make "connections" to each other in an online social network which may represent real-world professional relationships. Members can invite anyone (whether a site member or not) to become a connection. However, if the invitee selects "I don't know" or "Spam", this counts against the inviter. If the inviter gets too many of such responses, the member's account may be restricted or closed.[5] Users can obtain introductions to the connections of connections (termed second-degree connections) and connections of second-degree connections (termed third-degree connections).

A member's list of connections can be used in a number of ways. For example, users can search for second-degree connections (such as hiring managers) who work at a company they are interested in, and then ask a specific first-degree connection in common for an introduction.[76] The "gated-access approach" (where contact with any professional requires either an existing relationship, or the intervention of a contact of theirs) is intended to build trust among the service's users. LinkedIn participated in the EU's International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles.[77]

Users can interact with each other in a variety of ways:

* Connections can interact by choosing to "like" posts and "congratulate" others on updates such as birthdays, anniversaries and new positions, as well as by direct messaging.
* Users can share video with text and filters with the introduction of LinkedIn Video.[78][79]
* Users can write posts and articles[80] within the LinkedIn platform to share with their network.

Since September 2012, LinkedIn has enabled users to "endorse" each other's skills. However, there is no way of flagging anything other than positive content.[81] LinkedIn solicits endorsements using algorithms that generate skills members might have. Members cannot opt out of such solicitations, with the result that it sometimes appears that a member is soliciting an endorsement for a non-existent skill.[82]

### Applications

LinkedIn 'applications' often refers to external third party applications that interact with LinkedIn's developer API. However, in some cases, it could refer to sanctioned applications featured on a user's profile page.

#### External, third party applications

On February 12, 2015, LinkedIn released an updated terms of use for their developer API.[83] The developer API allows both companies and individuals the ability to interact with LinkedIn's data through creation of managed third party applications. Applications must go through a review process and request permission from the user before accessing a user's data.

Normal use of the API is outlined in LinkedIn's developer documents,[84] including:

* Sign into external services using LinkedIn
* Add items or attributes to a user profile
* Share items or articles to user's timeline

#### Embedded in profile

In October 2008, LinkedIn enabled an "applications platform" which allows external online services to be embedded within a member's profile page. Among the initial applications were an Amazon Reading List that allows LinkedIn members to display books they are reading, a connection to Tripit, and a Six Apart, WordPress and TypePad application that allows members to display their latest blog postings within their LinkedIn profile.[85] In November 2010, LinkedIn allowed businesses to list products and services on company profile pages; it also permitted LinkedIn members to "recommend" products and services and write reviews.[86] Shortly after, some of the external services were no longer supported, including Amazon's Reading List.

### Mobile

A mobile version of the site was launched in February 2008, which gives access to a reduced feature set over a mobile phone. The mobile service is available in six languages: Chinese, English, French, German, Japanese and Spanish.[87] In January 2011, LinkedIn acquired CardMunch, a mobile app maker that scans business cards and converts into contacts.[88] In June 2013, CardMunch was noted as an available LinkedIn app.[7] In August 2011, LinkedIn revamped its mobile applications on the iPhone, Android and HTML5. At the time, mobile page views of the application were increasing roughly 400% year over year according to CEO Jeff Weiner.[89] In October 2013, LinkedIn announced a service for iPhone users called "Intro", which inserts a thumbnail of a person's LinkedIn profile in correspondence with that person when reading mail messages in the native iOS Mail program.[90] This is accomplished by re-routing all emails from and to the iPhone through LinkedIn servers, which security firm Bishop Fox asserts has serious privacy implications, violates many organizations' security policies, and resembles a man-in-the-middle attack.[91][92]

### Groups

LinkedIn also supports the formation of interest groups, and as of March 29, 2012 there are 1,248,019 such groups whose membership varies from 1 to 744,662.[93][94] Groups support a limited form of discussion area, moderated by the group owners and managers.[95] Groups may be private, accessible to members only or may be open to Internet users in general to read, though they must join in order to post messages. Since groups offer the functionality to reach a wide audience without so easily falling foul of anti-spam solutions, there is a constant stream of spam postings, and there now exists a range of firms who offer a spamming service for this very purpose. LinkedIn has devised a few mechanisms to reduce the volume of spam,[96] but recently took the decision to remove the ability of group owners to inspect the email address of new members in order to determine if they were spammers. Groups also keep their members informed through emails with updates to the group, including most talked about discussions within your professional circles.[93][97]

In December 2011, LinkedIn announced that they are rolling out polls to groups.[98] In November 2013, LinkedIn announced the addition of Showcase Pages to the platform.[99] In 2014, LinkedIn announced they were going to be removing Product and Services Pages[100] paving the way for a greater focus on Showcase Pages.[101]

### Knowledge graph

LinkedIn maintains an internal knowledge graph of entities (people, organizations, groups) that helps it connect everyone working in a field or at an organization or network. This can be used to query the neighborhood around each entity to find updates that might be related to it.[102] This also lets them train machine learning models that can infer new properties about an entity, or new information that may apply to it, for both summary views and for analytics.[103]

### Discontinued features

In January 2013, LinkedIn dropped support for LinkedIn Answers and cited a new 'focus on development of new and more engaging ways to share and discuss professional topics across LinkedIn' as the reason for the retirement of the feature. The feature had been launched in 2007 and allowed users to post question to their network and allowed users to rank answers.

On September 1, 2014, LinkedIn retired InMaps, a feature which allowed you to visualize your professional network.[104] The feature had been in use since January 2011.

According to the company's website, LinkedIn Referrals will no longer be available after May 18, 2018.[105]

## Usage

### Personal branding

When a user accepts an invitation from another user, they have a first-level connection; the user is indirectly connected to the other user's connections with what LinkedIn terms second-level and third-level connections.

LinkedIn is particularly well-suited for personal branding which, according to Sandra Long, entails "actively managing one's image and unique value" to position oneself for career opportunities.[106] LinkedIn has evolved from being a mere platform for job searchers into a social network which allows users a chance to create a personal brand.[107] Career coach Pamela Green describes a personal brand as the "emotional experience you want people to have as a result of interacting with you," and a LinkedIn profile is an aspect of that.[108] A contrasting report suggests that a personal brand is a "a public-facing persona, exhibited on LinkedIn, Twitter and other networks, that showcases expertise and fosters new connections."[109]

LinkedIn allows professionals to build exposure for their personal brand within the site itself as well as in the World Wide Web as a whole. With a tool that LinkedIn dubs a Profile Strength Meter, the site encourages users to offer enough information in their profile to optimize visibility by search engines. It can strengthen a user's LinkedIn presence if he or she belongs to professional groups in the site.[110][106] The site enables users to add video to their profiles.[111] Some users hire a professional photographer for one's profile photo.[112] Video presentations can be added to one's profile.[113] LinkedIn's capabilities have been expanding so rapidly that a cottage industry of outside consultants has grown up to help users navigate the system.[114][111][115] A particular emphasis is helping users with their LinkedIn profiles.[114]

> There’s no hiding in the long grass on LinkedIn ... The number one mistake people make on the profile is to not have a photo.

> --Sandra Long of Post Road Consulting, 2017[116]

In October 2012, LinkedIn launched the LinkedIn Influencers program, which features global thought leaders who share their professional insights with LinkedIn's members. As of May 2016, there are 750+ Influencers, approximately 74% of which are male.[117] The program is invite-only and features leaders from a range of industries including Richard Branson, Narendra Modi, Arianna Huffington, Greg McKeown, Rahm Emanuel, Jamie Dimon, Martha Stewart, Deepak Chopra, Jack Welch, and Bill Gates.[118][119]

### Job Seeking

LinkedIn is widely used by job seekers and employers. According to Jack Meyer, the site has become the "premier digital platform" for professionals to network online.[110] For example, in Australia, which has approximately twelve million working professionals, ten million of them are on LinkedIn, according to Anastasia Santoreneos, suggesting that the probability was high that one's "future employer is probably on the site."[120] According to one estimate based on worldwide figures, 122 million users got job interviews via LinkedIn and 35 million were hired by a LinkedIn online connection.[121]

LinkedIn allows users to research companies, non-profit organizations, and governments they may be interested in working for. Typing the name of a company or organization in the search box causes pop-up data about the company or organization to appear. Such data may include the ratio of female to male employees, the percentage of the most common titles/positions held within the company, the location of the company's headquarters and offices, and a list of present and former employees. In July 2011, LinkedIn launched a new feature allowing companies to include an "Apply with LinkedIn" button on job listing pages.[122] The new plugin allowed potential employees to apply for positions using their LinkedIn profiles as resumes.[122] Recruiters also often join industry-based groups on LinkedIn to create connections with professionals in that line of business.[123]

Not only helping job applicants meet employers, LinkedIn can help small businesses connect with customers.[124] Connections are important in boosting a user's standing and presence in LinkedIn. In the site's parlance, two users have a "first-degree connection" when one accepts an invitation from another.[121] People connected to each of them are "second-degree connections" and persons connected to the second-degree connections are "third-degree connections."[121] This forms a user's internal LinkedIn network. As these connections get stronger and deeper, the user's profile is more likely to appear in searches by employers and others.

LinkedIn's Profinder is a marketplace where freelancers can (for a monthly subscription fee) bid for project proposals submitted by individuals and small businesses .[125] In 2017, it had around 60,000 freelancers in more than 140 service areas, such as headshot photography, bookkeeping or tax filing.[125]

The premise for connecting with someone has shifted significantly in recent years. Prior to the 2017 new interface being launched, LinkedIn encouraged connections between people who'd already worked together, studied together, done business together or the like. Since 2017 that step has been removed from the connection request process - and users are allowed to connect with up to 30,000 people. This change means LinkedIn is now far more of a proactive networking site, be that for job applicants trying to secure a career move or for salespeople wanting to generate new client leads.[106]

### Top Companies

LinkedIn Top Companies is a series of lists published by LinkedIn, identifying companies in the United States, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Japan, Mexico and the United Kingdom that are attracting the most intense interest from job candidates. The 2019 lists identified Google's parent company, Alphabet, as the most sought-after U.S. company, with Facebook ranked second and Amazon ranked third.[126] The lists are based on more than one billion actions by LinkedIn members worldwide. The Top Companies lists were started in 2016 and are published annually.

### Advertising and for-pay research

In mid-2008, LinkedIn launched LinkedIn DirectAds as a form of sponsored advertising.[127] In October 2008, LinkedIn revealed plans to open its social network of 30 million professionals globally as a potential sample for business-to-business research. It is testing a potential social network revenue model – research that to some appears more promising than advertising.[128] On July 23, 2013, LinkedIn announced their Sponsored Updates ad service. Individuals and companies can now pay a fee to have LinkedIn sponsor their content and spread it to their user base. This is a common way for social media sites such as LinkedIn to generate revenue.[129]

### Publishing platform

On May 7, 2015, LinkedIn added an analytics tool to its publishing platform. The tool allows authors to better track traffic that their posts receive.[130]

## Future plans

### Economic graph

Inspired by Facebook's "social graph", LinkedIn CEO Jeff Weiner set a goal in 2012 to create an "economic graph" within a decade.[131] The goal is to create a comprehensive digital map of the world economy and the connections within it.[132] The economic graph was to be built on the company's current platform with data nodes including companies, jobs, skills, volunteer opportunities, educational institutions, and content.[133][134][135] They have been hoping to include all the job listings in the world, all the skills required to get those jobs, all the professionals who could fill them, and all the companies (nonprofit and for-profit) at which they work.[133] The ultimate goal is to make the world economy and job market more efficient through increased transparency.[131] In June 2014, the company announced its "Galene" search architecture to give users access to the economic graph's data with more thorough filtering of data, via user searches like "Engineers with Hadoop experience in Brazil."[136][137]

LinkedIn has used economic graph data to research several topics on the job market, including popular destination cities of recent college graduates,[138] areas with high concentrations of technology skills,[139] and common career transitions.[140] LinkedIn provided the City of New York with data from economic graph showing "in-demand" tech skills for the city's "Tech Talent Pipeline" project.[141]

## Reception

LinkedIn has been described by online trade publication TechRepublic as having "become the de facto tool for professional networking".[142] LinkedIn has also been praised for its usefulness in fostering business relationships.[143] "LinkedIn is, far and away, the most advantageous social networking tool available to job seekers and business professionals today," according to Forbes .[144] LinkedIn has inspired the creation of specialised professional networking opportunities, such as co-founder Eddie Lou's Chicago startup, Shiftgig (released in 2012 as a platform for hourly workers).[145]

## Criticism and controversies

LinkedIn has received criticism, primarily regarding e-mail address mining and auto-update. Changing the description below a member's name is seen as a change in a job title, even if it is just a wording change or even a change to "unemployed". Unless a member opts to "turn off activity updates", an update is sent to all of that person's contacts, telling them to congratulate the member on the "new job".[146]

The feature that allows LinkedIn members to "endorse" each other's skills and experience has been criticized as meaningless, since the endorsements are not necessarily accurate or given by people who have familiarity with the member's skills.[147] In October 2016, LinkedIn acknowledged that it "really does matter who endorsed you" and began highlighting endorsements from "coworkers and other mutual connections" to address the criticism.[148]

### Use of e-mail accounts of members for spam sending

LinkedIn sends "invite emails" to Outlook contacts from its members' email accounts, without obtaining their consent. The "invitations" give the impression that the e-mail holder themself has sent the invitation. If there is no response, the answer will be repeated several times ("You have not yet answered XY's invitation.") LinkedIn was sued in the United States on charges of hijacking e-mail accounts and spamming. The company argued with the right to freedom of expression. In addition, the users concerned would be supported in building a network.[149][150][151]

The sign-up process includes a step for users to enter their email password (there is an opt-out feature). LinkedIn will then offer to send out contact invitations to all members in that address book or that the user has had email conversations with. When the member's email address book is opened it is opened with all email addresses selected and the member is advised invitations will be sent to "selected" email addresses, or to all. LinkedIn was sued for sending out another two follow-up invitations to each contact from members to link to friends who had ignored the initial, authorized, invitation.

In November 2014, LinkedIn lost a motion to dismiss the lawsuit, in a ruling that the invitations were advertisements not broadly protected by free speech rights that would otherwise permit use of people's names and images without authorization.[152][153][154] The lawsuit was eventually settled in 2015 in favor of LinkedIn members.[69]

### Security and technology

Main page: 2012 LinkedIn hack

In June 2012, cryptographic hashes of approximately 6.4 million LinkedIn user passwords were stolen by Yevgeniy Nikulin and other hackers who then published the stolen hashes online.[155] This action is known as the 2012 LinkedIn hack. In response to the incident, LinkedIn asked its users to change their passwords. Security experts criticized LinkedIn for not salting their password file and for using a single iteration of SHA-1.[156] On May 31, 2013 LinkedIn added two-factor authentication, an important security enhancement for preventing hackers from gaining access to accounts.[157] In May 2016, 117 million LinkedIn usernames and passwords were offered for sale online for the equivalent of $2,200.[158] These account details are believed to be sourced from the original 2012 LinkedIn hack, in which the number of user IDs stolen had been underestimated. To handle the large volume of emails sent to its users every day with notifications for messages, profile views, important happenings in their network, and other things, LinkedIn uses the Momentum email platform from Message Systems.[159]

In 2014, Dell SecureWorks Counter Threat Unit (CTU) discovered that Threat Group-2889, an Iran-based group, created 25 fake LinkedIn accounts. The accounts were either fully developed personas or supporting personas, and they use spearphishing or malicious websites to comprise victims' information.[160]

According to reporting by Le Figaro, France's General Directorate for Internal Security and Directorate-General for External Security believe that Chinese spies have used LinkedIn to target thousands of business and government officials as potential sources of information.[161]

In 2017, Germany's Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (BfV) published information alleging that China intelligence services had created fake social media profiles on sites such as LinkedIn, using them to gather information on German politicians and government officials.[162][163]

### Moving emails to LinkedIn servers

At the end of 2013, it was announced that the LinkedIn app intercepted users' emails and silently moved them to LinkedIn servers for full access.[164] LinkedIn used man-in-the-middle attacks.[165]

### Privacy policy

The German Stiftung Warentest has criticized that the balance of rights between users and LinkedIn is disproportionate, restricting users' rights excessively while granting the company far-reaching rights.[166] It has also been claimed that LinkedIn does not respond to consumer protection center requests.[167]

In November 2016, Russia announced its intention to block the network in its own country, as it "illegally stores data of Russian users on servers abroad." The relevant law had been in force there since 2014.[168][169]

### Potential 2018 breach, or extended impacts from earlier incidents

In July 2018, Credit Wise reported "dark web" email and password exposures from LinkedIn. Shortly thereafter, users began receiving extortion emails, using that information as "evidence" that users' contacts had been hacked, and threatening to expose pornographic videos featuring the users. LinkedIn asserts that this is related to the 2012 breach; however, there is no evidence that this is the case.[170]

## International restrictions

In 2009, Syrian users reported that LinkedIn server stopped accepting connections originating from IP addresses assigned to Syria. The company's customer support stated that services provided by them are subject to US export and re-export control laws and regulations and "As such, and as a matter of corporate policy, we do not allow member accounts or access to our site from Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, or Syria."[171]

In February 2011, it was reported that LinkedIn was being blocked in China after calls for a "Jasmine Revolution". It was speculated to have been blocked because it is an easy way for dissidents to access Twitter, which had been blocked previously.[172] After a day of being blocked, LinkedIn access was restored in China.[173]

In February 2014, LinkedIn launched its Simplified Chinese language version named "领英" (pinyin: Lǐngyīng; literally: 'leading elite'), officially extending their service in China.[174][175] LinkedIn CEO Jeff Weiner acknowledged in a blog post that they would have to censor some of the content that users post on its website in order to comply with Chinese rules, but he also said the benefits of providing its online service to people in China outweighed those concerns.[174][176] Since Autumn 2017 job postings from western countries for China aren't possible anymore.[177]

On 4 August 2016, a Moscow court ruled that LinkedIn must be blocked in Russia for violating a new data retention law, which requires the user data of Russian citizens to be stored on servers within the country. This ban was upheld on 10 November 2016, and all Russian ISPs began blocking LinkedIn thereafter. LinkedIn's mobile app was also banned from Google Play Store and iOS App Store in Russia in January 2017.[178][179]

## SNA LinkedIn

The Search, Network, and Analytics (SNA) team at LinkedIn has a website[180] that hosts the open source projects built by the group. Notable among these projects is Project Voldemort,[181] a distributed key-value structured storage system with low-latency similar in purpose to Amazon.com's Dynamo and Google's Bigtable.

## Surveillance and NSA program

In the 2013 global surveillance disclosures, documents released by Edward Snowden revealed that British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) (an intelligence and security organisation) infiltrated the Belgian telecommunications network Belgacom by luring employees to a false LinkedIn page.[182]

## Science

Massive amounts of data from LinkedIn allow scientists and machine learning researchers to extract insights and build product features.[183] For example, this data can help to shape patterns of deception in resumes.[184] Another example shows how signals from LinkedIn can be used to assess the quality of Wikipedia articles and their sources.[185]

## See also

* Business network
* Employment website
* List of social networking websites
* Reputation systems
* Social network
* Social software
* Timeline of social media

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110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 Meyer, Jack (July 14, 2019). "How to Use LinkedIn to Find a Job in 2019:LinkedIn connects over 600 million users between roughly 200 countries. With so many people using it, how can you stand out from the crowd to land that next job?". TheStreet.com. https://www.thestreet.com/how-to/how-to-use-linkedin-to-find-a-job-15017212. Retrieved August 3, 2019. "...Linked ... grown into the premier digital platform ..."
111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 Bariso, Justin (August 1, 2019). "How to Use LinkedIn and LinkedIn Video to Expand Your Reach, Build Your Network, and Find the Right Customers for Your Business: LinkedIn has changed dramatically through the years. Here's a step-by-step guide for getting the most out of the platform.". https://www.inc.com/justin-bariso/how-to-use-linkedin-linkedin-video-to-expand-your-reach-build-your-network-find-right-customers-for-your-business.html. Retrieved August 3, 2019. "... Advice from Kristin Sherry -- engage with commenters, give give give, ask for engagement, don't be a slave to numbers, experiment with LinkedIn video..."
112. ↑ Collamer, Nancy (March 7, 2017). "7 LinkedIn Tips To Build Your Personal Brand". https://www.forbes.com/sites/nextavenue/2017/03/07/7-linkedin-tips-to-build-your-personal-brand/#272d768b4058. Retrieved August 19, 2019. "...Invest in getting a professional photo taken ... Long says: “If you can afford a professional photographer, it is usually the best investment you can make in your personal brand and self confidence.”..."
113. ↑ "5 tips to make LinkedIn work better". Enterprisers Project. January 4, 2019. https://enterprisersproject.com/article/2019/1/5-linkedin-tips-it-leaders. Retrieved August 19, 2019. "..Consider adding [...videos] to your profile, or uploading presentations to LinkedIn via SlideShare,” says Sandra Long, author of "LinkedIn for Personal Branding: The Ultimate Guide..."
114. ↑ 114.0 114.1 Moran, Gwen (July 20, 2017). "Give your LinkedIn profile a complete makeover in under an hour: Need to spruce up your LinkedIn profile fast? Focus on these seven areas.". https://www.fastcompany.com/90201284/give-your-linkedin-profile-a-complete-makeover-in-under-an-hour. Retrieved August 12, 2019. "... a cottage industry has sprung up around helping people and companies craft the perfect profile of record ... Your headline is the 120-word line ... Be sure you’re using that space wisely, says Sandra Long, LinkedIn consultant and author of LinkedIn for Personal Branding: The Ultimate Guide...."
115. ↑ Reyes, Maridel (December 2, 2018). "How to make the perfect LinkedIn profile". https://nypost.com/2018/12/02/how-to-make-the-perfect-linkedin-profile/. Retrieved August 12, 2019. "... A comprehensive profile includes a headline with keywords; headshot photo; first-person summary and experiences; education; skills; geography; industry; contact information; volunteering; custom URL and accomplishments such as publications, organizations, awards, spoken languages and certifications, says Sandra Long, author of “LinkedIn for Personal Branding: The Ultimate Guide”..."
116. ↑ Passy, Jacob (April 2, 2017). "This is the country (and profession) with the most photogenic LinkedIn profiles". MarketWatch. https://www.marketwatch.com/story/members-of-this-profession-have-the-most-appealing-linkedin-photos-2017-03-31. Retrieved August 12, 2019. "...There’s no hiding in the long grass on LinkedIn ... said Sandra Long, owner of Post Road Consulting, a company that provides LinkedIn training ..."
117. ↑ "Will LinkedIn Address the Influencer Program's Gender Lopsidedness?", LinkedIn Pulse, 14 June 2016. Retrieved on 28 June 2016.
118. ↑ Rao, Leena. "LinkedIn Allows You To Follow Key Influencers On The Network; Will Eventually Make Feature Universal", TechCrunch, San Francisco, 2 October 2012. Retrieved on 19 July 2013.
119. ↑ Kaufman, Leslie. "LinkedIn Builds Its Publishing Presence", The New York Times , New York,16 June 2013. Retrieved on 19 July 2013.
120. ↑ Santoreneos, Anastasia (August 1, 2019). "How to use LinkedIn to guarantee you get your dream job". Yahoo! Finance. https://au.finance.yahoo.com/news/how-to-use-linkedin-to-guarantee-you-get-the-job-022554090.html. Retrieved August 3, 2019. "...LinkedIn, the professional’s Facebook ... there are around 12.5 million working professional in Australia - which means your future employer is probably on the site..."
121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 121.2 Kersten, Teresa (July 16, 2019). "How to Get Positive Responses to Cold Outreach Messages on LinkedIn". Yahoo! Finance. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/positive-responses-cold-outreach-messages-200200477.html. Retrieved August 3, 2019. ".... People you've accepted invitations from (or those who've accepted them from you) are first-degree connections. People connected to them are second-degree, and those connected to second-degree connections are third-degree. ... ..."
122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 Colleen Taylor, GigaOm. "LinkedIn launches job application plugin." July 25, 2011. Retrieved July 25, 2011.
123. ↑ Fertig, Arnie. "6 Ways Recruiters Use LinkedIn to Headhunt". US News & World Report. http://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/outside-voices-careers/2013/07/16/6-ways-recruiters-use-linkedin-to-headhunt. Retrieved July 3, 2015.
124. ↑ Economy, Peter (July 23, 2019). "If You're Freelance or a Small-Business Owner, LinkedIn Just Revealed a New Feature That Changes Everything: LinkedIn counts at least 10 million small-business leaders who use the site's tools and services to reach out to clients.". https://www.inc.com/peter-economy/if-youre-freelance-or-a-small-business-owner-linkedin-just-revealed-a-new-feature-that-changes-everything.html. Retrieved August 3, 2019. "... enable members who are freelancers and small business owners to show their individual availability,.."
125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 Petrow, Steven (2017-05-10). "3 overlooked LinkedIn features to find a better paying job" (in en-US). https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/columnist/stevenpetrow/2017/05/10/3-game-changing-linkedin-features/101032400/.
126. ↑ Roth, Daniel (April 3, 2019). "LinkedIn Top Companies 2019: Where the U.S. wants to work now". https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/linkedin-top-companies-2019-where-us-wants-work-now-daniel-roth/.
127. ↑ "LinkedIn Direct Ads vs Google Adwords". Shoutex.com. December 22, 2008. http://shoutex.com/blog/linkedin-directads-google-adwords-ppc-1/. Retrieved 2015-10-06.
128. ↑ LinkedIn's promising new revenue model: sending you surveys. By: Neff, Jack, Advertising Age, 00018899, 10/27/2008, Vol. 79, Issue 40. Database: Business Source Complete
129. ↑ "LinkedIn Expands Ad Program With Launch Of Sponsored Updates Program". Techcruch.com. https://techcrunch.com/2013/07/23/linkedin-sponsored-updates/. Retrieved 2015-10-06.
130. ↑ By Ingrid Lunden, TechCrunch. ""Who's Viewed Your Posts?" LinkedIn Adds Analytics To Its Publishing Platform." May 7, 2015. May 7, 2015.
131. ↑ 131.0 131.1 Steve Kovach Nov. 27, 2012 Jeff Weiner Just Revealed A Surprising Long-Term Vision For LinkedIn Business Insider
132. ↑ Rachel King September 9, 2013 LinkedIn's long-term plan? Build the 'world's first economic graph,' says CEO ZDNet's Between the Lines
133. ↑ 133.0 133.1 Tomio Geron September 9, 2013. Jeff Weiner: LinkedIn Is Building A Massive Global 'Economic Graph' Forbes
134. ↑ Ingrid Lunden Jan 15, 2014 LinkedIn Expands Its Jobs Database With A New Volunteer Marketplace For Unpaid Non-Profit Work TechCrunch
135. ↑ Bill Chappell August 19, 2013 University Pages: LinkedIn Launches New College Profiles NPR's the two-way
136. ↑ Harrison Weber June 5, 2014 LinkedIn launches ‘Galene’ search architecture to build the first ‘economic graph’ VentureBeat
137. ↑ Rachel King June 5, 2014 LinkedIn plans to reinvent search in order to map its economic graph ZDNet's Between the Lines
138. ↑ "The most attractive cities worldwide for new graduates – Quartz". Qz.com. 2014-06-04. http://qz.com/216560/the-most-attractive-cities-worldwide-for-new-graduates/. Retrieved 2015-10-06.
139. ↑ "Where Is the Top City to Spot Tech Talent?". Blogs.wsj.com. 2014-06-24. https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2014/06/24/where-is-the-top-city-to-spot-tech-talent/. Retrieved 2015-10-06.
140. ↑ "Oh, the Places You'll Go! (Or Not.)". Blogs.wsj.com. 2014-12-08. https://blogs.wsj.com/atwork/2014/12/08/how-to-predict-your-next-job/. Retrieved 2015-10-06.
141. ↑ "LinkedIn Economic Graph Research: Helping New Yorkers Connect With The Jobs Of Tomorrow [INFOGRAPHIC"]. http://blog.linkedin.com/2015/02/12/linkedin-economic-graph-research-helping-new-yorkers-connect-with-the-jobs-of-tomorrow-infographic/. Retrieved July 3, 2015.
142. ↑ "Five Benefits of LinkedIn for Organizations (and IT Pros) | TechRepublic." Web. May 9, 2011.
143. ↑ "LinkedIn.com, a business-orientated networking site, can be an ideal way for professionals to present an online profile of themselves ... Unlike social networking sites, [with] LinkedIn you're outlining all your credentials; presenting the professional rather than the personal you. Considering the sheer vastness of the digital space, the potential for building up a solid base of contacts and fostering new business relationships is boundless." O'Sullivan, James (2011), "Make the most of the networking tools that are available", Evening Echo, May 9, 2011. Pg 32. Note that the Evening Echo is located close to the European headquarters of LinkedIn
144. ↑ Foss, Jenny (July 6, 2012). "Your LinkedIn Intervention: 5 Changes You Must Make". Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/dailymuse/2012/07/06/your-linkedin-intervention-5-changes-you-must-make/.
145. ↑ MacArthur, Kate. "Shiftgig hires LinkedIn vice president as new CEO" (in en-US). chicagotribune.com. http://www.chicagotribune.com/bluesky/originals/ct-bsi-shiftgig-new-ceo-20170918-story.html.
146. ↑ "How LinkedIn can thwart your job search". Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/nextavenue/2014/01/21/how-linkedin-is-thwarting-your-job-search/. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
147. ↑ "All you need to know about endorsements". Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/12/24/everything-you-need-to-know-about-linkedin-endorsements-2/. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
148. ↑ "LinkedIn is making its endorsements feature a lot smarter to help people find jobs" (in en). Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/linkedin-upgrades-skill-endorsements-2016-10.
149. ↑ LinkedIn argues it has free speech right to email Mediapost.com in 19 September 2014.
150. ↑ LinkedIn 'Credit Reports' Give Job Seekers Trouble Courthouse News Service in 13 October 2014.
151. ↑ LinkedIn illegally sold your professional data lawsuit claims News Mic in 13 October 2014.
152. ↑ LinkedIn to face lawsuit for spamming users' email address books, BetaNews
153. ↑ LinkedIn is "breaking into" user emails, spamming contacts – lawsuit, Gigaom.com
154. ↑ "Judge Rejects LinkedIn's Free-Speech Argument In Battle Over Email Invitations". http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/238275/judge-rejects-linkedins-free-speech-argument-in-b.html?. Retrieved July 3, 2015.
155. ↑ "LinkedIn Confirms Account Passwords Hacked". PC World.com. June 6, 2012. http://www.pcworld.com/article/257045/update_linkedin_confirms_account_passwords_hacked.html. Retrieved June 6, 2012.
156. ↑ Finkle, Jim and Jennifer Saba (June 6, 2012). "LinkedIn suffers data breach". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/06/linkedin-breach-idINL1E8H6CBC20120606. Retrieved June 7, 2012.
157. ↑ "LinkedIn Just Added Two-Factor Authentication, So Enable It Now". Lifehacker.com. 2013-05-31. http://lifehacker.com/linkedin-just-added-two-factor-authentication-so-enabl-510680312. Retrieved 2015-10-06.
158. ↑ "LinkedIn resetting passwords after 117 million user credentials stolen". MashableUK. http://mashable.com/2016/05/18/linkedin-hack//. Retrieved 2016-05-19.
159. ↑ "The biggest email provider you've never heard of". Fortune.com. http://fortune.com/2014/10/06/message-systems-email-provider/. Retrieved 2015-10-06.
160. ↑ Intelligence, Dell SecureWorks Counter Threat Unit Threat. "Suspected Hacker Group Creates Network of Fake LinkedIn Profiles" (in en). https://www.secureworks.com/research/suspected-iran-based-hacker-group-creates-network-of-fake-linkedin-profiles.
161. ↑ Samuel, Henry (October 23, 2018). "Chinese spies fooled 'hundreds' of civil servants and executives, France reveals". 3=The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/10/23/chinese-online-spies-fool-hundreds-totally-unprepared-top-french/.
162. ↑ "German intelligence unmasks alleged covert Chinese social media profiles". Reuters. December 10, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-security-china/german-intelligence-unmasks-alleged-covert-chinese-social-media-profiles-idUSKBN1E40CA.
163. ↑ Grieshaber, Kirsten (December 10, 2017). "Germany's intelligence head warns of increased cyberspying from China". The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/germanys-intelligence-head-warns-of-increased-cyberspying-from-china/article37282135/. "Hans-Georg Maassen said his agency, known by its German acronym BfV, believes more than 10,000 Germans have been targeted by Chinese intelligence agents posing as consultants, headhunters or researchers, primarily on the social networking site LinkedIn."
164. ↑ LinkedIns new mobile app called a dream for attackers New York Times in 24 October 2013.
165. ↑ LinkedIn liest Ihre Mails mit PC-Welt in 28 October 2013.
166. ↑ Stiftung Warentest kritisiert Facebook, LinkedIn und Myspace golem.de (German) in 3 March 2018.
167. ↑ Soziale Netzwerke: Datenschutz oft mangelhaft Stiftung Warentest (German) in 24 March 2014.
168. ↑ "Russland blockiert LinkedIn" (in German). Spiegel Online. 2016-11-17. http://www.spiegel.de/karriere/linkedin-wird-in-russland-gesperrt-a-1121723.html. Retrieved 2018-03-03.
169. ↑ Wilkens, Andreas (2016-11-17). "Russland blockiert Linkedin" (in German). http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Russland-blockiert-Linkedin-3490326.html. Retrieved 2018-03-03.
170. ↑ "User's recensions on Linkedin". https://it.trustpilot.com/review/www.linkedin.com?languages=all.
171. ↑ "Syria: Linkedin Kicks Off Syrian Users!". Global Voices Advocacy. April 18, 2009. http://advocacy.globalvoicesonline.org/2009/04/18/syria-linkedin-kicks-off-syrian-users/. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
172. ↑ Ungerleider, Neal (February 25, 2011). "China blocks access to LinkedIn". Fast Company. http://www.cnn.com/2011/TECH/social.media/02/25/china.blocks.linkedin.fastco/index.html?iref=NS1. Retrieved February 25, 2011.
173. ↑ Baker, Liana (February 25, 2011). "LinkedIn website working again in China". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/25/us-linkedin-idUSTRE71O5VY20110225.
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175. ↑ "专业社交网站LinkedIn推出中文版". BBC Chinese. 25 February 2014. http://www.bbc.co.uk/zhongwen/simp/world/2014/02/140225_linkedin_china.shtml. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
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177. ↑ "No Job Postings for China on LinkedIn anymore". Stephan Koß. November 10, 2017. https://linkedinsiders.wordpress.com/2017/11/10/keine-stellenanzeigen-mehr-fuer-china-auf-linkedin/. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
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