Tertiary education in Australia

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The University of Melbourne, Melbourne.

Department of Education, Skills and Employment, Canberra.

The University of Sydney, Sydney.

The University of the Sunshine Coast (UniSC), Brisbane: Moreton Bay Campus

Australian National University, Canberra.

Tertiary education in Australia is formal education beyond high school in Australia, consisting of both government and private institutions and divided into two sectors; Higher Education (provided by universities and other Higher Education Providers (HEPs)) and Vocational Education and Training (VET) provided by government-owned TAFEs & private Registered Training Organisations (RTO).[1][2] The Commonwealth Government's Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) classifies tertiary qualifications into 10 levels: level 1 to 4 vocational certificates (I - IV); level 5 diploma; ; level 6 associate degree and advanced diploma; level 7 bachelor degree; level 8 bachelor with honours degree & graduate certificates and graduate diplomas; level 9 for master's degree; and level 10 for doctorates.[3]

Most universities are government owned and mostly self-regulated. For other institutes (VETs, i.e. TAFE & RTO) there are two national regulators for tertiary education for registration, recognition and quality assurance of both the "provider institutes" as well as the "individual courses" provided by the providers. Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) regulates institutes which provide education from level 5 or above. Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA) regulates institutes which provide education from level 1 to level 6.[4]

For admission into Australian institutes, Australian & New Zealand citizens or Australian permanent residents, are considered "domestic students" regardless of whether their prior education was in Australia or overseas. All others are considered "international students".[5] Domestic students need to apply only once to the TACs (State-based unified Tertiary Admission Centre) of the relevant state for admission to all the universities within that state, which grant admission based on the ATAR-based "Selection Rank" (SR). Those students with International Baccalaureate (IB), both domestic and international students, must apply to the "Australasian Conference of Tertiary Admission Centres" (ACTAC) which calculates an Australia-wide ATAR-like national rank called "Combined Rank" (CR).[6] Domestic students usually pay far less in subsidised-fees compared to international students. Additionally, domestic students are entitled to Australia's publicly funded universal health care insurance scheme Medicare, the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) and various social security welfare payments & benefits, e.g. Austudy Payment, Youth Allowance, etc., to meet living expenses. International students are not entitled to these benefits. All international students apply individually to each university, and most international students are self-financed non-subsidised full-fee paying students.

There are 43 universities registered in Australia (including 37 public universities, four private universities, and one international private university).[7][8] Many Australian universities have formed several network groupings, such as the Group of Eight (8 leading universities which receive two thirds of the government research grant funding awarded to all universities), the Australian Technology Network (ATN), Innovative Research Universities (IRU), the Regional Universities Network (RUN), and more.[9] Australia is well known for high quality education, most of the universities are government owned, and they rank very highly on the global rankings. Australia is ranked 4th (with Germany) in the OECD by international PhD students destination after the US, UK and France.[10] Australia has a comparatively high proportion of international students as a percentage of students enrolled, at 26.5% in 2018.[11] Australia has the fifth-highest number of foreign students worldwide.[12]

56% of the 462,033 international students enrolled in Australia are from five nations; China (23%), India (16%), Nepal (10%), Colombia (4%) and Thailand (3%) with an enrolment ratio of 50% in Higher Education (229,833), 35% VET (162,193), 11% ELICOS (English language course) (50,246), 2% Schools (19,704) and 2% Non-Award (8,057).[13] In 2022, 69% of Australians aged 20–64 had a tertiary qualification, and 24% had multiple qualifications.[1] Among all ethnic groups in Australia, Indian Australians are the most educated group in Australia with 54.6% having a bachelor's or higher degree — more than three times Australia's national average of 17.2%.[14]

## Contents

* 1 Important definitions & information
* 2 History
* 2.1 Early 20th century
* 2.2 During World War II (1939-45)
* 2.3 Post-war (1945-2000)
* 2.4 21st century
* 3 Australian qualification levels
* 4 Legitimacy, recognition, accreditation, quality & rankings
* 4.1 International ranking & reputation
* 4.2 Legal framework for establishment
* 4.3 Register of Education Providers
* 4.4 Education regulators for quality assurance
* 4.5 Government funding
* 5 Universities
* 6 VET (Vocational Education and Training): TAFE & RTO
* 7 Domestic students: admission & fee
* 7.1 ATAR-based Selection Ranks
* 7.2 State-level Tertiary Admission Centres (TAC)
* 7.3 Interstate applications
* 7.4 Overseas domestic students
* 7.5 Graduate courses
* 7.6 Funding
* 8 International students: admission & fee
* 8.1 Admissions
* 8.2 Fee
* 8.3 Enrolment statistics
* 8.4 Economic impact
* 9 For-profit education
* 10 Criticism
* 10.1 Governance
* 10.2 Melbourne University Private venture
* 10.3 Federal Government quality measures
* 10.4 Communist Chinese influence
* 11 See also
* 12 References
* 13 External links

## Important definitions & information

UniSA (University of South Australia), Magill Campus.

* Types of Students:

*     * Domestic Student (DS): Must be an Australian or New Zealand citizen, or an Australian permanent resident status, or on a long-term Australian humanitarian refugee visa.[15] Australian citizens and permanent residents living overseas (out of Australia) who completed their pre-university education overseas are still considered domestic students for the purpose of tertiary education in Australia e.g. for gaining admission in CSP and for obtaining social security benefits. Domestic students are of following two types:
* CSP Domestic Students
* Full-fee paying Domestic Students

*     * International Student (IS): All others are considered International Students, including those living in Australia on other types of visa.[15] International students pay full tuition fees, though there are certain scholarships for them which are highly competitive to obtain.

* For both Domestic and International students:

*     * Combined Rank (CR) for International Baccalaureate (IB) students: both domestic and international students with IB, must apply to the "Australasian Conference of Tertiary Admission Centres" (ACTAC) which calculates an Australia-wide ATAR-like national rank called "Combined Rank" (CR) which combines results from across all states, thus enabling IB students to "apply in any Australian state or territory with confidence about how their results compare to their peers who have completed state curricula and received an ATAR". Also "when completing your final year of schooling, ensure that you provide permission via your school for your IB results to be released to Australian tertiary admissions centres. As long as you identify yourself as an IB student and provide your IB candidate number when applying for courses, your IB scores and subject results will be received electronically and automatically converted for the purposes of selection and meeting prerequisites."[6]

*     * Selection Rank (SR): a rank assigned by the university for granting admission.
* Domestic students must apply to the Tertiary Admission Centre (TAC) of the relevant state which will calculate the ATAR and their selection rank is determined by the university based on the ATAR and some other additional criteria assigned by the university.
* International students must apply directly to the university, which will calculate their SR based on their high school qualifications.

*     * USI (Unique Student Identifier): An individual student's identification number for life for tertiary education across all institutes. Without one, a student cannot receive their final qualification testimonial (degree certificate), online access, or Commonwealth government financial assistance such as CSP, etc.[16]

*     * EFTSL (Equivalent Full Time Student Load): A year of full-time study calculated based on number of units (subjects) undertaken by the student.[17]

* Fee for "CSP Domestic Students: "Commonwealth Supported Place" (CSP) subsidised students.

*     * SLE (Student Learning Entitlement): During their lifetime a student can avail at least 7 years of EFTSL full-time subsidised study in Commonwealth Supported Places (CSP) across degrees, with additional SLE gained for postgraduate courses, and 3 EFTSL gained after 10 years.[18]

*     * LCR (Low Completion Rate): Fail rate of more than 50 per cent of the units of study a student has attempted. LCR results in termination of CSP subsidised fee. To continue to receive the CSP subsidy, students must pass at least 50% of all units (subjects) attempted.[19]

*     * CSP (Commonwealth Supported Place) students: A study fee where the cost is partially subsidised by the government. Most domestic students are CSP students. Those domestic students who fail to secure a CSP must pay the full fee.[20]

*     *       * SCA (Student Contribution Amounts): CSP student's share of the fee, can be covered with the HECS-HELP and/or OS-HELP.[21]

*     *       *         * HECS-HELP loan: to pay for SCA portion of CSP students. Does not cover the cost of accommodation, food living, and laptop etc.[22]

*     *       *         * OS-HELP loan: For CSP students undertaking part of their course overseas, students cannot get OS-HELP if qualification will be awarded by an overseas university or higher education provider.[23]

*     *       *         * SA-HELP loan: For covering the SSAF (Student Services and Amenities Fee) for all domestic students including CSP and full-fee paying students. The maximum SSAF institutes can charge a student was $326 in 2023.[24]

* Fee for "Full-fee paying Domestic Students" only.

*     * FEE-HELP loan: For full fee paying domestic students. While HECS-HELP is a loan for subsidised CSP students, FEE-HELP is a loan for domestic full fee paying students to cover their tuition fees.[25]
* SA-HELP loan: For covering the SSAF (Student Services and Amenities Fee) for all domestic students including CSP and full-fee paying students, the maximum SSAF institutes can charge a student was $326 in 2023.[24]
* Living expenses assistance for domestic students - Social Security welfare payments & benefits: Only domestic students, both CSP & full-fee paying students, are entitled, e.g. Austudy Payment, Youth Allowance, etc. Domestic students are entitled to a 30–35% discount on train and bus public transport fares in all states,[26] free medical insurance through Medicare, Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), etc. International students are not eligible for social security benefits or Medicare.
* Scholarship: A large range of scholarships are available for both domestic and international students.[27]

## History

### Early 20th century

The first university established in Australia was the University of Sydney in 1850, followed in 1853 by the University of Melbourne. Prior to federation in 1901, two more universities were established: the University of Adelaide (1874) and the University of Tasmania (1890). At the time of federation, Australia's population was 3,788,100 and there were fewer than 2,652 university students. Two other universities were established soon after federation: the University of Queensland (1909) and the University of Western Australia (1911). All of these universities were controlled by State governments and were largely modelled on the traditional British university system and adopted both architectural and educational features in line with the (then) strongly influential 'mother' country. In his paper Higher Education in Australia: Structure, Policy and Debate[28] Jim Breen observed that in 1914 only 3,300 students (or 0.1% of the Australian population) were enrolled in universities. In 1920 the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee (AVCC) was formed to represent the interests of these six universities.

The 'non-university' institutions originally issued only trade/technical certificates, diplomas and professional bachelor's degrees. Although universities were differentiated from technical colleges and institutes of technology through their participation in research, Australian universities were initially not established with research as a significant component of their overall activities. For this reason, the Australian Government established the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in 1926 as a backbone for Australian scientific research, which still exists today.

### During World War II (1939-45)

Two university colleges and no new universities were established before World War II. On the eve of the war, Australia's population reached seven million. University participation was relatively low. Australia had six universities and two university colleges with combined student numbers of 14,236. 10,354 were degree students (including only 81 higher degree students) and almost 4,000 sub-degree or non-award students.

In 1942, the Universities Commission was created to regulate university enrolments and the implementation of the Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme (CRTS).

### Post-war (1945-2000)

After the war, in recognition of the increased demand for teachers for the "baby boom" generation and the importance of higher education in national economic growth, the Commonwealth Government took an increased role in the financing of higher education from the States. In 1946 the Australian National University was created by an Act of Federal Parliament as a national research only institution (research and postgraduate research training for national purposes). By 1948 there were 32,000 students enrolled, under the impetus of CRTS.

In 1949, the University of New South Wales was established.

During the 1950s, enrolments increased by 30,000 and participation rates doubled.

In 1950, the Mills Committee Inquiry into university finances, focusing on short-term rather than long-term issues, resulted in the State Grants (Universities) Act 1951 being enacted (retrospective to 1 July 1950). It was a short-term scheme under which the Commonwealth contributed one quarter of the recurrent costs of "State" universities.

In 1954, the University of New England was established. In that year, Robert Menzies established the Committee on Australian Universities. The Murray Committee Inquiry of 1957 found that financial stringency was the root cause of the shortcomings across universities: short staffing, poor infrastructure, high failure rates, weak honours and postgraduate schools. It also accepted the financial recommendations in full, which led to increased funds to the sector, the establishment of the Australian Universities Commission (AUC) and the conclusion that the Commonwealth Government should accept greater responsibility for the States' universities.

In 1958, Monash University was established. The States Grants (Universities) Act 1958 allocated funding to States for capital and recurrent expenditure in universities for the triennial 1958 to 1960. In 1959, the Australian Universities Commission Act of 1959 established the AUC as a statutory body to advise the Commonwealth Government on university matters. Between 1958 and 1960 there was more than a 13% annual increase in university enrolments. By 1960, there were 53,000 students in ten universities. There were a spate of universities established in the 1960s and 70s: Macquarie University (1964), La Trobe University (1964), the University of Newcastle (1965), Flinders University (1966), James Cook University (1970), Griffith University (1971), Deakin University (1974), Murdoch University (1975), and the University of Wollongong (1975). By 1960, the number of students enrolled in Australian Universities had reached 53,000. By 1975 there were 148,000 students in 19 universities.

Until 1973, university tuition was funded either through Commonwealth scholarships, which were based on merit, or through fees. Tertiary education in Australia was structured into three sectors:

* Universities
* Institutes of technology (a hybrid between a university and a technical college)
* Technical colleges

During the early 1970s, there was a significant push to make tertiary education in Australia more accessible to working and middle-class people. In 1973, the Whitlam Labor Government abolished university fees. This increased the university participation rate.

In 1974, the Commonwealth assumed full responsibility for funding higher education (i.e., universities and Colleges of Advanced Education (CAEs)) and established the Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission (CTEC), which had an advisory role and responsibility for allocating government funding among universities. However, in 1975, in the context of a federal constitutional political crisis and economic recession, triennial funding of universities was suspended. Demand remained with growth redirected to CAEs and State-controlled TAFE colleges.

By the mid-1980s, the method by which fees were re-introduced proved to be a system accepted by both Federal political parties and consequently still in place today. The system is known as the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) and enables students to defer payment of fees until after they commence professional employment, and after their income exceeds a threshold level – at that point, the fees are automatically deducted through income tax.

By the late 1980s, the Australian tertiary education system was still a three-tier system, composed of:

* All tertiary institutions established as universities by acts of parliament (e.g. Sydney, Monash, La Trobe, Griffith)
* A collection of institutes of technology (such as the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT))
* A collection of colleges of Technical and Further Education (TAFE)

However, by this point, the roles of the universities, institutes of technology and the CSIRO had also become blurred. Institutes of technology had moved from their traditional role of undergraduate teaching and industry-consulting towards conducting pure and applied research. They also had the ability to award degrees through to Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) level.

For a number of reasons, including clarifying the role of institutes of technology, the Federal Minister for Education of the time (John Dawkins) created the unified national system, which compressed the former three-tier tertiary education system into a two-tier system. This required a number of amalgamations and mergers between smaller tertiary institutions, and the option for institutes of technology to become universities. As a result of these reforms, institutes of technology disappeared and were replaced by a collection of new universities. By the early 1990s, the two-tier tertiary education was in place in Australia – university education and Technical and Further Education (TAFE). By the early years of the new millennium, even TAFE colleges were permitted to offer degrees up to bachelor's level.

The 1980s also saw the establishment of Australia's first private university, Bond University. Founded by businessman Alan Bond, this Gold Coast institution was granted its university status by the Queensland government in 1987.

For the most part, up until the 1990s, traditional Australian universities had focused upon pure, fundamental, and basic research rather than industry or applied research – a proportion of which had been well supported by the CSIRO which had been set up for this function. Australians had performed well internationally in pure research, having scored almost a dozen Nobel Prizes[29] as a result of their participation in pure research.

In the 1990s, the Hawke/Keating Federal Government sought to redress the shortcoming in applied research by creating a cultural shift in the national research profile. This was achieved{{Citation needed|date=April 2007} ships and research grants for postgraduate research in collaboration with industry, and by introducing a national system of Cooperative Research Centres (CRCs). These new centres were focused on a narrow band of research themes (e.g., photonics, cast metals, etc.) and were intended to foster cooperation between universities and industry. A typical CRC would be composed of a number of industry partners, university partners and CSIRO. Each CRC would be funded by the Federal Government for an initial period of several years. The total budget of a CRC, composed of the Federal Government monies combined with industry and university funds, was used to fund industry-driven projects with a high potential for commercialisation. It was perceived that this would lead to CRCs becoming self-sustaining (self-funding) entities in the long-term, although this has not eventuated.[citation needed] Most Australian universities hav RCs, and CSIRO is also significantly represented across the spectrum of these centres.[citation needed] This has led to a further blurring of the role of CSIRO and how it n universities.[citation needed]

People attending a tertiary institution as a percentage of the local population at the 2011 census, geographically subdivided by statistical local area Total employment in tertiary education (thousands of people) since 1984

### 21st century

From 1989 to 1999, there was an increase of 28% in adults studying in post-compulsory courses, most of whom were studying in the tertiary sector.[30]

In 2006, Campion College was opened in Sydney as a Roman Catholic liberal arts tertiary college, with an original intake of 16 students, growing to 30-40 per year.

In 2008, Canberra lifted restrictions on university enrolments, in order to make tertiary education more accessible to students from socioeconomic groups which had previously had relatively low levels of participation in higher education.

The Rural and Regional Enterprise Scholarships (RRES) program, inaugurated by the Liberal-National Coalition government in 2016, was a strategic initiative aimed at ameliorating educational disparities between metropolitan and non-metropolitan regions. This program was meticulously designed to enhance access to, and completion of, tertiary education for students hailing from regional and remote areas, thereby promoting equitable academic opportunities across the nation.[31][32]

The RRES program encompassed support for a diverse array of academic pursuits, spanning from Certificate IV to PhD qualifications, thereby accommodating a wide spectrum of educational aspirations and professional trajectories. By alleviating financial barriers and fostering skill development through internships, the RRES program endeavoured to cultivate a more inclusive and proficient workforce, attuned to the evolving demands of a technologically advanced economy.[31]

In essence, the RRES program stood as a testament to the government's commitment to educational equity, striving to dismantle locational barriers and engender a more balanced distribution of educational attainment across Australia's diverse regions.[31][32]

The program's objectives were multifaceted, aiming to increase the number of regional and remote students engaging in tertiary study at qualification levels from Certificate IV and above, enabling them to undertake their preferred course of study irrespective of their location, and ensuring they complete their course of study relative to their peers. Through tertiary study and internship opportunities, scholarship recipients could obtain important job-related skills, as well as strengthening their foundational literacies, socio-emotional skills, and higher-order cognitive skills. They would be better equipped to adapt to the changing nature of work in a technologically advanced economy.[31]

The RRES program has been instrumental in helping Australians in regional and remote areas access higher education, offering life-changing opportunities for students pursuing qualifications from Certificate IV to PhD level.[31][32][33]

In 2017 the government introduced a freeze on the demand led funding structure, such that admitting more students did not result in a higher funding for institutions, in order to control spending.[32]

Between 2017 and 2020, the Liberal-National Coalition government in Australia continued to implement initiatives to enhance the tertiary education system, aligning it with emerging industries and workforce demands.[34]

In 2017, building upon the foundations laid by the Rural and Regional Enterprise Scholarships (RRES), the government inaugurated the Regional University Centres (RUCs) program, marking a seminal milestone in Australian higher education policy. Endowed with a substantial allocation, this initiative was designed to ameliorate longstanding disparities between metropolitan and rural educational opportunities. By establishing a network of strategically located regional study hubs, the program was conceived as a vehicle for fostering equitable access to tertiary education, particularly for communities in remote locales.[35]

This integrative model combined state-of-the-art digital learning technologies with on-site academic resources, thus ensuring that students, regardless of their location, could engage in a broad spectrum of educational activities. Such a pioneering approach was aimed at fostering a dynamic and inclusive educational environment, reflective of both modern pedagogical practices and the unique requirements of regional communities.[35]

Challenges remained in fully bridging the gap between regional and metropolitan student enrolments. The Australian National Audit Office (ANAO) conducted a performance audit titled "Access and Participation Programs for Regional and Remote Students," assessing the effectiveness of the Department of Education's design and implementation of programs and initiatives to improve the access and participation of regional and remote students in higher education. The audit highlighted areas for improvement, including the need for better targeting of resources and more effective monitoring and evaluation of programs outcomes.[36]

The 2017 reforms to the Higher Education Participation and Partnerships Program (HEPPP) signalled a major shift in the Australian Government's approach to enhancing the accessibility and success of disadvantaged students in higher education. By merging the previously separate Participation and Partnerships components into a single Access and Participation Fund, the reforms aimed at simplifying the funding structure while increasing its impact. This restructuring facilitated a more targeted allocation of resources, with an emphasis on creating sustained support systems for students from low socio-economic backgrounds, Indigenous communities, and other underrepresented groups in higher education.[37]

The government's decision to focus on data-driven outcomes and performance metrics was an important aspect of the reforms. By enhancing data collection and evaluation processes, the government sought not only to improve access but also to monitor the long-term success and academic achievements of students benefiting from HEPPP funding. This evaluation-driven approach was aligned with the broader goals of educational reform under the Liberal National Party's policy framework, which placed a premium on both equitable access to education and measurable outcomes. In this sense, the HEPPP reforms reflected the government's belief that long-term success in higher education for disadvantaged students depends not just on access, but on performance and retention, requiring an integrated and robust support system.[37]

Furthermore, these reforms were a response to ongoing conversations about the need for targeted interventions that could ensure that higher education remained within reach for students who might otherwise face barriers due to socio-economic or cultural factors. The LNP government's focus on expanding the scope of the HEPPP program, while also driving efficiencies through streamlined processes, reinforced its commitment to maintaining the accessibility of higher education without compromising on the quality of the education system. In this context, the policy shift emphasised a balance between ensuring equity of opportunity and maintaining rigorous academic standards, a core feature of the government's broader educational reforms.[37]

Additionally, the funding arrangements within the restructured HEPPP allowed for more tailored partnerships between universities and local communities, ensuring that initiatives were not only nationally consistent but also responsive to the specific needs of diverse groups. By supporting both institutional collaborations and community-based projects, the reforms aimed to foster long-term relationships between higher education providers and disadvantaged communities, thereby contributing to the broader social and economic inclusion agenda supported by the government.[37]

In 2018, the government introduced a $1.9 billion National Research Infrastructure Investment Plan, focusing on critical national research infrastructure, including upgrades to major computing facilities.[34]

Efforts were made to foster collaboration between academia and industry, aiming to translate academic research into real-world applications. The National Innovation and Science Agenda was a key policy in this regard.[34]

The government also backed schemes aimed at boosting diversity and fairness in higher education, including efforts to encourage participation from underrepresented groups. A particular focus was placed on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects, where a significant gender gap and lack of representation from diverse communities were recognised.[34]

To tackle this, funding and initiatives were introduced to inspire women and girls to pursue studies and careers in STEM. These included mentorship programs, bursaries, and outreach efforts in schools and universities designed to break down barriers that have historically hindered women's involvement in these fields. Moreover, partnerships were developed between industry and educational institutions to create clear pathways linking STEM education to job opportunities. By fostering a more inclusive environment and promoting diverse role models, the government aimed to build a more varied and innovative workforce in science and technology.[34]

The Job-ready Graduates Package, introduced by the LNP Australian Government in 2020, aimed to reform higher education funding to better align with national labour market needs. The policy sought to incentivise students to enrol in courses with strong employment prospects by adjusting student contribution amounts and government subsidies. This policy sought to balance equitable access with financial sustainability, ensuring that all students, regardless of background, could pursue education in fields with strong employment prospects.[38][39][40]

The introduction of the Job-ready Graduates Package in 2020 prompted discussions about the value of different fields within the context of higher education reforms. The initiative aimed to align university funding with national economic priorities, focusing on areas expected to meet labour market demands, such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), as well as health and education.[40][38][39]

Without the Job-Ready Graduates Package's differential pricing to steer enrolments, universities would lack the financial incentives needed to discourage over-subscription to less job-relevant disciplines. This would likely lead institutions to chase revenue by offering an increased number of low-value courses—particularly in the humanities and arts—where student contributions could be raised without regard to labour-market needs.[41]

In the absence of these demand-side incentives, institutions have historically responded by expanding courses in lower-cost, lower-return fields, such as the arts, to bolster revenue, leading to a proliferation of low-value offerings that exacerbate graduate underemployment and strain university budgets.[41]

The calibrated pricing of the JRG package bands discourage enrolment in lower-return fields, such as certain humanities and arts courses, thereby preventing the proliferation of low-value offerings, preventing disruption on campuses, and protecting university budgets from under-performing programs.[42][43]

Between January 2020 and September 2022, the COVID-19 pandemic and Deltacron hybrid variant impacted the Australian tertiary/higher education sector, reducing revenue by $3–4.6 billion.[44] Australian universities depend on overseas students for their revenue.[44] Federal Education Minister Dan Tehan announced $252 million to support the sector by allowing universities and colleges to offer short courses of 6 months duration with at least 50% reduction in fees, as well as guaranteeing the sector's existing $18 billion funding regardless of changes in domestic enrolment.[44][45] Tehan announced that 20,000 places in short-term courses in nursing, teaching, health, IT, and science.[44][45] An estimated 17,000 jobs had been lost in the sector by mid-2021.[46]

## Australian qualification levels

Deakin University's Building C in Burwood in Victoria state.

Main article: Organization:Australian Qualifications Framework

Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) is the national Education policy of Australia. It integrates all levels of tertiary education (both vocational and higher education), from trade certificates to higher doctorates, into a single unified classification system based on the following 10 levels.[4]

* Definitions:[4]
* Tertiary education: Level 1–10.
* Higher education: Level 5–10.
* Higher education by research: only research degrees in the Level 8–10.
* Postgraduate qualifications: all qualifications in Level 8–10 excluding "Honours bachelor's degree".
* Undergraduate qualifications: all up to & below the "Honours bachelor degree" in Level 1–7.
* AQF qualification levels:[4]
* Level-10: Higher Doctorate
* Level-10: PhD
* Level-10: Professional doctorate
* Level-9: Master's degree by research
* Level-9: Master's degree by coursework
* Level-9: Extended master's degree
* Level-8: Graduate diploma
* Level-8: Graduate certificate
* Level-8: Honours bachelor's degree
* Level-7: Bachelor degree
* Level-6: Associate degree
* Level-6: Advanced diploma
* Level-5: Diploma
* Level-4: Certificate IV
* Level-3: Certificate III
* Level-2: Certificate II
* Level-1: Certificate I

## Legitimacy, recognition, accreditation, quality & rankings

Western Sydney University Parramatta Campus in New South Wales state.

### International ranking & reputation

Australian universities consistently rank highly in the top 150 international universities as ranked by the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the QS World University Rankings, and the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. From 2012 through 2016, eight Australian universities have featured in the top 150 universities of these three lists.[47][48][49][50] The eight universities which are regularly ranked highly are Australian National University, the University of Melbourne, the University of Queensland, the University of Adelaide, Monash University, the University of Western Australia, the University of New South Wales, and the University of Sydney. These universities comprise Australia's Group of Eight, a coalition of research-intensive Australian universities.[51]

### Legal framework for establishment

* Private providers:
Usually established under the corporations law.[52]
* Universities:
In Australia, most universities are recognised & established under state and territory legislation.[53] TEQSA only maintains the register of Australian universities, but universities are self-accrediting and largely self-regulating institutions.[52] Exceptional cases, where universities were not established under state or territory legislation, are as follows:[52]
* Established under Commonwealth legislation, e.g. Australian National University, Australian Film, Television and Radio School and Australian Maritime College.[52]
* Established under the corporations law, e.g. Australian Catholic University.[52]

### Register of Education Providers

Tertiary education providers are often established or recognised by or under the law of the Australian Government, a state, or the Department of Education, Skills and Employment.[54][53] The following government entities maintain the official register of the approved tertiary education providers:

* TEQSA for HEP ("Higher Education Providers"), such as universities, TAFE & RTO: All institutes which provide qualifications from level 5 to 10. All higher education providers must be registered by TEQSA; registrations and decisions on regulatory activity are searchable on the National Register.[7] Students can verify the registration status of an institute or university by checking the national register for HEP maintained by TEQSA.[55]
* ASQA for VET, such as TAFE & RTO: All VET (Vocational Education and Training) providers are registered and regulated by the Australian Skills Quality Agency (ASQA).[56] ASQA publishes decisions about registrations and regulatory activity on a national register, providing information about VET providers to students and employers.[57]

### Education regulators for quality assurance

* Universities are self regulated: In Australia, most universities are recognised & established under state and territory legislation.[53] TEQSA only maintains the register of Australian universities, but universities are self-accrediting and largely self-regulating institutions. As self-accrediting institutions, Australia's universities have a reasonably high level of autonomy to operate within the legislative requirements associated with their Australian Government funding.[52]
* Two national regulators for the non-university tertiary education: Responsible for recognition and quality assurance of both the provider institute as well as the individual specific courses provided by the providers.[4]
* Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA) - regulator for Level 1–6: regulates institutes VETs, such as TAFE & RTO.[4]
* Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) - regulator for Level 5–10: regulates Higher Education Providers (HEP) institutes such as TAFE & RTO.[4] TEQSA is the regulator for accrediting the courses of non-self-accrediting higher education providers, e.g. government-owned TAFE & private education providers called RTOs.[53][58] All TAFE institutes and private RTOs are required to maintain compliance with a set of national quality assurance standards called the Australian Quality Training Framework (AQTF), monitored by regular internal and external audits by the federal government.[58] All trainers and assessors delivering VET programs are required to hold a qualification known as the "Certificate IV in Training and Assessment" (TAA40104) or the more current TAE40110,[59] or demonstrate equivalent competency.

### Government funding

See also: Organization:Tertiary education fees in Australia

Most Australian universities are established by the government and hence they receive the vast majority of their public funding from the Australian Government, through the Higher Education Support Act 2003.[52] The Department of Education, Skills and Employment has responsibility for administering this funding, and for developing and administering higher education policy and programs. Government funding is provided largely through:

*     * Commonwealth Grant Scheme which provides for a specified number of Commonwealth supported places each year
* Higher Education Loan program (HELP) arrangements providing financial assistance to students
* Commonwealth Scholarships and
* a range of grants for specific purposes including quality, learning and teaching, research and research training programs.

## Universities

See also: Organization:List of universities in Australia

Deakin University, one of Australia's 43 universities.

Universities Australia is the Association of Australian universities which acts as a lobby group. Various universities have formed the subgroups as follows, some universities are part of more than one group:

* Group of Eight (Go8): Oldest 8 universities of Australia usually having the highest standing.
* Australian Technology Network
* Innovative Research Universities.

## VET (Vocational Education and Training): TAFE & RTO

Vocational Education and Training (VET) in Australia, is provided by following two types of institutes.

1. Technical And Further Education (TAFE): state-government-owned & spread across the country, offer short courses, Certificates I, II, III, and IV, diplomas, and advanced diplomas in a wide range of vocational topics. The Grattan Institute has found that, for low-ATAR male students, TAFE training often results in a more stable and lucrative career than a university degree. Low-ATAR female students, however, are usually better off acquiring a degree in a profession such as teaching or nursing.[60]
2. Registered Training Organisation (RTO) which are privately operated, e.g. in Victoria alone there are approximately 1,100. In size these RTOs vary from single-person operations delivering training and assessment in a narrow specialisation, to large organisations offering a wide range of programs. Many of them receive government funding to deliver programs to apprentices or trainees, to disadvantaged groups, or in fields which governments see as priority areas. They include:

*     * Commercial Training Providers (CTP).
* Community Learning Centres (CLC) and neighbourhood houses.
* Group training companies.
* Industry Associations' Training Department, e.g. training department of Professionals Australia (trade union of professionals formerly known as APESMA).
* Secondary Colleges (SC-VET) providing VET programs.
* Training Department (TD) of manufacturing or service enterprises.

## Domestic students: admission & fee

### ATAR-based Selection Ranks

Admission for domestic students to undergraduate degrees are done on the basis of ATAR-based selection rank.[61] Admission to universities is granted based on the "selection rank" calculated by each university based on its own unique criteria. Selection ranks are a combination of ATAR, additional points based on universities' own criteria used for selecting students such as a "personal statement, a questionnaire, a portfolio of work, an audition, an interview or a test", as well as special considerations.[62][63][64]

### State-level Tertiary Admission Centres (TAC)

ATAR is used by all Australian public universities via their respective state-level Tertiary Admissions Centres (TAC). Each of these act as single point for applications covering all universities & post-secondary education institutes within that state or territory, i.e. domestic students do not have to apply for each university or institute individually within that state.

There are 6 SUAC covering the 6 states and 2 territories of Australia:

* ACT & NSW: Universities Admissions Centre (UAC).
* NT & SA: South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre (SATAC).
* QLD: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC).
* TAS: University of Tasmania.
It is sole University in Tasmania, hence applications are directly to the university.
* VIC: Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC).
* WA: Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC).

Those students who have completed their pre-university education within the state and wish to apply for university within the state, will have to apply to the state level University admissions centre.

### Interstate applications

Domestic students who wish to apply interstate, must apply to state-level admissions centres of the respective target states.[65] All ATARs are treated as equivalent between the states, though there are slight variations in the way each states calculates the ATAR. For example, an ATAR of 75 in New South Wales is the same as an ATAR of 75.00 in South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia.[66]

### Overseas domestic students

Domestic students, who completed their pre-university studies overseas and wish to undertake university education in Australia in one or more states, must apply to the state-level university admission centres of the respective states. For example, a domestic student (e.g. Australian citizen) who completed their A-Level exams in Singapore who wants to apply to several universities spread across all the 6 states and 2 territories of Australia, will have to apply to all 6 state-level admission centres.

### Graduate courses

For graduate courses, both domestic and international students must apply directly to the respective universities.

### Funding

Main articles: Organization:Tertiary education fees in Australia for Domestic Students and Social security payments & benefits in Australia for Domestic Students

Domestic Australian students can obtain Youth Allowance (24 years of age or younger, paid fortnightly e.g. ~$1,200 per month as of 2023) or Austudy Payment (above 24 years) to support their studies and living expenses.[67][68]

Domestic students are either full fee paying students or they are CSP (Commonwealth Supported Places).[69] CSP students pay a significantly subsidised fee, usually between ~$0 to ~$9,000 per year for a full time study load in most undergraduate courses. The component of the fee to be paid the student is called the student contribution amount (SCA). To cover the SCA, CSP students can also apply for a HELP loan (which covers tuition fees only), an OS-HELP loan for studying overseas (total ~$15,000 for maximum 2 semesters) and a SA-HELP loan to cover the SSAF (student services and amenities fee which is max $336).[70] Students can also avail a Relocation Scholarship (~$5,100 in the first year & ~$1,300 per year for those studying in remote areas or overseas),[71] and a Student Startup Loan twice a year ($1,200 each time x 2 per year of study).[72]

Universities and other organisations often offer scholarships which can be applied through the university.

Higher degree by research students can also apply for two types of Research Training Program (RTP) Domestic scholarships: the RTP Fee Offset Scholarship to offset 100% of fees and the RTP Stipend Scholarship to cover living expenses.[73]

## International students: admission & fee

### Admissions

Admission for international students for undergraduate and postgraduate studies are through direct applications to individual universities.[74] However, there are third party entities in various countries that help students to simultaneously apply for multiple universities in Australia.

### Fee

Most international students are self-financed.

Higher degree by research students can apply for the Australian government's Research Training Program (RTP) International scholarships.[73]

### Enrolment statistics

Of the 956,773 international students in Australia in 2019, 442,219 were enrolled in Higher Education, and 283,893 in vocational institutions, with the remainder enrolled in schools, language courses, and non-award courses.[75] Accordingly, in 2018, international students represented 26.5% of the student Australian university cohort.[76] Per capita, Australia has the highest number of inbound international students (427,660 in 2018, representing a 1:31 ratio of students:Australian adult population — more than double the UK (452,079 students, 1:78), or the US (987,314, 1:172) which have the largest number of inbound students.[77]

### Economic impact

International higher education represents one of Australia's largest exports, contributing $25.4 billion to the economy in 2018–19.[78] Of those international students granted visas between 2001 and 2014, approximately 16% were granted permanent residency at some stage, with 16,588 granted permanent residency in 2019–20.[78]

There are concerns that Australian universities are too dependent on international student revenue, particularly from the largest inbound cohort of China.[79] Similarly, concerns have been raised regarding some international student's English language capability, with calls to tighten admissions standards and provide more support for developing these skills.[80]

## For-profit education

This section is an excerpt from For-profit education § Australia[ edit ]

## Criticism

Problems with the new mass marketing of academic degrees include declining academic standards,[81][82] increased teaching by sessional lecturers, large class sizes, 20% of graduates working part-time, 26% of graduates working full-time but considering themselves to be underemployed, 26% of students not graduating at all, and 17% of employers losing confidence in the quality of instruction at a university.[83][84]

Students' rate of return on their large investment in time and money depends to a great extent on their study area. A longitudinal study by the Department of Education and Training found that median full-time salaries for undergraduates four years into their careers ranged from $55,000 in the creative arts to $120,000 in dentistry. For those with a master's degree or higher, the figures range from $68,800 in communication studies to $122,100 in medicine. Rates of graduate unemployment and underemployment also vary widely between study areas.[85] For comparison, the average taxable income for the top ten trades range from $68,000 for landscapers to $109,000 for boilermakers.[86]

A 2018 study from the Grattan Institute found that the gender gap in career earnings has continued to shrink, and that the proportion of foreign students is growing rapidly. Although the graduate labour market has partly recovered from the Great Recession, only the education, nursing and medical sectors have seen significant earnings growth.[87]

There is a concern that Australian Universities have "lacked the incentives, encouragement and resources" to "bring about the transformation in which high-growth, technology-based businesses become a driving force behind Australia's economy" and demonstrated there is no Australian universities placed in the Reuters top 100 ranking for lack of innovation and competitiveness.[88] Only 10.4% of Australian higher education students study ICT and Engineering/Technologies related courses.[89]

### Governance

With a larger proportion of university turnover derived from non-Government funds,[90][91] the role of university vice chancellors has moved from one of academic administration to strategic management. Accompanying this shift has been a massive rise in the remuneration of these officials to as much as $1.5 million per year.[92] However, university governance structures remained largely unchanged from their 19th-century origins. All Australian universities have a governance system composed of a chancellor (ceremonial officer), vice-chancellor (chief executive officer), and a university council (governing body). However, unlike a corporate entity board, the university council members have neither financial nor vested specific interests in the performance of the organisation (although the state government is represented in each university council, representing the state government legislative role in the system).

### Melbourne University Private venture

The late 1990s and early years of the new millennium therefore witnessed a collection of financial, managerial and academic failures across the university system – the most notable of these being the Melbourne University Private venture, which saw hundreds of millions of dollars invested in non-productive assets, in search of a 'Harvard style' private university that never delivered on planned outcomes. This was detailed in a book (Off Course)[93] written by former Victorian State Premier John Cain (junior) and co-author John Hewitt who explored problems with governance at the University of Melbourne, arguably one of the nation's most prestigious universities.

### Federal Government quality measures

There are two main quality systems established by the Commonwealth Government for monitoring and assessing university performance. The Higher Education Standards Framework,[94] enforced by the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA), sets out minimum quality standards for all higher education providers including standards for governance structures, academic review and monitoring, and student support services. The Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA) program, administered by the Australian Research Council (ARC), conducts periodic assessments of universities' research against international benchmarks and standards.[95]

The TEQSA reviews of universities essentially look at processes, procedures and their documentation. TEQSA's implementation reflects a move away from the 'fitness-for-purpose' approach employed by its predecessor, the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA), to an approach premised on regulation and risk.[96] TEQSA is currently moving towards its second round of assessments, with all Australian universities having seemingly received mixed (but generally positive) results in the first round. TEQSA's shortcoming is that it does not specifically address issues of governance or strategic planning in anything other than a bureaucratic sense.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007} mpus Review,[97] the Vice Chancellor of the University of New South Wales, Fred Hilmer, criticised both AUQA (the agency before it became TEQSA) and the Research Quality Framework (a precursor to the ERA that was discarded before rollout):

"... singling out AUQA, Hilmer notes that while complex quality processes are in place, not one institution has lost its accreditation – 'there's never been a consequence – so it's just red tape...'"

"...The RQF is not a good thing – it's an expensive way to measure something that could be measured relatively simply. If we wanted to add impacts as one of the factors, then let's add impact. That can be achieved simply without having to go through what looks like a $90 million dollar exercise with huge implementation issues."

The RQF (scrapped with the change in government in 2007) was modelled on the British Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) system, and was intended to assess the quality and impact of research undertaken at universities through panel-based evaluation of individual research groups within university disciplines. Its objective was to provide government, industry, business and the wider community with an assurance that research quality within Australian universities had been rigorously assessed against international standards. Assessment was expected to allow research groups to be benchmarked against national and international standards across discipline areas. If successfully implemented, this would have been a departure from the Australian Government's traditional approach to measuring research performance exclusively through bibliometrics. The RQF was fraught with controversy, particularly because the cost of such an undertaking (using international panels) and the difficulty in having agreed definitions of research quality and impact. The Labor government which scrapped the RQF has yet to outline any system which will replace it, stating however that it will enter into discussions with higher education providers, to gain consensus on a streamlined, metrics-driven approach.

### Communist Chinese influence

Australian universities have been accused of accepting massive donations from individuals and groups acting on behalf of the Chinese Communist Party. In return for such donations, they have allowed Confucius Institutes and the Chinese Students and Scholars Association to stifle academic debate on Chinese issues such as human rights violations, allowed the Thousand Talents Plan to assist China's espionage and intellectual property infringement goals, and have waived English-language requirements for many students from China.[98] This financial dependence has resulted in a failure to protect pro-democracy Chinese students in Australia from CCP-led intimidation campaigns.[99]

## See also

* Admission in university in Australia
* ATAR
* Academic grading in Australia
* Academic ranks (Australia and New Zealand)
* Tertiary education fees in Australia
* IDP Education, consortium of universities which guides International students get admission in Australian universities.
* What Degree? Which University?, a student-run university website
* Living expenses
* Austudy Payment (for above 25 years old)
* Youth Allowance (for below 25 years old)
* Medicare (Australia), access by obtaining Medicare card (Australia)
* Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), supplements the Medicare
* Institutes
* Australian Research Council
* List of universities in Australia
* Business schools in Australia
* Medical schools in Australia
* Schools in Australia
* Universities in Australia by enrolment
* Technical and Further Education (TAFE)
* Universities by country

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2. ↑ "Qualifications and work, 2018-19 financial year | Australian Bureau of Statistics" (in en). 2020-09-29. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/qualifications-and-work/latest-release.
3. ↑ [1], www.aqf.edu.au, accessed 29 sep 2025.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Australian qualifications framework explanation, www.teqsa.gov.au, accessed 4 aug 2023.
5. ↑ "Australian students studying overseas" (in en). 2023-05-18. https://study.unimelb.edu.au/how-to-apply/undergraduate-admissions-information/australian-students-studying-overseas.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Improving IB entry to Australian tertiary courses, IB combined rank.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Agency, Tertiary Education Quality and Standards (2016-11-23). "National Register" (in en). https://www.teqsa.gov.au/national-register.
8. ↑ "Higher Education Support Act 2003" (in en). http://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2021C00224/Html/Text.
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11. ↑ "Students - International student mobility - OECD Data" (in en). http://data.oecd.org/students/international-student-mobility.htm.
12. ↑ "Project-Atlas-Infographics-2020.pdf". https://iie.widen.net/s/rfw2c7rrbd/project-atlas-infographics-2020.
13. ↑ YTD January 2023 international student data available, Mar 2023, Austrade, 30 Mar 2023.
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19. ↑ LCR (Low Completion Rate), studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.
20. ↑ CSP(Commonwealth Supported Place) students, studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.
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22. ↑ HECS-HELP loan, studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.
23. ↑ OS-HELP loan, studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 SA-HELP, studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.
25. ↑ FEE-HELP, studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.
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32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 "Government reconsiders adjusting regional loading for university". ABC News. 9 June 2016. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-09/government-reconsiders-adjusting-regional-loading-university/7495286.
33. ↑ "RRES". Australian Government Department of Education and Training. https://www.education.gov.au/rres. Retrieved 2025-02-09.
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35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Regional and Remote Higher Education". Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/Research/Quick_Guides/2021-22/RegionalRemoteHigherEducation.
36. ↑ ﻿Access and Participation Programs for Regional and Remote Students﻿ (Report). Australian National Audit Office. https://www.anao.gov.au/work/performance-audit/access-and-participation-programs-regional-and-remote-students. Retrieved 2025-02-09.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Latta, Robert (2017-05-02). "Reforms to the HEPPP under the Government's Higher Education Reform Package" (in en). https://www.acses.edu.au/reforms-heppp-governments-higher-education-reform-package/.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Norton, Andrew (18 July 2024). "Job-ready Graduates Price Effects: An Update with 2022 Enrolment Data". Andrew Norton. https://andrewnorton.net.au/2024/07/18/job-ready-graduates-price-effects-an-update-with-2022-enrolment-data/. Retrieved 13 January 2025.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Australian Journal of Labour Economics (2020). "The Impact of the Job-Ready Graduates Package on Student Choices". Australian Journal of Labour Economics 23 (2): 231–251. https://ajle.org/index.php/ajle_home/article/view/39. Retrieved 13 January 2025.
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41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Moore, Ian (2023-11-15). "Job-ready Graduates 2.0: The Universities Accord and centralised control of universities and courses" (in en-US). https://www.cis.org.au/publication/job-ready-graduates-2-0-the-universities-accord-and-centralised-control-of-universities-and-courses/.
42. ↑ Amanda (2024-12-06). "Stop top fee band to start unwinding JRG" (in en-US). https://futurecampus.com.au/2024/12/06/stop-top-fee-band-to-start-unwinding-jrg/.
43. ↑ "Job-Ready Graduates package passes the Senate" (in en). https://universitiesaustralia.edu.au/media-item/job-ready-graduates-package-passes-parliament/.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Duffy, national education reporter Conor (2020-04-12). "Relief for universities will 'unashamedly' prioritise domestic students" (in en-AU). https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-12/government-announces-coronavirus-higher-education-relief-package/12142752.
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53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 Agency, Tertiary Education Quality and Standards (2017-10-06). "What we do" (in en). https://www.teqsa.gov.au/what-we-do.
54. ↑ "Higher Education". 2021-02-05. https://www.dese.gov.au/higher-education.
55. ↑ TEQSA National Register, teqsa.gov.au, accessed 4 aug 2023.
56. ↑ "About ASQA" (in en). https://www.asqa.gov.au/about.
57. ↑ "Skills: training.gov.au". https://training.gov.au/.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Agency, Tertiary Education Quality and Standards (2017-10-06). "What we do" (in en). https://www.teqsa.gov.au/what-we-do.
59. ↑ "TAE40110 - Certificate IV in Training and Assessment". training.gov.au. http://training.gov.au/Training/Details/TAE40110. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
60. ↑ Norton, Andrew; Cherastidtham, Ittima (11 August 2019), Risks and rewards: when is vocational education a good alternative to higher education?, Grattan Institute, https://grattan.edu.au/report/risks-and-rewards-when-is-vocational-education-a-good-alternative-to-higher-education/, retrieved 14 August 2019
61. ↑ "Australian Tertiary Admission Rank" (in en). https://www.uac.edu.au/future-applicants/atar.
62. ↑ "ATAR 2020 - QTAC" (in en). https://www.qtac.edu.au/atar-2020.
63. ↑ "OP score to go in Queensland in 2018; replaced by Australian Tertiary Admission Rank system". 25 August 2015. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-25/op-score-to-go-by-2018-external-exams/6721702.
64. ↑ "Know ATAR". https://www.uac.edu.au/future-applicants/atar.
65. ↑ Apply to interstate universities, UAC, accessed 14 May 2023.
66. ↑ ATAR equivalency, CourseSeeker, 18 May 2023.
67. ↑ Youth allowance, servicesaustralia.gov.au, accessed 18 may 2023.
68. ↑ Austudy, servicesaustralia.gov.au, accessed 18 may 2023.
69. ↑ CSP, StudyAssist, accessed 18 may 2023.
70. ↑ SA-HELP, StudyAssist, accessed 18 may 2023.
71. ↑ Relocation scholarship, Services Australia, accessed 18 may 2023.
72. ↑ student startup loan, Services Australia, accessed 18 may 2023.
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76. ↑ "Other policy relevant indicators : Inbound mobility rate". http://data.uis.unesco.org/index.aspx?queryid=3809.
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80. ↑ "Poor English, few jobs: Are Australian universities using international students as 'cash cows'? - ABC News". 24 November 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-25/poor-english-no-jobs-little-support-international-students/10513590.
81. ↑ Foster, Gigi (20 April 2015). "The slide of academic standards in Australia: A cautionary tale". https://theconversation.com/the-slide-of-academic-standards-in-australia-a-cautionary-tale-40464.
82. ↑ Lane, Bernard (4 October 2017). "'The pressure of inclusion has diminished the quality of higher education': Frank Furedi". News Limited. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/the-pressure-of-inclusion-has-diminished-the-quality-of-higher-education-frank-furedi/news-story/76c847fe1a818e89682419c025350c25.
83. ↑ Shifting the Dial: 5-Year Productivity Review. Inquiry Report 84. Canberra: Productivity Commission. 3 August 2017. p. 102. ISBN 9781740376235. https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/productivity-review/report/productivity-review.pdf.
84. ↑ Redican, Brian (21 November 2017). "Why university degree explosion is keeping wages growth low". Fairfax. http://www.afr.com/opinion/columnists/why-university-degree-explosion-is-keeping-wages-growth-low-20171121-gzpn91. "With so many highly qualified graduates after the same job, employers have less incentive to compete by offering higher starting salaries. Those graduates who miss out on the best jobs will find work, but this might be a teaching graduate working in a childcare centre, or a law graduate driving an Uber."
85. ↑ Whiteley, Sonia (October 2017). "2017 Graduate Outcomes Survey – Longitudinal". Department of Education and Training. https://www.qilt.edu.au/docs/default-source/gos-reports/2017-gos-l/2017-gos-l-national-reportbb518791b1e86477b58fff00006709da.pdf?sfvrsn=2bb9e33c_2.
86. ↑ Moore, Shane (24 October 2019). "How Much Do Tradies Really Earn?". Trade Risk Insurance Pty Ltd. https://www.traderisk.com.au/how-much-do-tradies-earn. "We are using the taxable incomes provided to us by thousands of self-employed tradies from around Australia."
87. ↑ Norton, Andrew; Cherastidtham, Ittima (16 September 2018), Mapping Australian higher education 2018, Grattan Institute, https://grattan.edu.au/report/mapping-australian-higher-education-2018/, retrieved 16 September 2018
88. ↑ "Report: Boosting high-impact entrepreneurship in Australia | Chief Scientist". http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/2015/10/new-report-boosting-high-impact-entrepreneurship-in-australia/.
89. ↑ "2016 First Half Year student summary infographic File". Australian Department of Education and Training. 1 March 2017. https://docs.education.gov.au/node/43231.
90. ↑ Marginson, S. National system reform in global context: The case of Australia . Reforms and consequences in higher education system: An international symposium, National Centre of Sciences, Hitotubashi Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 2009.
91. ↑ Marginson, Simon (2000). "Rethinking Academic Work in the Global Era". Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 22: 23–35. doi:10.1080/713678133.
92. ↑ Singhal, Pallavi (21 June 2019). "University vice-chancellor salaries soaring past $1.5 million - and set to keep going". https://www.theage.com.au/education/university-vice-chancellor-salaries-soaring-past-1-5-million-and-set-to-keep-going-20190620-p51zq3.html. "The top vice-chancellors are making three times as much as the prime minister."
93. ↑ Cain, John; Hewitt, John (2004), Off course: From public place to marketplace at Melbourne University, Scribe, http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/03/10/1078594424714.html?from=storyrhs
94. ↑ "Higher Education Standards Framework (Threshold Standards) 2021" (in en). Commonwealth of Australia. http://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2021L00488/Html/Text.
95. ↑ Smith, Derek R. (19 February 2015). "Explainer: how and why is research assessed?" (in en). http://theconversation.com/explainer-how-and-why-is-research-assessed-36895.
96. ↑ Palmer, Nigel (2013). External Quality Audit: Has it improved quality assurance in universities?. Oxford: Chandos Learning and Teaching Series. ISBN 978-1-84334-676-0. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781843346760500157.
97. ↑ "Campus Review". https://www.campusreview.com.au/.
98. ↑ Jeffrey, James (19 April 2021). "Exposed: The Chinese Communist Party and Australia's Universities". https://spectator.com.au/2021/04/exposed-the-chinese-communist-party-and-australias-universities/. "Over the past few years, there has been a looming suspicion that the Chinese Communist Party is in bed with Australian universities. This suspicion is now substantiated by large swathes of evidence, most of which has been ignored by the mainstream media."
99. ↑ Human Rights Watch (2021-06-30). ""They Don't Understand the Fear We Have"". Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/06/30/they-dont-understand-fear-we-have/how-chinas-long-reach-repression-undermines. Retrieved 2021-07-04. "In 2020, nearly 160,000 students from China were enrolled in Australian universities. Despite the Chinese government in Beijing being thousands of kilometers away, many Chinese pro-democracy students in Australia say they alter their behavior and self-censor to avoid threats and harassment from fellow classmates and being “reported on” by them to authorities back home."

## External links

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