Civil liberties

Short description: Civil rights and freedoms that provide individual specific rights

Not to be confused with Civil and political rights.

Rights

Theoretical distinctions

* Claim rights and liberty rights
* Individual and group rights
* Natural rights and legal rights
* Negative and positive rights

Human rights

* Civil and political
* Economic, social and cultural
* Three generations

Rights by beneficiary

* Accused
* Animals
* Children
* Consumers
* Creditors
* Deaf
* Disabled persons
* Elders
* Farmers
* Humans
* Natives
* Intersex
* Kings
* LGBT
* Men
* Minorities
* Parents (Mothers, Fathers)
* Patients
* Peasants
* Plants
* Prisoners
* States
* Students
* Victims
* Women
* Workers
* Youth

Other groups of rights

* Civil liberties
* Digital
* Food
* Free migration
* Housing
* Linguistic
* Property
* Reproductive
* Rest and leisure
* Self defense
* Self-determination of people
* Sexuality
* Water and sanitation

* v
* t
* e

Civil liberties are fundamental rights and freedoms that governments pledge not to restrict, either through constitutions, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process of law. Although the scope of civil liberties differs between countries, they often include the freedom of conscience, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, personal security, personal liberty, freedom of speech, right to privacy, equality before the law, due process of law, the right to a fair trial, and the right to life. Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, and the right to bodily integrity. Within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights.

Libertarians advocate for the negative liberty aspect of civil liberties, emphasizing minimal government intervention in both personal and economic affairs. Influential advocates of this interpretation include John Stuart Mill, whose work On Liberty argues for the protection of individual freedoms from government encroachment, and Friedrich Hayek, whose The Road to Serfdom warns against the dangers of expanding state power.[1][2] Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged and Ron Paul's The Revolution: A Manifesto further emphasize the importance of safeguarding personal autonomy and limiting government authority.[3][4] These contributions have played a significant role in shaping the discourse on civil liberties and the appropriate scope of government.

## Contents

* 1 Overview
* 2 Asia
* 2.1 China
* 2.2 India
* 2.3 Japan
* 3 Australia
* 4 Europe
* 4.1 European Convention on Human Rights
* 4.2 Czech Republic
* 4.3 France
* 4.4 Germany
* 4.5 United Kingdom
* 4.6 Russia
* 5 North America
* 5.1 Canada
* 5.2 Mexico
* 5.3 United States
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes and references
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Overview

Broken Liberty: Istanbul Archaeology Museum

Many contemporary nations have a constitution, a bill of rights, or similar constitutional documents that enumerate and seek to guarantee civil liberties. Other nations have enacted similar laws through a variety of legal means, including signing and ratifying or otherwise giving effect to key conventions such as the European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The existence of some claimed civil liberties is a matter of dispute, as are the extent of most civil rights. Controversial examples include property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage. In authoritarian regimes in which government censorship impedes on perceived civil liberties, some civil liberty advocates argue for the use of anonymity tools to allow for free speech, privacy, and anonymity.[5] The degree to which societies acknowledge civil liberties is affected by the influence of terrorism and war.[6][7] Whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is also a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency, including whether and to what extent this should occur.

The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, an English legal charter agreed in 1215 which in turn was based on pre-existing documents, namely the Charter of Liberties.[8]

## Asia

### China

The Constitution of the People's Republic of China (which applies only to mainland China, not to Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan) especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from mainland China, has its own Constitution.

Although the 1982 constitution guarantees civil liberties,[9] the Chinese government usually uses the "subversion of state power" and "protection of state secrets" clauses in their law system to imprison those who criticize the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the state leaders.[10]

### India

The Fundamental Rights - embodied in Part III of the constitution - guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and the right to constitutional remedies.[11]

Huge rallies like this one in Kolkata are commonplace in India.

These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the fundamental law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law. Violations of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code, subject to the discretion of the judiciary. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments. They have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in the abolishment of untouchability and prohibited discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They forbid human trafficking and unfree labour. They protect the cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and administer their own educational institutions.

All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. In the public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf. This is known as "public interest litigation".[12] High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports.

The Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing all citizens access to and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply to persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech and expression apply only to the citizens of India (including non-resident Indian citizens).[13] The right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India.[14]

Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, but some rights are enforceable against private individuals too.[15] For instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on State actions and the actions of private individuals. Fundamental Rights are not absolute and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of national interest. In the Kesavananda Bharati vs. State of Kerala case, the Supreme Court ruled that all provisions of the constitution, including Fundamental Rights can be amended.[16] However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution like secularism, democracy, federalism, and separation of powers. Often called the "Basic structure doctrine", this decision is widely regarded as an important part of Indian history. In the 1978 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court extended the doctrine's importance as superior to any parliamentary legislation. According to the verdict, no act of parliament can be considered a law if it violates the basic structure of the constitution. This landmark guarantee of Fundamental Rights was regarded as a unique example of judicial independence in preserving the sanctity of Fundamental Rights. The Fundamental Rights can only be altered by a constitutional amendment, hence their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch but also on the Parliament and state legislatures.[17] The imposition of a state of emergency may lead to a temporary suspension of the rights conferred by Article 19 (including freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) to preserve national security and public order. The President can, by order, suspend the constitutional written remedies as well.

### Japan

Since 1947, Japan, a country with a constitutional monarchy and known for its socially "conservative society where change is gradual," has a constitution with a seemingly strong bill of rights at its core (Chapter III. Rights and Duties of the People).[18] In many ways, it resembles the U.S. Constitution prior to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and that is because it came into life during the Allied occupation of Japan. This constitution may have felt like a foreign imposition to the governing elites, but not to the ordinary people "who lacked faith in their discredited leaders and supported meaningful change."[19] In the abstract, the constitution strives to secure fundamental individual liberties and rights, which are covered pointedly in articles 10 to 40. Most salient of the human dignity articles is article 25, section 1, which guarantees that all "People shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living."[20]

Despite the adoption of this liberal constitution, often referred as the "Postwar Constitution" (戦後憲法, Sengo-Kenpō) or the "Peace Constitution" (平和憲法, Heiwa-Kenpō), the Japanese governing elites have struggled to usher in an inclusive, open and Pluralist society.[21] Even after the end of World War II and the departure of the Allied government of occupation in 1952, Japan has been the target of international criticism for failing to admit to war crimes, institutional religious discrimination and maintaining a weak freedom of the press, the treatment of children, minorities, foreigners, and women, its punitive criminal justice system, and more recently, the systematic bias against LGBT people.[22][23][24]

The first Japanese attempt to a bill of rights was in the 19th century Meiji constitution (1890), which took both the Prussian (1850) and British constitutions as basic models.[25] However, it had but a meagre influence in the practice of the rule of law as well as in people's daily lives. So, the short and deliberately gradual history of struggles for personal rights and protection against government/society's impositions has yet to transform Japan into a champion of universal and individual freedom.[26][27][28] According to constitutional scholar, Shigenori Matsui,

> People tend to view the Bill of Rights as a moral imperative and not as a judicial norm. The people also tend to rely upon bureaucrats to remedy social problems, including even human rights violations, rather than the court.

— Shigenori Matsui, "The protection of 'Fundamental human rights' in Japan."[29]

Despite the divergences between Japan's social culture and the Liberal Constitutionalism that it purports to have adopted, the country has moved toward closing the gap between the notion and the practice of the law. The trend is more evident in the long term. Among several examples, the Diet (bicameral legislature) ratified the International Bill of Human Rights in 1979 and then it passed the Law for Equal Opportunity in Employment for Men and Women in 1985, measures that were heralded as major steps toward a democratic and participatory society. In 2015, moreover, it reached an agreement with Korea to compensate for abuses related to the so-called "women of comfort" that took place during the Japanese occupation of the peninsula.[30] However, human rights group, and families of the survivors condemned the agreement as patronizing and insulting.[31]

On its official site, the Japanese government has identified various human rights problems. Among these are child abuses (e.g., bullying, corporal punishment, child sexual abuse, child prostitution, and child pornography), frequent neglect and ill-treatment of elderly persons and individuals with disabilities, Dowa claims (discrimination against the Burakumin), Ainu people (indigenous people in Japan), foreign nationals, HIV/AIDS carriers, Hansen's disease patients, persons released from prison after serving their sentence, crime victims, people whose human rights are violated using the Internet, the homeless, individuals with gender identity disorders, and women. Also, the government lists systematic problems with gender biases and the standard reference to sexual preferences for jobs and other functions in society.[32]

Human rights organizations, national and foreign, expand the list to include human rights violations that relate to government policies, as in the case of daiyo kangoku system (substitute prison) and the methods of interrogating crime suspects.[33] The effort of these agencies and ordinary people seem to pay off. In 2016, the U.S. Department of State released a report stating that Japan's human right record is showing signs of improvement.[34]

## Australia

Whilst Australia does not have an enshrined Bill of Rights or similar binding legal document, civil liberties are assumed as protected through a series of rules and conventions. Australia had primary involvement in and was a key signatory to the UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948)

The Constitution of Australia (1900) does offer very limited protection of rights:

* the right to freedom of religion and;
* the right to freedom from discrimination based on out-of-state residence (historical prejudice based upon residence within one state affecting treatment within another)

Certain High Court interpretations of the Constitution have allowed for implied rights such as freedom of political communication (which is construed broadly) and the right to vote to be established, however, others such as freedom of assembly and freedom of association are yet to be identified.

Refugee issues

Within the past decade, Australia has experienced increasing contention regarding its treatment of those seeking asylum. Although Australia is a signatory to the UN Refugee Convention (1951), successive governments have demonstrated an increasing tightening of borders; particularly against those who seek passage via small water vessels.

The Abbott Government (2013) like its predecessors (the Gillard and Howard Governments) has encountered particular difficulty curbing asylum seekers via sea, increasingly identified as "illegal immigration". The recent involvement of the Australian Navy in refugee rescue operations has many human rights groups such as Amnesty International concerned over the "militarisation" of the treatment of refugees and the issue of their human rights in Australia. The current "turn-back" policy is particularly divisive, as it involves placing refugees in government lifeboats and turning them towards Indonesia. Despite opposition however, the Abbott government's response has so far seen a reduction in the number of potential refugees undertaking the hazardous cross to Australia, which is argued by the government as an indicator of its policy success.

## Europe

### European Convention on Human Rights

The European Convention on Human Rights, to which almost all European countries belong (apart from Belarus), enumerates a number of civil liberties and is of varying constitutional force in different European states.

### Czech Republic

Following the Velvet Revolution, a constitutional overhaul took place in Czechoslovakia. In 1991, the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms was adopted, having the same legal standing as the Constitution. The Czech Republic has kept the Charter in its entirety following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as Act No. 2/1993 Coll. (Constitution being No. 1).

### France

France's 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen listed many civil liberties and is of constitutional force.

### Germany

The German constitution, the "Grundgesetz" (lit. "Base Law"), starts with an elaborate listing of civil liberties and states in sec. 1 "The dignity of man is inviolable. To respect and protect it shall be the duty of all public authority." Following the "Austrian System", the people have the right to appeal to the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany ("Bundesverfassungsgericht") if they feel their civil rights are being violated. This procedure has shaped German law considerably over the years.

### United Kingdom

Civil liberties in the United Kingdom date back to Magna Carta in 1215 and 17th century English common law and statute law, such as the 1628 Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Bill of Rights 1689. Parts of these laws remain in statute today and are supplemented by other legislation and conventions that collectively form the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom. In addition, the United Kingdom is a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights which covers both human rights and civil liberties. The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates the great majority of Convention rights directly into UK law.

In June 2008 the then Shadow Home Secretary David Davis resigned his parliamentary seat over what he described as the "erosion of civil liberties" by the then Labour government, and was re-elected on a civil liberties platform (although he was not opposed by candidates of other major parties). This was in reference to anti-terrorism laws and in particular the extension to pre-trial detention, that is perceived by many to be an infringement of habeas corpus established in Magna Carta.

### Russia

The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees in theory many of the same rights and civil liberties as the U.S. except to bear arms, i.e.: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of association and assembly, freedom to choose language, to due process, to a fair trial, privacy, freedom to vote, right for education, etc. However, human rights groups like Amnesty International have warned that Vladimir Putin has seriously curtailed freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of association amidst growing authoritarianism.[35]

## North America

### Canada

The Constitution of Canada includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which guarantees many of the same rights as the U.S. Constitution. The Charter omits any mention of, or protection for, property.

### Mexico

The Constitution of Mexico was ratified on February 5, 1917. Similar to the U.S. Constitution, the United Mexican States provides all citizens the right to freedom of expression, but this right is not absolute (for example, child pornography, death threats, and defamation are exceptions to freedom of speech, and offenders can be subject to penalties). However, unlike the United States and Canada, Mexico has stricter limits on citizenship. For example, only people born in Mexico may take roles in law enforcement, legislating, or enlist in the armed forces. It also states each person born in Mexico cannot be deprived of their citizenship status.[36]

### United States

The United States Constitution, especially its Bill of Rights, protects civil liberties. The passage of the Fourteenth Amendment further protected civil liberties by introducing the Privileges or Immunities Clause, Due Process Clause, and Equal Protection Clause. Human rights within the United States are often called civil rights, which are those rights, privileges, and immunities held by all people, in distinction to political rights, which are the rights that inhere to those who are entitled to participate in elections, as candidates or voters.[37] Before universal suffrage, this distinction was important, since many people were ineligible to vote but still were considered to have the fundamental freedoms derived from the rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. This distinction is less important now that Americans enjoy near universal suffrage, and civil rights are now taken to include the political rights to vote and participate in elections, being furthermore classified with civil liberties in general as either positive rights or negative rights. Because Native American tribal governments retain sovereignty over tribal members, the U.S. Congress in 1968 enacted a law that essentially applies most of the protections of the Bill of Rights to tribal members, to be enforced mainly by tribal courts.[38]

The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was signed into effect by President Ronald Reagan on August 10, 1988. The act was passed by Congress to issue a public apology for those of Japanese ancestry who lost their property and liberty due to discriminatory actions by the United States Government during the internment period. This act also provided many other benefits within various sectors of the government. Within the treasury, it established a civil liberties public education fund. It directed the Attorney General to identify and locate each individual affected by this act and to pay them $20,000 from the Civil Liberties public education fund. It also established a board of directors who is responsible for making disbursements from this fund. Finally, it required that all documents and records that are created or received by the commission be kept by the Archivist of the United States.[39]

## See also

* American Civil Liberties Union
* Canadian Civil Liberties Association
* Civil and political rights
* Civil libertarianism
* Drug liberalization
* Equality and Human Rights Commission
* Fundamental freedoms
* Human rights
* Libertarianism
* Liberalism
* Liberty (pressure group)
* Library
* List of civil rights leaders
* Privacy
* Proactive policing
* Rule according to higher law
* Rutherford Institute
* Social policy
* State of World Liberty Index
* Statewatch
* Teaching for social justice

## Notes and references

1. ↑ Mill, John Stuart (1978-04-01) (in en). On Liberty. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60384-617-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ictgDwAAQBAJ.
2. ↑ Hayek, Friedrich (1944). The Road to Serfdom. George Routledge & Sons. https://ctheory.sitehost.iu.edu/img/Hayek_The_Road_to_Serfdom.pdf.
3. ↑ "The great stagnation". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. https://www.economist.com/free-exchange/2011/01/27/the-great-stagnation?irclickid=3O7261y2UxyKUwH3XA29U2UvUkC3t5WRLVTGwM0&irgwc=1&utm_medium=affiliates.offer.pd&utm_source=impact-apac&utm_campaign=a.new_july_2024_apac_lp&utm_content=conversion.direct-response.non-subscriber.apac_all_enfactum&utm_term=123201&channel=Impact.
4. ↑ "Ron Paul's 'Revolution' : NPR". 2024-09-12. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/90438900.
5. ↑ Ghappour, Ahmed (2017-09-01). "Data Collection and the Regulatory State". Connecticut Law Review 49 (5): 1733. https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/255.
6. ↑ Hunter, Lance Y. (2015-09-18). "Terrorism, Civil Liberties, and Political Rights: A Cross-National Analysis" (in en). Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 39 (2): 165–193. doi:10.1080/1057610x.2015.1084165. ISSN 1057-610X.
7. ↑ Fog, Agner (2017). Warlike and Peaceful Societies: The Interaction of Genes and Culture. Open Book Publishers. ISBN 978-1-78374-406-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=p845DwAAQBAJ.
8. ↑ "Magna Carta - Human rights legislation". British Library. https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/human-rights-legislation.
9. ↑ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html.
10. ↑ Buckley, Chris (3 April 2008). "China jails rights activist outspoken on Tibet". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idUSPEK10194620080403.
11. ↑ Constitution of India-Part III Fundamental Rights.
12. ↑ "Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Subhra Chakraborty; 1995 ICHRL 69". [World Legal Information Institute]. http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICHRL/1995/69.html. This was the case where public interest litigation was introduced (date of ruling 15 December 1995).
13. ↑ Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, p. A-25
14. ↑ "Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003". Rajya Sabha. pp. 5. http://rajyasabha.nic.in/legislative/amendbills/XXXIX_2003.pdf.
15. ↑ "Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Subhra Chakraborty; 1995 ICHRL 69". [World Legal Information Institute]. http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICHRL/1995/69.html. This was the case where Fundamental Rights were enforced against private individuals (date of ruling 15 December 1995).
16. ↑ Kesavananda Bharati vs. the State of Kerala; AIR 1973 S.C. 1461, (1973) 4 SCC 225 – In what became famously known as the "Fundamental Rights case", the Supreme Court decided that the basic structure of the constitution was unamendable.
17. ↑ Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, p. A-24
18. ↑ Ellington, Lucien (2002). Japan: A Global Studies Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 209. ISBN 978-1576072714. https://books.google.com/books?id=VvL8d8RH-Z8C&q=Japan+conservative+society+where+change+is+gradual&pg=PT225.
19. ↑ Law, David S. (2013-05-26). "The Myth of the Imposed Constitution" (in en). Rochester, NY. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2270399.
20. ↑ Yokota, Yozo, & Chiyuki Aoi (2000). "Japan's foreign policy towards human rights: uncertain changes". Human Rights and Comparative Foreign Policy: Foundations of Peace, Edited by David Forsythe United Nations University Press: Chapter 5. http://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/27531.pdf.
21. ↑ Haddad, Mary Alice (2012). Building Democracy in Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-1107014077. https://books.google.com/books?id=H-HODTsc7LsC.
22. ↑ "Japan veering away from global human rights standards, says Amnesty International". The Japan Times. Kyodo News. February 25, 2015. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/02/25/national/japan-veering-away-from-global-human-rights-standards-says-amnesty-international/.
23. ↑ "UN Urges End to Discrimination Against LGBT Individuals in Japan". Analysis. Outright International. July 25, 2014. https://www.outrightinternational.org/content/un-urges-end-discrimination-against-lgbt-individuals-japan.
24. ↑ Osumi, Magdalena (June 26, 2015). "U.S. rights report slams Japan on child abuse, prison conditions, asylum system". News report. Japan Times. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/06/26/national/u-s-rights-report-slams-japan-on-child-abuse-prison-conditions-asylum-system/#.V3sEBJMrJE6.
25. ↑ Kazuhiro Takii and David Noble, The Meiji Constitution: The Japanese Experience of the West and the Shaping of the Modern State (Tokyo, Japan: International House of Japan, 2007), 181.
26. ↑ Andrew Gordon, Postwar Japan As History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 91.
27. ↑ Henderson, Dan Fenno (2015). "Chapter 11: Law and Political Modernization in Japan". in Ward, Robert E.. Political Development in Modern Japan: Studies in the Modernization of Japan. Princeton University Press. pp. 441–445. ISBN 978-1400871667. https://books.google.com/books?id=vqJ9BgAAQBAJ&q=bill+of+rights&pg=PA445. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
28. ↑ Ugo Dessì, Japanese Religions and Globalization. London: Routledge, 2013, p. 64.
29. ↑ "The protection of ‘Fundamental human rights’ in Japan," a chapter in Human Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Study of Twelve Asian Jurisdictions, France and the USA, edited by Peerenboom, R. P., Carole Petersen, and Hongyi Chen (London: Routledge, 2006), 149
30. ↑ "Japan and South Korea agree WW2 'comfort women' deal". BBC. December 28, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35188135.
31. ↑ Sanghani, Radhika (December 29, 2015). "The horrific story of Korea's 'comfort women' – forced to be sex slaves during World War Two". Telegraph (London). https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/the-horrific-story-of-koreas-comfort-women
forced-to-be-sex-sl/.
32. ↑ Government of Japan (March 6, 2009). "Major Human Rights Problems". Human Rights Bureau. Ministry of Justice, Japan. http://www.moj.go.jp/ENGLISH/HB/hb-03.html.
33. ↑ Jeffrey Flynn, Reframing the Intercultural Dialogue on Human Rights: A Philosophical Approach (London: Routledge, 2014), 114.
34. ↑ Wanklyn, Alastair (April 14, 2016). "Japan human rights improve but problems persist: U.S. State Department". Japan Times. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/04/14/national/social-issues/japan-human-rights-improve-problems-persist-u-s-state-department/#.V3tLxZMrKRs.
35. ↑ "Putin rolling back civil rights, warns Amnesty". The Guardian. February 27, 2008. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/feb/27/russia.humanrights.
36. ↑ "Constitución reordenada y consolidada". https://www2.juridicas.unam.mx/constitucion-reordenada-consolidada/en/vigente.
37. ↑ America's Constitution: A Biography by Akhil Reed Amar
38. ↑ Robert J. McCarthy, "Civil Rights in Tribal Courts; The Indian Bill of Rights at 30 Years", 34 Idaho Law Review 465 (1998).
39. ↑ Foley, Thomas (1988). "Civil Liberties Act of 1987 – Conference Report". https://www.congress.gov/bill/100th-congress/house-bill/442.

## Further reading

* Dershowitz, Alan. "Preserving Civil Liberties." Reflections on the Fractured Landscape, spec. sec. of Chronicle of Higher Education, Chronicle Review, September 28, 2001. Accessed August 11, 2006.
* Smith, Jean Edward, and Herbert M. Levine. Civil Liberties and Civil Rights Debated. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988.

## External links

Library resources about
Civil liberties

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Court cases involving Civil Liberties held at the National Archives at Atlanta
* Leading Civil Liberties Organizations in the United States
* Rights, Civil Liberties and Freedoms in Russia
* The Cato Institute: Civil Liberties (archived 29 December 2006)
* USDOJ: Privacy and Civil Liberties Office

* v
* t
* e

Discrimination

General forms|

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Color
* Disability
* Genotype
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Looks
* Mental condition
* Race / Ethnicity / Nationality
* Rank
* Religion
* Sex
* Sexual orientation
* Size
* Species

Social|

* Acephobia
* AIDS stigma
* Adultism
* Amatonormativity
* Anti-albinism
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Antisemitism (Judeophobia)
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Clannism
* Cronyism
* Drug use
* Elitism
* Ephebiphobia
* Fatism
* Gerontophobia
* Heteronormativity
* Heterosexism
* Homophobia
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Nepotism
* Pedophobia
* Pregnancy
* Reverse
* Sectarianism
* Sexism
* Shadeism
* Supremacism
* Black
* White
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophobia

Religious|

* Ahmadiyya
* Atheism
* Bahá'í Faith
* Buddhism
* Catholicism
* Christianity
* Modern
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Falun Gong
* Islam
* Persecution
* Judaism
* Persecution
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Neopaganism
* Eastern Orthodox
* Oriental Orthodox
* Rastafarianism
* Protestantism
* Shia
* Sufism
* Zoroastrianism

Ethnic/National|

* Albanian
* African
* American
* Arab
* Armenian
* Australian
* Austrian
* British
* Canadian
* Catalan
* Chilean
* Croat
* Chinese
* Dutch
* English
* Estonian
* European
* Filipino
* Finnish
* French
* German
* Georgian
* Greek
* Haitian
* Hazara
* Hindus
* Hispanic
* Hungarian
* Igbo
* Indian
* Iranian or Persian
* Irish
* Israeli
* Italian
* Japanese
* Jewish
* Khmer
* Korean
* Kurds
* Malay
* Mexican
* Middle Eastern
* Mongolian
* Pakistani
* Pashtun
* Polish
* Portuguese
* Quebec
* Romani
* Romanian
* Russian
* Scottish
* Serb
* Slav
* Soviet
* Thai
* Turks
* Ukrainian
* Vietnamese
* Western

Manifestations|

* Animal cruelty
* Animal industrial complex
* Animal testing
* Blood libel
* Blood sport
* Bullying
* Carnism
* Compulsory sterilization
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Democide
* Disability hate crime
* Educational
* Economic
* Eliminationism
* Employment
* Enemy of the people
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Genital mutilation
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Group libel
* Hate crime
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Indian rolling
* LGBT hate crime
* Lavender scare
* Lynching
* Meat eating
* Mortgage
* Murder music
* Occupational segregation
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Purge
* Race war
* Red Scare
* Religious persecution
* Scapegoating
* Segregation academy
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slavery
* Slut-shaming
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* White power music
* Wife selling
* Witch-hunt

Discriminatory
policies|

* Segregation
* age
* racial
* religious
* sexual
* Age of candidacy
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Crime of apartheid
* Disabilities
* Jewish
* Catholic
* Ethnocracy
* Ethnopluralism
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Jim Crow laws
* Law for Protection of the Nation
* McCarthyism
* MSM blood donor controversy
* Nonpersons
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* Nuremberg Laws
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* State atheism
* State religion
* Sodomy law
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression

Countermeasures|

* Affirmative action
* Animal rights
* Anti-discrimination law
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Human rights
* Intersex rights
* LGBT rights
* Masculism
* Multiculturalism
* Nonviolence
* Racial integration
* Reclaimed word
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Toleration
* Vegetarianism
* Veganism

Related topics|

* Allophilia
* Anthropocentrism
* Anti-cultural sentiment
* Assimilation
* Bias
* Christian privilege
* Data discrimination
* Dehumanization
* Diversity
* Ethnic penalty
* Eugenics
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Madonna–whore complex
* Male privilege
* Masculism
* Medical model of disability
* autism
* Multiculturalism
* Neurodiversity
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Political correctness
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Racial bias in criminal news
* Racism by country
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social exclusion
* Social model of disability
* Social stigma
* Stereotype
* threat
* White privilege

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Liberty

Concepts|

* Cognitive liberty
* Moral responsibility
* Personification of Liberty
* Libertas
* Negative liberty
* Positive liberty
* Rights
* Self-ownership
* Social liberty
* Free will

By type|

* Academic
* Civil
* Economic
* Intellectual
* Morphological
* Political

By right|

* Assembly
* Association
* Choice
* Education
* Gun
* Information
* Life
* Movement
* Press
* Property
* Religion
* Public speech
* Thought

* v
* t
* e

Age of Enlightenment

Topics

* Atheism
* Capitalism
* Civil liberties
* Counter-Enlightenment
* Critical thinking
* Deism
* Democracy
* Empiricism
* Encyclopédistes
* Enlightened absolutism
* Free markets
* Haskalah
* Humanism
* Human rights
* Liberalism
* Liberté, égalité, fraternité
* Methodological skepticism
* Nationalism
* Natural philosophy
* Objectivity
* Rationality
* Rationalism
* Reason
* Reductionism
* Sapere aude
* Science
* Scientific method
* Socialism
* Universality
* Weimar Classicism

Thinkers

| France|

* Jean le Rond d'Alembert
* René Louis d'Argenson
* Pierre Bayle
* Pierre Beaumarchais
* Nicolas Chamfort
* Émilie du Châtelet
* Étienne Bonnot de Condillac
* Marquis de Condorcet
* René Descartes
* Denis Diderot
* Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle
* Claude Adrien Helvétius
* Baron d'Holbach
* Louis de Jaucourt
* Julien Offray de La Mettrie
* Georges-Louis Leclerc
* Gabriel Bonnot de Mably
* Sylvain Maréchal
* Jean Meslier
* Montesquieu
* Étienne-Gabriel Morelly
* Blaise Pascal
* François Quesnay
* Guillaume Thomas François Raynal
* Marquis de Sade
* Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
* Voltaire

|

Geneva|

* Firmin Abauzit
* Charles Bonnet
* Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui
* Jean-Louis de Lolme
* Pierre Prévost
* Jean-Jacques Rousseau
* Antoine-Jacques Roustan
* Horace-Bénédict de Saussure
* Jacob Vernes
* Jacob Vernet

Germany|

* Justus Henning Böhmer
* Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
* Johann Gottfried von Herder
* Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel
* Wilhelm von Humboldt
* Immanuel Kant
* Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
* Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
* Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
* Moses Mendelssohn
* Samuel von Pufendorf
* Friedrich Schiller
* Christian Thomasius
* Gabriel Wagner
* Christian Felix Weiße
* Christoph Martin Wieland
* Thomas Wizenmann
* Christian Wolff

Greece|

* Neophytos Doukas
* Theoklitos Farmakidis
* Rigas Feraios
* Theophilos Kairis
* Adamantios Korais

Ireland|

* Robert Boyle
* Edmund Burke
* John Toland

Italy|

* Cesare Beccaria
* Gaetano Filangieri
* Ferdinando Galiani
* Luigi Galvani
* Antonio Genovesi
* Francesco Mario Pagano
* Giovanni Salvemini
* Pietro Verri
* Giambattista Vico

Netherlands|

* Balthasar Bekker
* Pieter de la Court
* Petrus Cunaeus
* Hugo Grotius
* François Hemsterhuis
* Christiaan Huygens
* Adriaan Koerbagh
* Frederik van Leenhof
* Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
* Bernard Nieuwentyt
* Baruch Spinoza
* Jan Swammerdam
* Hendrik Wyermars

Poland|

* Tadeusz Czacki
* Hugo Kołłątaj
* Stanisław Konarski
* Ignacy Krasicki
* Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz
* Stanisław August Poniatowski
* Jędrzej Śniadecki
* Stanisław Staszic
* Józef Wybicki
* Andrzej Stanisław Załuski
* Józef Andrzej Załuski

Portugal|

* Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo

Romania|

* Ion Budai-Deleanu
* Dinicu Golescu
* Petru Maior
* Samuil Micu-Klein
* Gheorghe Șincai

Russia|

* Catherine II
* Denis Fonvizin
* Mikhail Kheraskov
* Mikhail Lomonosov
* Nikolay Novikov
* Alexander Radishchev
* Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova

Serbia|

* Dositej Obradović
* Avram Mrazović

Spain|

* José Cadalso
* Charles III
* Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro
* Leandro Fernández de Moratín
* Valentin de Foronda
* Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
* Martín Sarmiento
* Diego de Torres Villarroel

United Kingdom
(Scotland)|

* Joseph Addison
* Francis Bacon
* James Beattie
* Jeremy Bentham
* George Berkeley
* Joseph Black
* Hugh Blair
* James Boswell
* James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
* Anthony Collins
* Adam Ferguson
* Edward Gibbon
* Robert Hooke
* David Hume
* Francis Hutcheson
* Samuel Johnson
* John Locke
* John Millar
* Isaac Newton
* William Ogilvie
* Richard Price
* Joseph Priestley
* Thomas Reid
* Shaftesbury
* Adam Smith
* Dugald Stewart
* Mary Wollstonecraft

United States|

* Benjamin Franklin
* Thomas Jefferson
* James Madison
* George Mason
* Thomas Paine

* Category

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