Confidence

Short description: State of trusting that a belief or course of action is correct

This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (February 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

|

A young boxer shows confidence in herself and in her equipment. Part of a series on

Emotions

* Acceptance
* Affection
* Amusement
* Anger
* Angst
* Anguish
* Annoyance
* Anticipation
* Anxiety
* Apathy
* Arousal
* Awe
* Boredom
* Confidence
* Contempt
* Contentment
* Courage
* Cruelty
* Curiosity
* Depression
* Desire
* Despair
* Disappointment
* Disgust
* Distrust
* Ecstasy
* Embarrassment
* Empathy
* Enthusiasm
* Envy
* Euphoria
* Fear
* Frustration
* Gratification
* Gratitude
* Greed
* Grief
* Guilt
* Happiness
* Hatred
* Hope
* Horror
* Hostility
* Humiliation
* Interest
* Jealousy
* Joy
* Kindness
* Loneliness
* Love
* Lust
* Outrage
* Panic
* Passion
* Pity
* Pleasure
* Pride
* Rage
* Regret
* Rejection
* Remorse
* Resentment
* Sadness
* Saudade
* Schadenfreude
* Self-confidence
* Self-pity
* Shame
* Shock
* Shyness
* Social connection
* Sorrow
* Suffering
* Surprise
* Trust
* Wonder
* Worry

* v
* t
* e

Confidence is the state of being clear-headed: either that a hypothesis or prediction is correct, or that a chosen course of action is the best or most effective. Confidence comes from the Latin word fidere which means "to trust". In contrast, arrogance or hubris is a state of unmerited confidence—belief lacking evidence and/or a reason. Overconfidence or presumptuousness is excessive belief in success without regard for potential failure. Confidence can be a self-fulfilling prophecy, as those without it may fail because they lack it, and those with it may succeed because they have it rather than because of an innate ability or skill. We develop a tractable method fro augmenting macroeconomic models with autonomous variation in higher -order beliefs [1]

Self-confidence is trust in oneself, one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self-confidence often increases as one satisfactorily completes particular activities.[2] Self-confidence involves a positive[3] belief that one can generally accomplish what one wishes to do in the future. Self-confidence is not the same as self-esteem, which is an evaluation of one's worth. Self-confidence is more specifically trust in one's ability to achieve some goal, which one meta-analysis suggested is similar to the generalization of self-efficacy.[4] Abraham Maslow and many others have emphasized the need to distinguish between self-confidence as a generalized personality characteristic and self-confidence concerning a specific task, ability, or challenge (i.e., self-efficacy). The term "self-confidence" typically refers to a general personality trait— in contrast, "self-efficacy" is defined by psychologist Albert Bandura as a "belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task".[5]

Building on Bandura's concept of self-efficacy, Alex Stajkovic introduces the concept of "core confidence", which "psychologically enables, or unlocks, one’s existing potential by believing that one can handle what needs to be done".[6] Employees who have high core confidence are more likely to accept and commit to goals, while also increasing their performance.[6] A person can possess self-confidence in their ability to complete a specific task (self-efficacy)—e.g. cook a good meal or write a good novel—even though they may lack general self-confidence, or conversely be self-confident though they lack the self-efficacy to achieve a particular task. These two types of self-confidence are, however, correlated with each other, and for this reason, can be easily conflated.[7]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Theories and correlations with other variables and factors
* 2.1 Self-confidence as an intra-psychological variable
* 2.2 Relationship to social influences
* 2.3 Variation in different categorical groups
* 2.3.1 Children
* 2.3.2 Students
* 2.3.3 Men versus women
* 2.4 Stereotype threat
* 2.4.1 Self-confidence in different cultures
* 2.4.2 Athletes
* 3 Measures
* 4 Wheel of Wellness
* 5 Implicit vs. explicit
* 6 Extent
* 7 Lack of self-confidence
* 8 Confidence bias
* 9 See also
* 10 References

## History

Ideas about the causes and effects of self-confidence have appeared in English-language publications describing characteristics of a sacrilegious attitude toward God,[8] the character of the British empire,[9] and the culture of colonial-era American society[10] (where it seemed to connote arrogance and be a negative attribute).

In 1890, the philosopher William James in his Principles of Psychology wrote, "Believe what is in the line of your needs, for only by such belief is the need fulfilled... Have faith that you can successfully make it, and your feet are nerved to its accomplishment", expressing how self-confidence could be a virtue. That same year, Dr. Frederick Needham, in his presidential address to the opening of the British Medical Journal's Section of Psychology praised a progressive new architecture of an asylum accommodation for patients as increasing their self-confidence by offering them greater "liberty of action, extended exercise, and occupation, thus generating self-confidence and becoming, not only excellent tests of the sanity of the patient, but operating powerfully in promoting recovery".[11]

With World War I, psychologists praised self-confidence as greatly decreasing nervous tension, allaying fear, and ridding the battlefield of terror; they argued that soldiers who cultivated a strong and healthy body would also acquire greater self-confidence while fighting.[12] At the height of the Temperance social reform movement of the 1920s, psychologists associated self-confidence in men with remaining at home and taking care of the family when they were not working.[13] During the Great Depression, Philip Eisenberg and Paul Lazerfeld noted how a sudden negative change in one's circumstances, especially a loss of a job, could lead to decreased self-confidence, but more commonly if the jobless person believes the fault of his unemployment is his. They also noted how if individuals do not have a job long enough, they become apathetic and lose all self-confidence.[14]

In 1943, Abraham Maslow argued in his paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" that an individual is only motivated to acquire self-confidence (one component of "esteem") after achieving what they need for physiological survival, safety, and love and belonging. He claimed that satisfaction with self-esteem led to feelings of self-confidence that, once attained, led to a desire for "self-actualization".[15] As material standards of most people rapidly rose in developed countries after World War II and fulfilled their material needs, a plethora of widely cited academic research about confidence and related concepts like self-esteem and self-efficacy emerged.[16]

## Theories and correlations with other variables and factors

### Self-confidence as an intra-psychological variable

Social psychologists found self-confidence to be correlated with other psychological variables including saving money,[17] influencing others,[18] and being a responsible student.[19] Marketing researchers found that the general self-confidence of a person is negatively correlated with their level of anxiety.[20]

Some studies suggest various factors within and beyond an individual's control that affect their self-confidence. Hippel and Trivers propose that people will deceive themselves about their positive qualities and the negative qualities of others so that they can display greater self-confidence than they might otherwise feel, thereby enabling them to advance socially and materially.[21] Others found that new information about an individual's performance interacts with their prior self-confidence about their ability to perform. If that information is negative feedback, this may interact with a negative affective state (low self-confidence) causing the individual to become demoralized, which in turn induces a self-defeating attitude that increases the likelihood of failure in the future more than if they did not lack self-confidence.[22] Self-confidence increases a person's general well-being[23] and one's motivation[24] which often increases performance.[25] It also increases one's ability to deal with stress and mental health.[26]

A meta-analysis of twelve studies found that when people attribute their success to a stable cause (a matter under their control) they are less likely to be confident about being successful in the future. If someone attributes their failure to an unstable cause (a factor beyond their control, like a sudden and unexpected storm) they are more likely to be confident about succeeding in the future.[27] Therefore, if a person believes they and/or others failed to achieve a goal (e.g. give up smoking) because of a factor that was beyond their control, they are more likely to be more self-confident that they can achieve the goal in the future.[28] Whether a person, in making a decision, seeks out additional sources of information depends on their level of self-confidence specific to that area. As the complexity of a decision increases, a person is more likely to be influenced by another person and seek out additional information.[3] However, people can also be more self-confident about what they believe if they consult sources of information that agree with their world views (e.g. New York Times for liberals, Fox News for conservatives)Template:Globalize inline, even if they do not know what will happen tomorrow[non sequitur].[29] Several psychologists suggest that self-confident people are more willing to examine evidence that both supports and contradicts their attitudes. Meanwhile, people who are less self-confident about their perspective and are more defensive about it may prefer attitudinal information over information that challenges their perspectives.[30] (see also Olson & Zanna, 1982b;[full citation needed] for related views in other domains, see Tesser, 2001[full citation needed]).

### Relationship to social influences

An individual's self-confidence can vary in different environments, such as at home or in school, and concerning different types of relationships and situations.[31]

The more self-confident an individual is, the less likely they are to conform to the judgments of others.[32]

Leon Festinger found that self-confidence in an individual's ability may only rise or fall when that individual can compare themselves to others who are roughly similar, in a competitive environment.[33]

When individuals with low self-confidence receive feedback from others, they are averse to receiving information about their relative ability and negative informative feedback, and not averse to receiving positive feedback.[34]

People with high self-confidence are more likely to impress others, as others perceive them as more knowledgeable and more likely to make correct judgments.[35] There is ample evidence that emotions affect performance. Positive emotions can improve performance, while negative one can diminish it.[36] Despite this, a negative correlation is sometimes found between the level of their self-confidence and the accuracy of their claims.[37] When people are uncertain and unknowledgeable about a topic, they are more likely to believe the testimony,[38] and follow the advice of those that seem self-confident.[39] However, expert psychological testimony on the factors that influence eyewitness memory appears to reduce juror reliance on self-confidence.[38]

People prefer leaders with greater self-confidence over those with less self-confidence.[40] Heterosexual men who exhibit greater self-confidence relative to other men more easily attract single and partnered women.[41]

Salespeople who are high in self-confidence tend to set higher goals for themselves, which makes them more likely to stay employed,[42] yield higher revenues, and generate higher customer service satisfaction.[43]

Self-confident leaders tend to influence others through persuasion instead of resorting to coercive means. They are more likely to resolve issues by referring them to another qualified person or calling upon bureaucratic procedures (organizational policies, regulations, etc.), which avoid personal involvement.[44] Others suggest that self-confidence does not affect leadership style but is only correlated with years of supervisory experience and self-perceptions of power.[18]

### Variation in different categorical groups

Social scientists have discovered that self-confidence operates differently in different categories of people.

#### Children

Zimmerman claimed that if children are self-confident, they are more likely to sacrifice immediate recreational time for possible rewards in the future, enhancing their self-regulatory capability.[45] By adolescence, youth who have little contact with friends tend to have low self-confidence.[46] Successful performance of children in music increases feelings of self-confidence, increasing motivation for study.[47]

In children, self-confidence emerges differently than in adults. For example, Fenton suggested that only[ambiguous] children as a group are more self-confident than other children.[48]

#### Students

Captioned "Bashful" in a 1916–1917 yearbook, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin

Many students focus on their studies in school. In general, students who perform well have increased confidence which likely in turn encourages students to take greater responsibility to complete tasks.[49] Students who perform better receive more positive evaluation reports and greater self-confidence.[50] Low achieving students report less confidence and high performing students report higher self-confidence.[51]

Extracurricular activities can boost confidence in students at earlier ages only[ambiguous] in school. These include participation in games/sports, visual and performing arts, and public speaking, among others.[52]

Teachers affect the self-confidence of their students depending on how they treat them.[53] Black studentsTemplate:Globalize inline perform more poorly on exams (relative to white students) if they must reveal their racial identities before the exam, a phenomenon known as "stereotype threat."[54] Keller and Dauenheimer find a similar phenomenon about female students' performance (relative to male students) on math tests.[55] Sociologists of education Zhou and Lee observed the reverse phenomenon occurring amongst Asian-Americans, whose confidence becomes tied up in expectations that they will succeed by both parents and teachers and who claim others perceive them as excelling academically more than they are.[56]

In one study of UCLA students, males (compared to females) and adolescents with more siblings (compared to those with less) were more self-confident. Individuals who were self-confident specifically in the academic domain were more likely to be happy but higher general self-confidence was not correlated with happiness. With greater anxiety, shyness, and depression, emotionally vulnerable students feel more lonely due to a lack of general self-confidence.[57] Another study of first-year college students found men to be much more self-confident than women in athletic and academic activities.[58] In regards to inter-ethnic interaction and language learning, studies show that those who engage more with people of different ethnicity and language become more self-confident in interacting with them.[59]

#### Men versus women

Barber and Odean find that male common stock investors trade 45% more than their female counterparts, which they attribute to greater recklessness (though also self-confidence) of men, reducing men's net returns by 2.65 percentage points per year versus women's 1.72 percentage points.[60]

Research finds that women report self-confidence levels in supervising subordinates proportionate to their experience level, while men report being able to supervise subordinates well regardless of experience.[61]

More self-confident women may receive high-performance evaluations but not be as well-liked as men who engage in the same behaviour.[62] However confident women were considered a better job candidate than both men and women who behaved modestly.[63]

In the aftermath of the first wave of feminism and women's role in the labour force during World War II, Maslow argued that some women who possessed a more "dominant" personality were more self-confident and therefore would aspire to and achieve more intellectually than those that had a less "dominant" personality—even if they had the same level of intelligence as the "less dominant" women. However, Phillip Eisenberg later found the same dynamic among men.[64]

Women who are either high or low in general self-confidence are more likely to be persuaded to change their opinion than women with medium self-confidence. However, when specific high confidence (self-efficacy) is high, generalized confidence plays less of a role in affecting their ability to carry out the task.[65] Men who have low generalized self-confidence are more easily persuaded than men of high generalized self-confidence.[66]

Women tend to respond less to negative feedback and be more averse to negative feedback than men.[34] Niederle and Westerlund found that men are much more competitive and obtain higher compensation than women and that this difference is due to differences in self-confidence, while risk and feedback-aversion play a negligible role.[67] Some scholars partly attribute the fact of women being less likely to persist in engineering college than men to women's diminished sense of self-confidence.[68]

One study found that women who viewed commercials with women in traditional gender roles appeared less self-confident in giving a speech than those who viewed commercials with women taking on more masculine roles.[69] Such self-confidence may also be related to body image, as one study found a sample of overweight people in Australia and the U.S. are less self-confident about their body's performance than people of average weight, and the difference is even greater for women than for men.[70] Others found that if a newborn is separated from its mother upon delivery, the mother is less self-confident in her ability to raise that child than one who was not separated from her child, even if the two mothers did not differ much in their care-taking abilities. Furthermore, women who initially had low self-confidence are likely to experience a larger drop of self-confidence after separation from their children than women with relatively higher self-confidence.[71]

Another research showed that contrary to stereotypes and older research, female and male managers were strikingly similar. Women and men with cross-sex role identities showed lower levels of self-confidence than those did with androgynous orientations; high self-confidence was linked with masculine and androgynous orientations.[72]

### Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat examines how a social identity that is negatively stereotyped causes vulnerabilities in a stereotype-relevant situation. This concept examines factors such as the difficulty of the task while experiencing stereotype threat, beliefs about abilities, as well as the interplay of the relevance of the stereotype to the task.

#### Self-confidence in different cultures

Some suggest that self-confidence is more adaptive in cultures where people are not very concerned about maintaining harmonious relationships. But in cultures that value positive feelings and self-confidence less, maintenance of smooth interpersonal relationships is more important, and therefore self-criticism and concern to save face is more adaptive. For example, Suh et al. argue that East Asians are not as concerned with maintaining self-confidence as Americans[73] and some find Asians perform better when they lack confidence.[74]

#### Athletes

Sports psychologists note the importance of self-confidence in winning athletic competitions. Among athletes, gymnasts who tend to talk to themselves in an instructional format tend to be more self-confident than gymnasts who do not.[75] Researchers found that self-confidence is also one of the most influential factors in how well an athlete performs in a competition.[76] In particular, "robust self-confidence beliefs" are correlated with aspects of "mental toughness", or the ability to cope better than your opponents with many demands and remain determined, focused, and in control under pressure.[77] Bull et al. make the distinction between "robust confidence" which leads to tough thinking, and "resilient confidence" which involves overcoming self-doubts and maintaining self-focus and generates "tough thinking."[clarification needed][77] These traits enable athletes to "bounce back from adversity".[78] When athletes confront stress while playing sports, their self-confidence decreases. However, feedback from their team members in the form of emotional and informational support reduces the extent to which stresses in sports reduce their self-confidence. At high levels of support, performance-related stress does not affect self-confidence.[79]

In a group, members' desire for success and confidence can also be related. Groups that had a higher desire for success did better in performance than groups with a weaker desire. The more frequently a group succeeded, the more interest they had in the activity and their desire for success grew.[80] Success can influence a group to have higher goals and strive to work harder, but this may not apply to tasks that are extrinsically motivating. However, over-confidence can cause people to loaf which can hinder a group's performance. People with high confidence whose performances were identifiable were less likely to loaf than people with less confidence in the same situation. People's confidence makes for successful team performance which improves the team's confidence as a whole.

## Measures

One of the earliest measures of self-confidence used a 12-point scale, ranging from a minimum score characterizing someone who is "timid and self-distrustful, shy, never makes decisions, self-effacing" to a maximum score characterizing someone who is "able to make decisions, absolutely confident and sure of his own decisions and opinions".[48]

Some measured self-confidence as a simple construct divided into affective and cognitive components: anxiety as an affective aspect and self-evaluations of proficiency as a cognitive component.[81]

The more context-based Personal Evaluation Inventory, developed by Sidney Shrauger, measures specific self-esteem and self-confidence in different aspects (speaking in public spaces, academic performance, physical appearance, romantic relationships, social interactions, athletic ability, and general self-confidence).[82] Other surveys similarly measured self-confidence by evoking examples of more concrete activities (e.g. making new friends, keeping up with course demands, managing time wisely, etc.).[58] The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 measures on a scale of 1 to 4 how confident athletes feel about winning an upcoming match.[83] The Trait Robustness of Sports-Confidence Inventory asks respondents to provide numerical answers on a nine-point scale about how much their self-confidence goes up and down, and how sensitive their self-confidence is to performance and negative feedback.[84]

Others use body language proxies rather than self-reports to measure self-confidence, by having examiners measure on a scale of 1 to 5 whether the subject:

1. maintains frequent eye contact or almost completely avoids eye contact,
2. engages in little or no fidgeting, or, a lot of fidgeting,
3. seldom or frequently uses self-comforting gestures (e.g., stroking hair or chin, arms around self),
4. sits up straight facing the experimenter, or sits hunched over or rigidly without facing the experimenter,
5. has a natural facial expression, or, grimaces,
6. does not twiddle hands or frequently twiddles something in their hand, or,
7. uses body and hand gestures to emphasize a point, or never uses hand or body gestures to emphasize a point or makes inappropriate gestures.[69]

## Wheel of Wellness

This section contains information of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter. Please help improve this section by clarifying or removing indiscriminate details. If importance cannot be established, the section is likely to be moved to another article, pseudo-redirected, or removed.
Find sources: "Confidence" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

|

The Wheel of Wellness was the first theoretical model of Wellness based on counselling theory. It is a model based on Adler's individual psychology and cross-disciplinary research on characteristics of healthy people who live longer and with a higher quality of life. The Wheel of Wellness includes five interrelated life tasks: spirituality, self-direction, work and leisure, friendship, and love. There are 15 subtasks of self-direction areas: the sense of worth, sense of control, realistic beliefs, emotional awareness and coping, problem-solving and creativity, sense of humour, nutrition, exercise, self-care, stress management, gender identity, and cultural identity. There are also five second-order factors, the Creative Self, Coping Self, Social Self, Essential Self, and Physical Self, which allow exploration of the meaning of wellness within the total self. To achieve high self-esteem, it is essential to focus on identifying strengths, positive assets, and resources related to each component of the Wellness model and using these strengths to cope with life challenges.[85]

## Implicit vs. explicit

This section contains information of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter. Please help improve this section by clarifying or removing indiscriminate details. If importance cannot be established, the section is likely to be moved to another article, pseudo-redirected, or removed.
Find sources: "Confidence" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

|

Implicitly measured self-esteem is weakly correlated with explicitly measured self-esteem.[86][clarification needed] Two experiments were conducted to examine implicit self-esteem by using a self-other Implicit Association Test (IAT.) Participants were asked to complete two different self-other IATs. One esteem-IAT had the other be unspecified and one in which the other specified to be a close friend. Friend other-IAT was just a replication of unspecified other-IAT, but the specified person could be either a dating partner or a close friend of the opposite sex. The order that it was taken was first, unspecified and then specified to prevent participants from associating the specified person with the unspecified other-IAT. Afterwards, participants completed an explicit measure of self-esteem through a self-semantic differential, a self-feeling thermometer, and the Rosenberg (1965) Self-Esteem Scale. There was no correlation found in the relationship between implicit and explicit measures of esteem.[86] This leads some critics[who?] to assume that explicit and implicit self-confidence are two completely different types of self-esteem. Therefore, this has concluded that one will either have a distinct, unconscious self-esteem or they will consciously misrepresent how they feel about themselves. Recent studies have shown that implicit self-esteem does not particularly tap into the unconscious, rather that people consciously overreport their levels of self-esteem. Another possibility is that implicit measurement may be assessing a different aspect of conscious self-esteem altogether.[87] Inaccurate self-evaluation is commonly observed in healthy populations. In the extreme, large differences between one's self-perception and one's actual behaviour are a hallmark of several disorders that have important implications for understanding treatment-seeking and compliance.[88]

## Extent

Motivation theories suggest that successful performance hinges on both skill and will,[89] though even a skilled and determined individual can fail if they lack confidence. Overconfidence supports delusional thinking, such as frequently occurs in individuals with schizophrenia.[90] According to a meta-analysis, metacognitive training, a treatment approach for psychosis in schizophrenic patients, reduces delusions and hallucinations.[91] This is attributed to the attenuation of response confidence[clarification needed].[92]

## Lack of self-confidence

Self-confidence affects interest and/or enthusiasm and self-regulation.[93] Self-confidence is the foundation of striving to accomplish goals and improve performance.[94] Self-confidence is not the same as motivation, but it plays a factor in what one perceives one is capable of performing. Low confidence makes it less likely that a person will initiate action and more likely that a person will disengage because they doubt they can handle what needs to be done. Even with skill and motivation, without confidence goals are not likely to be met. In certain fields of medical practice, patients experience a lack of self-confidence during the recovery period. This is commonly referred to as DSF or defectum sui fiducia from the Latin for lack of self-confidence. This can be the case after a stroke when the patient refrains from using a weaker lower limb due to fear of it not being strong enough to hold their weight while standing or walking.[95]

The mindset that an individual has towards their goals is influenced by self-confidence, which serves "to mediate the relationship between goals intentions and motivation."[citation needed] Higher confidence is correlated with individuals setting higher goals, due to the belief that they can accomplish and can commit to greater goals. When people face feelings of discontent because they do not accomplish a certain goal, Bandura predicts that people who have a higher self-confidence will become even more persistent in accomplishing their goals,[93] whereas those with low self-confidence are more prone to give up quickly. More self-confident individuals will change their goals to cater more towards them. Lower self-confident individuals will "become discouraged and abandon their goal altogether".[96]

Kavanagh and Hausfeld reported that "induced moods"[jargon] did not change the expectation of their[clarification needed] confidence.[97]

Bandura argued that a person's perceived confidence indicates capability rather than their "physiological arousal condition." It is a state of mind; if people do not believe that they are capable of coping then they experience disruption which lowers their confidence about their performance. Anxiety symptoms are not related to "frightful cognition," but to the individual's self-confidence to manage them.[98]

## Confidence bias

There are several debates concerning the overconfidence phenomenon and what its source is.[99] It is suggested[by whom?] that the confidence bias can be explained by a noisy conversion of objective evidence (observation) into subjective estimates (judgment), where noise is defined as the mixing of memories during the storing (observing/learning) and retrieval process (remembering/judgment).[100] The information-theoretic logic behind this explanation is very similar to the mechanism that can also lead to the conservatism bias and holds that we mix true and false evidence during storage and retrieval of evidence to and from our memories. The confidence bias results because as judges we "look inside our memory" (evaluate our confidence) and find evidence that is more extreme than when we retrieve evidence for our judgements (which are conservative due to the mixing of extreme values during retrieval). This is a sufficient mechanism to generate both overconfidence (in situations where judges are very sure) and underconfidence (in cases when judges acknowledge they lack the required knowledge).

Evolutionary models explain that "counterintuitively, overconfidence maximizes individual fitness and populations tend to become overconfident, as long as benefits from contested resources are sufficiently large compared with the cost of competition".[101]

## See also

* Social:Assertiveness
* Philosophy:Dunning–Kruger effect - Cognitive bias about one's own skill
* Emotional bias - Distortion in cognition
* Medicine:Grandiose delusions - Subtype of delusion
* Philosophy:Hubris - Extreme pride or overconfidence, often in combination with arrogance
* Social:Icarus complex
* Law of attraction - Pseudoscientific belief regarding the power of thought
* Philosophy:Narcissism - Excessive preoccupation with oneself
* Philosophy:Overconfidence effect - Personal cognitive bias
* Security
* Philosophy:Self-serving bias - Distortion to enhance self-esteem, or to see oneself overly favorably
* Social:Shyness - Feeling of apprehension, discomfort or awkwardness in the presence of other people
* Philosophy:Vanity - Excessive concern for one's own appearance, or importance

## References

1. ↑ Angeletos, George-Marios; Collard, Fabrice; Dellas, Harris (2018). "Quantifying Confidence" (in en). Econometrica 86 (5): 1689–1726. doi:10.3982/ECTA13079. ISSN 0012-9682. https://www.econometricsociety.org/doi/10.3982/ECTA13079.
2. ↑ Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518724-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=6IyqCNBD6oIC.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Zellner, M. (1970). "Self-esteem, reception, and influenceability". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 15 (1): 87–93. doi:10.1037/h0029201. PMID 4393678.
4. ↑ Judge, Timothy A.; Erez, Amir; Bono, Joyce E.; Thoresen, Carl J. (2002-09-01). "Are measures of self-esteem, neuroticism, locus of control, and generalized self-efficacy indicators of a common core construct?" (in en). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (3): 693–710. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.693. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 12219863.
5. ↑ Luszczynska, A.; Schwarzer, R. (2005). "Social cognitive theory". Predicting health behaviour (2nd ed.). Buckingham, England: Open University Press. pp. 127–169.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Stajkovic, Alexander D. (2006). "Development of a core confidence-higher order construct." (in en). Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (6): 1208–1224. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1208. ISSN 1939-1854. PMID 17100479.
7. ↑ Bauer, Raymond (1964-05-01). "The obstinate audience: The influence process from the point of view of social communication" (in en). American Psychologist 19 (5): 319–328. doi:10.1037/h0042851. ISSN 1935-990X.
8. ↑ Edwards, J., & Wesley, J. (1742). Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England.. S. Kneeland and T. Green..
9. ↑ Freiburg, R (1742). This Vicissitude of Motion and Rest, Which We Call Life. The Spectator.
10. ↑ Tocqueville, Alexis de (1899) (in en). Democracy in America: Volume II. Washington Square Press. https://archive.org/details/democracyinamer10tocqgoog.
11. ↑ Needham, Frederick (1890-08-09). "An Address Delivered at the Opening of the Section of Psychology". British Medical Journal 2 (1545): 325–330. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.1545.325. ISSN 0007-1447. PMID 20753102.
12. ↑ Bird, Charles (1917-01-01). "From Home to the Charge: A Psychological Study of the Soldier". The American Journal of Psychology 28 (3): 315–348. doi:10.2307/1413607.
13. ↑ Wheeler, Mary P. (1918). "Alcohol and Social Case Work". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 77: 154–159. doi:10.1177/000271621807700116. https://zenodo.org/record/1448670.
14. ↑ Eisenberg, P.; Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1938-06-01). "The psychological effects of unemployment" (in en). Psychological Bulletin 35 (6): 358–390. doi:10.1037/h0063426. ISSN 1939-1455.
15. ↑ Maslow, A. H. (1943-07-01). "A theory of human motivation" (in en). Psychological Review 50 (4): 370–396. doi:10.1037/h0054346. ISSN 1939-1471.
16. ↑

* Greenwald, A. G.; Banaji, M. R. (1995). "Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes" (in en). Psychological Review 102 (1): 4–27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4. ISSN 1939-1471. PMID 7878162.
* Bénabou, Roland; Tirole, Jean (2005). Agarwal, Bina. ed (in en). Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour. International Economic Association Series. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 19–57. doi:10.1057/9780230522343_2. ISBN 9781349521449.
* Bandura, Albert (1997-02-15). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-7167-2850-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ-PN9g_o-EC.
* Baumeister, Roy F.; Campbell, Jennifer D.; Krueger, Joachim I.; Vohs, Kathleen D. (2003-05-01). "Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?" (in en). Psychological Science in the Public Interest 4 (1): 1–44. doi:10.1111/1529-1006.01431. ISSN 1529-1006. PMID 26151640.

17. ↑ Thorndike, Edward L. (1920). "Psychological Notes on the Motives for Thrift". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 87: 212–218. doi:10.1177/000271622008700133. https://zenodo.org/record/1448674.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Mowday, Richard T. (1979-12-01). "Leader Characteristics, Self-Confidence, and Methods of Upward Influence in Organizational Decision Situations" (in en). Academy of Management Journal 22 (4): 709–725. doi:10.2307/255810. ISSN 0001-4273.
19. ↑ Gough, Harrison G.; McClosky, Herbert; Meehl, Paul E. (1952). "A personality scale for social responsibility" (in en). The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 47 (1): 73–80. doi:10.1037/h0062924. ISSN 0096-851X. PMID 14907250.
20. ↑ Locander, William B.; Hermann, Peter W. (1979). "The Effect of Self-Confidence and Anxiety on Information Seeking in Consumer Risk Reduction". Journal of Marketing Research 16 (2): 268–274. doi:10.2307/3150690.
21. ↑ Hippel, William von; Trivers, Robert (2011-02-01). "The evolution and psychology of self-deception". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1017/S0140525X10001354. ISSN 1469-1825. PMID 21288379. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/the-evolution-and-psychology-of-self-deception/B87968EC4A6B4DC93A21C217ABC13E13.
22. ↑

* Cervone, Daniel; Kopp, Deborah A.; Schaumann, Linda; Scott, Walter D. (1994-09-01). "Mood, self-efficacy, and performance standards: Lower moods induce higher standards for performance" (in en). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (3): 499–512. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.499. ISSN 1939-1315.
* Wright, J. C.; Mischel, W. (1982). "The influence of affect on cognitive social learning person variables". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43 (5): 901–914. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.901.

23. ↑

* Akerlof, G. A.; Dickens, W. T. (1972). "The Economic Consequences of Cognitive Dissonance". American Economic Review 72 (3): 307–319.
* Caplin, A.; Leahy, J. (2001). "Psychological expected utility theory and anticipatory feelings". Quarterly Journal of Economics 116 (1): 55–79. doi:10.1162/003355301556347.

24. ↑ Bénabou, R.; Tirole, J. (2005). "Self-confidence and personal motivation". Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour: 19–57. doi:10.1057/9780230522343_2. ISBN 978-1-349-52144-9. http://publications.ut-capitole.fr/1026/1/self_confidence.pdf.
25. ↑ Compte, O.; Postlewaite, A. (2004). "Confidence-enhanced performance". The American Economic Review 94 (5): 1536–1557. doi:10.1257/0002828043052204.
26. ↑

* Hobfoll, Stevan E. (1988) (in en). The Ecology of Stress. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780891168454. https://books.google.com/books?id=9LYzgr6niYoC&pg=PR11.
* Argyle, Michael (2013-04-15) (in en). The Social Psychology of Everyday Life. Routledge. ISBN 9781134961733. https://books.google.com/books?id=sAbHKvNF5tQC&pg=PP1.

27. ↑ Weiner, Bernard (1985). "An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion". Psychological Review 92 (4): 548–573. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.548. PMID 3903815.
28. ↑ Eiser, J. Richard; Sutton, Stephen R. (1977). "Smoking as a subjectively rational choice". Addictive Behaviors 2 (2–3): 129–134. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(77)90030-2. PMID 899903.
29. ↑ Frey, Dieter (1986). Berkowitz, Leonard. ed. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 19. Academic Press. pp. 41–80. doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60212-9. ISBN 9780120152193.
30. ↑

* Albarracín, D.; Mitchell, A.L. (2004). "The role of defensive confidence in preference for attitudinal information: How believing that one is strong can sometimes be a defensive weakness.". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (12): 1565–1584. doi:10.1177/0146167204271180. PMID 15536240.
* Byrne, Donn (1961-09-01). "The repression-sensitization scale: rationale, reliability, and validity" (in en). Journal of Personality 29 (3): 334–349. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1961.tb01666.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 13689584.
* Albarracín, Dolores; Mitchell, Amy L. (2004-12-01). "The Role of Defensive Confidence in Preference for Proattitudinal Information: How Believing That One Is Strong Can Sometimes Be a Defensive Weakness" (in en). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (12): 1565–1584. doi:10.1177/0146167204271180. ISSN 0146-1672. PMID 15536240.

31. ↑ Reis, Harry T. (2008-11-01). "Reinvigorating the Concept of Situation in Social Psychology" (in en). Personality and Social Psychology Review 12 (4): 311–329. doi:10.1177/1088868308321721. ISSN 1088-8683. PMID 18812499.
32. ↑ Deutsch, Morton; Gerard, Harold B. (1955). "A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment". The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 51 (3): 629–636. doi:10.1037/h0046408. PMID 13286010.
33. ↑ Festinger, L. (1954). "A theory of social comparison processes.". Human Relations 7 (2): 117–140. doi:10.1177/001872675400700202.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Mobius, M. M.; Niederle, M.; Niehaus, P.; Rosenblat, T. S. (2011). "Managing Self-Confidence: Theory and Experimental Evidence". NBER Working Paper No. 17014. doi:10.3386/w17014.
35. ↑ Price, Paul C.; Stone, Eric R. (2004). "Intuitive evaluation of likelihood judgment producers: evidence for a confidence heuristic" (in en). Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 17 (1): 39–57. doi:10.1002/bdm.460. ISSN 1099-0771.
36. ↑ Compte, Olivier; Postlewaite, Andrew (December 2004). "Confidence-Enhanced Performance" (in en). American Economic Review 94 (5): 1536–1557. doi:10.1257/0002828043052204. ISSN 0002-8282. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/0002828043052204.
37. ↑ Slovenko, R. (1999). "Testifying with confidence". Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online 27 (1): 127–131. PMID 10212032. http://jaapl.org/content/27/1/127.short.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Penrod, Steven; Cutler, Brian (1995). "Witness confidence and witness accuracy: Assessing their forensic relation". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 1 (4): 817–845. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.817.
39. ↑ Zarnoth, P.; Sniezek, J.A. (1997). "The social influence of confidence in group decision making". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33 (4): 345–366. doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1326. PMID 9247369.
40. ↑

* Conger, Jay A.; Kanungo, Rabindra N. (1994). "Charismatic Leadership in Organizations: Perceived Behavioral Attributes and Their Measurement". Journal of Organizational Behavior 15 (5): 439–452. doi:10.1002/job.4030150508.
* Shamir, Boas; House, Robert J.; Arthur, Michael B. (1993). "The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory". Organization Science 4 (4): 577–594. doi:10.1287/orsc.4.4.577.

41. ↑

* Buss, D.M. (2009). "The great struggles of life: Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary psychology". American Psychologist 64 (2): 140–148. doi:10.1037/a0013207. PMID 19203146. http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/2009_Buss_AmPsycho_Darwin.pdf. Retrieved 2020-01-26.
* Schmitt, D.P.; Buss, D.M. (2001). "Human mate poaching: Tactics and temptations for infiltrating existing mateships". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (6): 894–917. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.894. PMID 11414373. http://bradley.edu/dotAsset/165822.pdf.

42. ↑ Brown, S.P.; Cron, W.L.; Slocum Jr., J.W. (1988). "Effects of trait competitiveness and perceived intraorganizational competition on salesperson goal setting and performance". The Journal of Marketing: 88–98. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277440987.
43. ↑

* de Jong, Ad; Ruyter, Ko de; Wetzels, Martin (2006). "Linking employee confidence to performance: A study of self-managing service teams" (in en). Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 34 (4): 576. doi:10.1177/0092070306287126. ISSN 0092-0703.
* Westbrook, R.A. (1980). "Intrapersonal affective influences on consumer satisfaction with products". Journal of Consumer Research 7 (1): 49–54. doi:10.1086/208792.

44. ↑

* Gamson, W. (1968). Power and Discontent. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey.
* Kanter, R. (1977). Men and women in the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
* Kipnis, D.; Lane, W. (1962). "Self-confidence and leadership". Journal of Applied Psychology 46 (4): 291–295. doi:10.1037/h0044720.
* Goodstadt, B.; Kipnis, D. (1970). "Situational influence on the use of power". Journal of Applied Psychology 54 (3): 201–207. doi:10.1037/h0029265.

45. ↑ Zimmerman, Barry J. (1990). "Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: An Overview". Educational Psychologist 25 (1): 3–17. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2. ISSN 0046-1520.
46. ↑ Waddell, Kathleen J. (1984-03-01). "The self-concept and social adaptation of hyperactive children in adolescence". Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 13 (1): 50–55. doi:10.1080/15374418409533169. ISSN 0047-228X.
47. ↑

* Clift, S.; Hancox, G.; Staricoff, R.; Whitmore, C. (2008). "Singing and health: A systematic mapping and review of non-clinical research". Sidney de Haan Research Centre for Arts and Health: Canterbury Christ Church University.
* Hallam, Susan (2010-08-01). "The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people" (in en). International Journal of Music Education 28 (3): 269–289. doi:10.1177/0255761410370658. ISSN 0255-7614.

48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Fenton, Norman (1928). "The Only Child". The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology 35 (4): 546–556. doi:10.1080/08856559.1928.10532171.
49. ↑ Zimmerman, Barry J.; Kitsantas, Anastasia (2005-10-01). "Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs". Contemporary Educational Psychology 30 (4): 397–417. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.05.003. https://zenodo.org/record/940375.
50. ↑ Pajares, Frank; Johnson, Margaret J. (1996-04-01). "Self-efficacy beliefs and the writing performance of entering high school students" (in en). Psychology in the Schools 33 (2): 163–175. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6807(199604)33:2<163::aid-pits10>3.0.co;2-c. ISSN 1520-6807.
51. ↑ Zusho, Akane; Pintrich, Paul R.; Coppola, Brian (2003-09-01). "Skill and will: The role of motivation and cognition in the learning of college chemistry". International Journal of Science Education 25 (9): 1081–1094. doi:10.1080/0950069032000052207. ISSN 0950-0693. Bibcode: 2003IJSEd..25.1081Z.
52. ↑ Gurukul, Vishwashanti. "Importance of Cultural Activities". https://www.mitgurukul.com/Why-cultural-activities-are-important-along-with-academics.php#:~:text=Social Benefits,opportunities to interact with others.&text=Interaction with other students belonging,they learn to respect others..
53. ↑ Smith, Eliot R.; Mackie, Diane M. (2007). Social Psychology. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84169-408-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=7A2LKwAACAAJ.
54. ↑ Steele, C.M.; Aronson, J. (1995). "Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (5): 797–811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797. PMID 7473032.
55. ↑ Keller, Johannes; Dauenheimer, Dirk (2003-03-01). "Stereotype Threat in the Classroom: Dejection Mediates the Disrupting Threat Effect on Women's Math Performance" (in en). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (3): 371–381. doi:10.1177/0146167202250218. ISSN 0146-1672. PMID 15273014.
56. ↑ Lee, J.; Zhou, M. (2014). "From unassimilable to exceptional: The rise of Asian Americans and 'Stereotype Promise'". New Diversities 16 (1): 7–22.
57. ↑ Cheng, Helen; Furnham, Adrian (2002-06-01). "Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness". Journal of Adolescence 25 (3): 327–339. doi:10.1006/jado.2002.0475. PMID 12128043.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Lopez, F.G.; Gormley, B. (2002). "Stability and change in adult attachment style over the first-year college transition: Relations to self-confidence, coping, and distress patterns". Journal of Counseling Psychology 45 (3): 355–364. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.49.3.355.
59. ↑ Noels, Kimberly A.; Pon, Gordon; Clement, Richard (1996-09-01). "Language, Identity, and Adjustment The Role of Linguistic Self-Confidence in the Acculturation Process" (in en). Journal of Language and Social Psychology 15 (3): 246–264. doi:10.1177/0261927X960153003. ISSN 0261-927X.
60. ↑ Barber, B.M.; Odean, T. (2001). "Boys will be boys: Gender, overconfidence, and common stock investment". Quarterly Journal of Economics 116: 261–292. doi:10.1162/003355301556400.
61. ↑ Instone, D.; Major, B.; Bunker, B.B. (1983). "Gender, self-confidence, and social influence strategies: An organizational simulation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44 (2): 322–333. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.2.322.
62. ↑ Butler, D.; Geis, F.L. (1990). "Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership evaluations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 48–59. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.48.
63. ↑ Rudman, L. A. (1988). "Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: the costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (3): 629–645. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629. PMID 9523410.
64. ↑ Maslow, A. H. (1939). "Dominance, Personality, and Social Behavior in Women". The Journal of Social Psychology 10 (1): 3–39. doi:10.1080/00224545.1939.9713343.
65. ↑ Cox, Donald F.; Bauer, Raymond A. (1964). "Self-Confidence and Persuasibility in Women". The Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (3): 453–466. doi:10.1086/267266.
66. ↑

* Henle, Mary (1961) (in en). Documents of Gestalt Psychology. University of California Press. p. 222. https://archive.org/details/documentsofgesta027559mbp.
* Berkowitz, Leonard; Lundy, Richard M. (1957-03-01). "Personality Characteristics Related to Susceptibility to Influence by Peers or Authority Figures" (in en). Journal of Personality 25 (3): 306–316. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1957.tb01529.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 13439514.
* Janis, Irving L (1954-06-01). "Personality Correlates of Susceptibility To Persuasion" (in en). Journal of Personality 22 (4): 504–518. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1954.tb01870.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 13163818.

67. ↑ Niederle, M.; Vesterlund, L. (2007). "Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much?". The Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (3): 1067–1101. doi:10.1162/qjec.122.3.1067. https://econweb.ucsd.edu/~jandreon/Econ264/papers/Vesterlund Niederle NBER 2005.pdf.
68. ↑ Cunningham, C.M.; Thompson, M.; Lachapelle, C.P.; Goodman, I.F.; Bittinger, K.C. (2006). "Women's experiences in college engineering and support programs: Findings from the WECE project". Women in Engineering ProActive Network.. https://journals.psu.edu/wepan/article/viewFile/58204/57892.
69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Jennings-Walstedt, J.; Geis, F.L.; Brown, V. (1980). "Influence of television commercials on women's self-confidence and independent judgment". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38 (3): 203–210. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.203.
70. ↑ Tiggemann, Marika; Rothblum, Esther D. (1988). "Gender differences in social consequences of perceived overweight in the United States and Australia" (in en). Sex Roles 18 (1–2): 75–86. doi:10.1007/BF00288018. ISSN 0360-0025.
71. ↑ Seashore, M.J.; Leifer, A.D.; Barnett, C.R.; Leiderman, P.H. (1973). "The effects of denial of early mother-infant interaction on maternal self-confidence". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 26 (3): 369–378. doi:10.1037/h0034497. PMID 4710108.
72. ↑ Chusmir, Leonard H.; Koberg, Christine S. (December 1991). "Relationship between Self-Confidence and Sex Role Identity among Managerial Women and Men" (in en). The Journal of Social Psychology 131 (6): 781–790. doi:10.1080/00224545.1991.9924665. ISSN 0022-4545. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224545.1991.9924665.
73. ↑ Suh, E.; Diener, E.; Oishi, S.; Triandis, H.C. (1988). "The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: Emotions versus norms". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (2): 482. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.482.
74. ↑

* Heine, S.J.; Kitayama, S.; Lehman, D.R.; Takata, T.; Ide, E.; Leung, C.; Matsumoto, H. (2001). "Divergent consequences of success and failure in japan and north America: an investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (4): 599–615. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.599. PMID 11642348.
* Diener, Ed; Oishi, Shigehiro; Lucas, Richard E. (2003-02-01). "Personality, Culture, and Subjective Well-Being: Emotional and Cognitive Evaluations of Life". Annual Review of Psychology 54 (1): 403–425. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056. ISSN 0066-4308. PMID 12172000.
* Peters, Heather J.; Williams, Jean M. (2006-09-01). "Moving Cultural Background to the Foreground: An Investigation of Self-Talk, Performance, and Persistence Following Feedback". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 18 (3): 240–253. doi:10.1080/10413200600830315. ISSN 1041-3200.

75. ↑ Mahoney, Michael J.; Avener, Marshall (1977). "Psychology of the elite athlete: An exploratory study" (in en). Cognitive Therapy and Research 1 (2): 135–141. doi:10.1007/BF01173634. ISSN 0147-5916.
76. ↑
77. ↑ 77.0 77.1

* Bull, Stephen J.; Shambrook, Christopher J.; James, Wil; Brooks, Jocelyne E. (2005-09-01). "Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in Elite English Cricketers". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 17 (3): 209–227. doi:10.1080/10413200591010085. ISSN 1041-3200.
* Connaughton, Declan; Wadey, Ross; Hanton, Sheldon; Jones, Graham (2008). "The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers". Journal of Sports Sciences 26 (1): 83–95. doi:10.1080/02640410701310958. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17852671.

78. ↑ Galli, N.; Vealey, R.S. (2008). "Bouncing back from adversity: Athletes' experiences of resilience". The Sport Psychologist 22 (3): 316–335. doi:10.1123/tsp.22.3.316.
79. ↑ Freeman, Paul; Rees, Tim (2010). "Perceived social support from team-mates: Direct and stress-buffering effects on self-confidence". European Journal of Sport Science 10 (1): 59–67. doi:10.1080/17461390903049998. ISSN 1746-1391. https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/16326/2/Freeman & Rees (2010).pdf.
80. ↑ Zander, Alvin; Ulberg, Cyrus (May 1971). "The group level of aspiration and external social pressures". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 6 (3): 362–378. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(71)90023-7. ISSN 0030-5073. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(71)90023-7.
81. ↑ Clément, Richard; Kruidenier, Bastian G. (1983-09-01). "Orientations in Second Language Acquisition: I. the Effects of Ethnic, Milieu, and Target Language on Their Emergence" (in en). Language Learning 33 (3): 273–291. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1983.tb00542.x. ISSN 1467-9922.
82. ↑ Shrauger, J. Sidney; Schohn, Mary (1995-09-01). "Self-Confidence in College Students: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Behavioral Implications" (in en). Assessment 2 (3): 255–278. doi:10.1177/1073191195002003006. ISSN 1073-1911.
83. ↑ Rees, Tim; Freeman, Paul (2007-07-01). "The effects of perceived and received support on self-confidence". Journal of Sports Sciences 25 (9): 1057–1065. doi:10.1080/02640410600982279. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17497407.
84. ↑ Beattie, Stuart; Hardy, Lew; Savage, Jennifer; Woodman, Tim; Callow, Nichola (2011-03-01). "Development and validation of a trait measure of robustness of self-confidence". Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (2): 184–191. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.09.008.
85. ↑ Myers, Jane; Willise, John; Villalba, Jose (1 January 2011). "Promoting Self-Esteem in Adolescents: The Influence of Wellness Factors". Journal of Counseling and Development 89: 28–30. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00058.x. http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/J_Myers_Promoting_2011.pdf.
86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 Karpinski, Andrew (2003). Measuring self-esteem using the Implicit Association Test: The valence of the other. doi:10.1037/e633872013-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e633872013-438. Retrieved 2020-12-19.
87. ↑ Timko, Alix; England, Erica; Herbert, James; Foreman, Evan (Fall 2010). "The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure as a measure of Self-Esteem". The Psychological Record 60 (4): 679. doi:10.1007/BF03395739. https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol60/iss4/9. Retrieved 2020-01-26.
88. ↑ Beer, J.; Lombardo M; Bhanji J. (September 2010). "Roles of Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Self-evaluation". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22 (9): 2108–2119. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21359. PMID 19925187.
89. ↑ Porter, L.W.; Lawler, E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance. Homework, Ill.: Dorsey.
90. ↑ Hoven, Monja; Lebreton, Maël; Engelmann, Jan B.; Denys, Damiaan; Luigjes, Judy; van Holst, Ruth J. (2019). "Abnormalities of confidence in psychiatry: an overview and future perspectives" (in en). Translational Psychiatry 9 (1): 268. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0602-7. PMID 31636252.
91. ↑ Penney, Danielle; Sauvé, Geneviève; Mendelson, Daniel; Thibaudeau, Élisabeth; Moritz, Steffen; Lepage, Martin (2022-03-23). "Immediate and Sustained Outcomes and Moderators Associated With Metacognitive Training for Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis" (in en). JAMA Psychiatry 79 (5): 417–429. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0277. ISSN 2168-622X. PMID 35320347. PMC 8943641. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2790555.
92. ↑ Köther, Ulf; Vettorazzi, Eik; Veckenstedt, Ruth; Hottenrott, Birgit; Bohn, Francesca; Scheu, Florian; Pfueller, Ute; Roesch-Ely, Daniela et al. (2017). "Bayesian Analyses of the Effect of Metacognitive Training on Social Cognition Deficits and Overconfidence in Errors". Journal of Experimental Psychopathology 8 (2): 158–174. doi:10.5127/jep.054516.
93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Locke, Edwin A. (1987). "Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive View (review)". Academy of Management Review 12 (1): 169–171. doi:10.5465/amr.1987.4306538. ISSN 0363-7425.
94. ↑ Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 1994. doi:10.17226/2303. ISBN 978-0-309-04993-1. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/2303/learning-remembering-believing-enhancing-human-performance.
95. ↑ Franzoni, S.; Rozzini, R.; Boffelli, S.; Frisoni, G.B.; Trabucchi, M. (1994). "Fear of falling in nursing home patients". Gerontology 40 (1): 38–44. doi:10.1159/000213573. PMID 8034202.
96. ↑ Bandura, Albert; Cervone, Daniel (1983). "Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems" (in en). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45 (5): 1017–1028. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017. ISSN 0022-3514. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1984-12232-001.
97. ↑ Kavanagh, David; Hausfeld, Steven (June 1986). "Physical Performance and Self-Efficacy under Happy and Sad Moods". Journal of Sport Psychology 8 (2): 112–123. doi:10.1123/jsp.8.2.112. ISSN 0163-433X.
98. ↑ Kent, Gerry; Gibbons, Rachel (March 1987). "Self-efficacy and the control of anxious cognitions" (in en). Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 18 (1): 33–40. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(87)90069-3. PMID 3558850.
99. ↑ Harvey, Nigel (1997-05-01). "Confidence in judgment" (in en). Trends in Cognitive Sciences 1 (2): 78–82. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(97)01014-0. ISSN 1364-6613. PMID 21223868. https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/abstract/S1364-6613(97)01014-0.
100. ↑ Hilbert, Martin (2012). "Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: How noisy information processing can bias human decision making". Psychological Bulletin 138 (2): 211–237. doi:10.1037/a0025940. PMID 22122235. https://martinhilbert.net/HilbertPsychBull.pdf.
101. ↑ Johnson, Dominic D.P.; Fowler, James H. (2011-09-14). "The evolution of overconfidence" (in en). Nature 477 (7364): 317–320. doi:10.1038/nature10384. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 21921915. Bibcode: 2011Natur.477..317J. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10384/.

* v
* t
* e

Narcissism

Types|

* Collective
* Egomania
* Flying monkeys
* Healthy
* Malignant
* Narcissistic personality disorder
* Spiritual
* Workplace

Characteristics|

* Betrayal
* Boasting
* Egocentrism
* Egotism
* Empathy (lack of)
* Envy
* Entitlement (exaggerated sense of)
* Fantasy
* Grandiosity
* Hubris
* Magical thinking
* Manipulative
* Narcissistic abuse
* Narcissistic elation
* Narcissistic rage and narcissistic injury
* Narcissistic mortification
* Narcissistic supply
* Narcissistic withdrawal
* Perfectionism
* Self-esteem
* Self-righteousness
* Shamelessness
* Superficial charm
* Superiority complex
* True self and false self
* Vanity

Defences|

* Denial
* Idealization and devaluation
* Distortion
* Projection
* Splitting

Cultural phenomena|

* Control freak
* Don Juanism
* Dorian Gray syndrome
* My way or the highway
* Selfie

Related articles|

* Codependency
* Counterdependency
* Dark triad
* Ego ideal
* "Egomania" (film)
* Egotheism
* Empire-building
* God complex
* History of narcissism
* Messiah complex
* Micromanagement
* Narcissism of small differences
* Narcissistic leadership
* Narcissistic parent
* Narcissistic Personality Inventory
* Narcissus (mythology)
* On Narcissism (Freud essay)
* Sam Vaknin
* Self-love
* Self-serving bias
* Spoiled child
* The Culture of Narcissism (Lasch book)
* Workplace bullying

eo:Fido fi:Luottamus

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Philosophy:Confidence&oldid=265802"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template