Dialectic

Dialectic (Ancient Greek: διαλεκτική, romanized: dialektikḗ; German: Dialektik), also known as the dialectical method, refers originally to dialogue between people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to arrive at the truth through reasoned argument. Dialectic resembles debate, but the concept excludes subjective elements such as emotional appeal and rhetoric;[1] the object is more an eventual and commonly held truth than the "winning" of an (often binary) competition. It has its origins in ancient philosophy and continued to be developed in the Middle Ages.

Hegelianism refigured "dialectic" to no longer refer to a literal dialogue. Instead, the term takes on the specialized meaning of development by way of overcoming internal contradictions. Dialectical materialism, a theory advanced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, adapted the Hegelian dialectic into a materialist theory of history. The legacy of Hegelian and Marxian dialectics has been criticized by philosophers, such as Karl Popper and Mario Bunge, who considered it unscientific.

Dialectic implies a developmental process and so does not fit naturally within classical logic. Nevertheless, some twentieth-century logicians have attempted to formalize it.

## Contents

* 1 Classical philosophy
* 1.1 Platonism
* 1.2 Aristotle
* 2 Medieval philosophy
* 3 Modern philosophy
* 3.1 Hegelian dialectic
* 3.2 Marxist dialectic
* 3.3 Dialectical naturalism
* 4 Theological dialectics
* 5 Criticisms
* 6 Formalization
* 6.1 Defeasibility
* 6.2 Dialog games
* 6.3 Mathematics
* 7 See also
* 8 Notes
* 9 References
* 10 External links

## Classical philosophy

In classical philosophy, dialectic (Ancient Greek: διαλεκτική dialektikḗ) is a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments and counter-arguments, advocating propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses). The outcome of such a dialectic might be the refutation of a relevant proposition, or a synthesis, a combination of the opposing assertions, or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue.[2][3] Socrates has become famous for his Socratic method of questioning conversation partners on topics until they agreed with him or admitted ignorance.

### Platonism

In Platonism, dialectic assumed an ontological and metaphysical role in that it became the process whereby the intellect passes from sensibles to intelligibles, rising from idea to idea until it finally grasps the supreme idea, the first principle which is the origin of all. The philosopher is consequently a "dialectician".[4] In this sense, dialectic is a process of inquiry that does away with hypotheses up to the first principle.[5] It slowly embraces multiplicity in unity. The philosopher Simon Blackburn wrote that the dialectic in this sense is used to understand "the total process of enlightenment, whereby the philosopher is educated so as to achieve knowledge of the supreme good, the Form of the Good".[6]

### Aristotle

Aristotle has been traditionally understood as viewing dialectic as a lesser method of reasoning than demonstration, which derives a necessarily true conclusion, from premises assumed to be true, via syllogism.[7] Within the Organon, the series comprising Aristotle's works about logic,[8] the Topics is dedicated to dialectic—which he characterizes as argument from endoxa ("generally accredited opinions") where positions are subject to lines of questioning, to which concessions may be made in response. While Aristotle asserts "dialectic does not prove anything", he considers it to be a useful art closely related to rhetoric.[9][10]

## Medieval philosophy

In the medieval period, dialectic was a foundational element of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic/dialectic), the essential curriculum in arts faculties at early universities. Drawing heavily on the works of Aristotle, as transmitted and commented upon by figures like Boethius, medieval thinkers employed dialectic as a rigorous method for analyzing texts and pursuing truth through reasoned argumentation. This practice was most notably formalized in the academic exercise known as the quaestio disputata (disputed question), a structured public debate where scholars presented arguments for and against a specific proposition drawn from authoritative sources such as Scripture, Church Fathers, or classical philosophers. The goal was not merely to win a debate but to use logical analysis to resolve apparent contradictions between different authorities, reconcile faith with reason, and arrive at a unified, deeper understanding of the subject matter. This method of systematic inquiry and rigorous logical consistency formed the bedrock of Scholasticism and the Western intellectual tradition, laying the groundwork for later developments in modern philosophy and science.[11][12][13][14]

Following Boethius (480–524), who drew heavily on Aristotle,[15] many scholastic philosophers made use of dialectics in their works, including Peter Abelard,[16] William of Sherwood,[17] Garlandus Compotista,[18] Walter Burley, Roger Swyneshed, William of Ockham,[19] and Thomas Aquinas.[20]

This dialectic (a quaestio disputata) was formed as follows:

1. The question to be determined ("It is asked whether...");
2. A provisory answer to the question ("And it seems that...");
3. The principal arguments in favor of the provisory answer;
4. An argument against the provisory answer, traditionally a single argument from authority ("On the contrary...");
5. The determination of the question after weighing the evidence ("I answer that...");
6. The replies to each of the initial objections. ("To the first, to the second etc., I answer that...")

## Modern philosophy

The concept of dialectics was given new life at the start of the nineteenth century by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose dialectical model of nature and of history made dialectics a fundamental aspect of reality, instead of regarding the contradictions into which dialectics leads as evidence of the limits of pure reason, as Immanuel Kant had argued.[21][22] Hegel was influenced by Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of synthesis, although Hegel didn't adopt Fichte's thesis–antithesis–synthesis language except to describe Kant's philosophy: rather, Hegel argued that such language was "a lifeless schema" imposed on various contents, whereas he saw his own dialectic as flowing out of "the inner life and self-movement" of the content itself.[23]

In the mid-nineteenth century, Hegelian dialectic was appropriated by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and retooled in what they considered to be a nonidealistic manner. It would also become a crucial part of later representations of Marxism as a philosophy of dialectical materialism. These representations often contrasted dramatically and led to vigorous debate among different Marxist groups.Template:Efn-num

### Hegelian dialectic

"Hegelian dialectic" redirects here. For the Prodigy album, see Hegelian Dialectic (The Book of Revelation).

The Hegelian dialectic describes changes in the forms of thought through their own internal contradictions into concrete forms that overcome previous oppositions.[24]

This dialectic is sometimes presented in a threefold manner, as first stated by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus, as comprising three dialectical stages of development: a thesis, giving rise to its reaction; an antithesis, which contradicts or negates the thesis; and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a synthesis.[25][26] However, Hegel opposed these terms.[27]

By contrast, the terms abstract, negative, and concrete suggest a flaw or an incompleteness in any initial thesis. For Hegel, the concrete must always pass through the phase of the negative, that is, mediation. This is the essence of what is popularly called Hegelian dialectics.[28]

To describe the activity of overcoming the negative, Hegel often used the term Aufheben, variously translated into English as 'sublation' or 'overcoming', to conceive of the working of the dialectic. Roughly, the term indicates preserving the true portion of an idea, thing, society, and so forth, while moving beyond its limitations. What is sublated, on the one hand, is overcome, but, on the other hand, is preserved and maintained.[29]

As in the Socratic dialectic, Hegel claimed to proceed by making implicit contradictions explicit: each stage of the process is the product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage. In his view, the purpose of dialectics is "to study things in their own being and movement and thus to demonstrate the finitude of the partial categories of understanding".[30]

For Hegel, even history can be reconstructed as a unified dialectic, the major stages of which chart a progression from self-alienation as servitude to self-unification and realization as the rational constitutional state of free and equal citizens.

### Marxist dialectic

Marxist dialectic is a form of Hegelian dialectic which applies to the study of historical materialism. Marxist dialectic is thus a method by which one can examine social and economic behaviors. It is the foundation of the philosophy of dialectical materialism, which forms the basis of historical materialism.

In the Marxist tradition, "dialectic" refers to regular and mutual relationships, interactions, and processes in nature, society, and human thought.[31]: 257

A dialectical relationship is a relationship in which two phenomena or ideas mutually impact each other, leading to development and negation. Development refers to the change and motion of phenomena and ideas from less advanced to more advanced or from less complete to more complete. Dialectical negation refers to a stage of development in which a contradiction between two previous subjects gives rise to a new subject. In the Marxist view, dialectical negation is never an endpoint, but instead creates new conditions for further development and negation.[31]: 257

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, writing several decades after Hegel's death, proposed that Hegel's dialectic is too abstract.[32] Against this, Marx presented his own dialectic method, which he claimed to be "direct opposite" of Hegel's method.[32]

Marxist dialectics is exemplified in Das Kapital. As Marx explained,

> it includes in its comprehension an affirmative recognition of the existing state of things, at the same time, also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its transient nature not less than its momentary existence; because it lets nothing impose upon it, and is in its essence critical and revolutionary.[32]

Class struggle is the primary contradiction to be resolved by Marxist dialectics because of its central role in the social and political lives of a society. Marx believed the struggle between the capitalist class (the purchasers of labor-power) and the working class (the sellers of labor-power) to be the primary contradiction of the capitalist mode of production, and that the working class must resolve this contradiction by seizing power in a revolution, in order to abolish class distinctions generally.[33]

Friedrich Engels further proposed that nature itself is dialectical, and that this is "a very simple process, which is taking place everywhere and every day".[34] His dialectical "law of the transformation of quantity into quality and vice versa"[35] corresponds, according to Christian Fuchs, to the concept of phase transition and anticipated the concept of emergence "a hundred years ahead of his time".[36] Stalin and Mao interpreted the transformation of quantity into quality not as a separate law, but as a special instance of the unity and struggle of opposites.[37]: 6

For Vladimir Lenin, the primary feature of Marx's "dialectical materialism" (Lenin's term) is its application of materialist philosophy to history and social sciences. Lenin's main contribution to the philosophy of dialectical materialism is his theory of reflection, which presents human consciousness as a dynamic reflection of the objective material world that fully shapes its contents and structure.

Later, Stalin's works on the subject established a rigid and formalistic division of Marxist–Leninist theory into dialectical materialism and historical materialism. While the first was supposed to be the key method and theory of the philosophy of nature, the second was the Soviet version of the philosophy of history.

Soviet systems theory pioneer Alexander Bogdanov viewed Hegelian and materialist dialectic as progressive, albeit inexact and diffuse, attempts at achieving what he called tektology, or a universal science of organization.[38]

### Dialectical naturalism

Dialectical naturalism is a term coined by American philosopher Murray Bookchin to describe the philosophical underpinnings of the political program of social ecology. Dialectical naturalism explores the complex interrelationship between social problems and the ecological consequences of human society. Bookchin offered dialectical naturalism as a contrast to what he saw as the "empyrean, basically antinaturalistic dialectical idealism" of Hegel, and "the wooden, often scientistic dialectical materialism of orthodox Marxists".[39]

## Theological dialectics

Neo-orthodoxy, in Europe also known as theology of crisis and dialectical theology,[40] is a theological approach in Protestantism that was developed in the aftermath of the First World War (1914–1918). It is characterized as a reaction against doctrines of nineteenth-century liberal theology and a more positive reevaluation of the teachings of the Reformation, much of which had been in decline (especially in western Europe) since the late eighteenth century.[41] It is primarily associated with two Swiss professors and pastors, Karl Barth[42] (1886–1968) and Emil Brunner (1899–1966),[40] even though Barth himself expressed his unease in the use of the term.[43]

In dialectical theology, the difference and opposition between God and human beings is stressed in such a way that all human attempts at overcoming this opposition through moral, religious or philosophical idealism must be characterized as sin. In the death of Christ humanity is negated and overcome, but this judgment also points forwards to the resurrection in which humanity is reestablished in Christ. For Barth this meant that only through God's "no" to everything human can his "yes" be perceived. Applied to traditional themes of Protestant theology, such as double predestination, this means that election and reprobation cannot be viewed as a quantitative limitation of God's action. Rather it must be seen as its "qualitative definition".[44]

Dialectic prominently figured in Bernard Lonergan's philosophy, in his books Insight and Method in Theology. Michael Shute wrote about Lonergan's use of dialectic in The Origins of Lonergan's Notion of the Dialectic of History. For Lonergan, dialectic is both individual and operative in community. Simply described, it is a dynamic process that results in something new:

> For the sake of greater precision, let us say that a dialectic is a concrete unfolding of linked but opposed principles of change. Thus there will be a dialectic if (1) there is an aggregate of events of a determinate character, (2) the events may be traced to either or both of two principles, (3) the principles are opposed yet bound together, and (4) they are modified by the changes that successively result from them.[45]

Dialectic is one of the eight functional specialties Lonergan envisaged for theology to bring this discipline into the modern world. Lonergan believed that the lack of an agreed method among scholars had inhibited substantive agreement from being reached and progress from being made compared to the natural sciences. Karl Rahner, S. J., however, criticized Lonergan's theological method in a short article entitled "Some Critical Thoughts on 'Functional Specialties in Theology'" where he stated: "Lonergan's theological methodology seems to me to be 'so generic that it really fits every science', and hence is not the methodology of theology as such, but only a very general methodology of science."[46]

## Criticisms

Friedrich Nietzsche viewed dialectic as a method that imposes artificial boundaries and suppresses the richness and diversity of reality. He rejected the notion that truth can be fully grasped through dialectical reasoning and offered a critique of dialectic, challenging its traditional framework and emphasizing the limitations of its approach to understanding reality.[47] He expressed skepticism towards its methodology and implications in Twilight of the Idols: "I mistrust all systematizers and I avoid them. The will to a system is a lack of integrity".[48]: 42 In the same book, Nietzsche criticized Socrates' dialectics because he believed it prioritized reason over instinct, resulting in the suppression of individual passions and the imposition of an artificial morality.[48]: 47

In 1937, Karl Popper wrote and delivered a paper entitled "What Is Dialectic?" in which he criticized the dialectics of Hegel, Marx, and Engels for their willingness "to put up with contradictions".[49] He argued that accepting contradiction as a valid form of logic would lead to the principle of explosion and thus trivialism. Popper concluded the essay with these words: "The whole development of dialectic should be a warning against the dangers inherent in philosophical system-building. It should remind us that philosophy should not be made a basis for any sort of scientific system and that philosophers should be much more modest in their claims. One task which they can fulfill quite usefully is the study of the critical methods of science."[49] Seventy years later, Nicholas Rescher responded that "Popper's critique touches only a hyperbolic version of dialectic", and he quipped: "Ironically, there is something decidedly dialectical about Popper's critique of dialectics."[50] Around the same time as Popper's critique was published, philosopher Sidney Hook discussed the "sense and nonsense in dialectic" and rejected two conceptions of dialectic as unscientific but accepted one conception as a "convenient organizing category".[51]

The philosopher of science and physicist Mario Bunge repeatedly criticized Hegelian and Marxian dialectics, calling them "fuzzy and remote from science"[52] and a "disastrous legacy".[53] He concluded: "The so-called laws of dialectics, such as formulated by Engels (1940, 1954) and Lenin (1947, 1981), are false insofar as they are intelligible."[53] Poe Yu-ze Wan, reviewing Bunge's criticisms of dialectics, found Bunge's arguments to be important and sensible, but he thought that dialectics could still serve some heuristic purposes for scientists.[36] Wan pointed out that scientists such as the American Marxist biologists Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin (authors of The Dialectical Biologist) and the German-American evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, not a Marxist himself, have found agreement between dialectical principles and their own scientific outlooks, although Wan opined that Engels' "laws" of dialectics "in fact 'explain' nothing".[36]

Even some Marxists are critical of the term "dialectics". For instance, Michael Heinrich wrote, "More often than not, the grandiose rhetoric about dialectics is reducible to the simple fact that everything is dependent upon everything else and is in a state of interaction and that it's all rather complicated—which is true in most cases, but doesn't really say anything."[54]

## Formalization

This section is transcluded from Logic and dialectic#History. (edit | history)

{{#section-h:Logic and dialectic|History}}

### Defeasibility

This section is transcluded from Logic and dialectic#Defeasibility. (edit | history)

{{#section-h:Logic and dialectic|Defeasibility}}

### Dialog games

This section is transcluded from Logic and dialectic#Dialog games. (edit | history)

{{#section-h:Logic and dialectic|Dialog games}}

### Mathematics

Mathematician William Lawvere interpreted dialectics in the setting of categorical logic in terms of adjunctions between idempotent monads.[55] This perspective may be useful in the context of theoretical computer science where the duality between syntax and semantics can be interpreted as a dialectic in this sense. For example, the Curry–Howard correspondence is such an adjunction or more generally the duality between closed monoidal categories and their internal logic.[56]

## See also

* Conversation
* Dialogue
* Dialectica - A philosophical journal
* De Dialectica - Various works on dialectics and logical reasoning
* Dialectical behavior therapy
* Dialectical research
* Dialogic
* Didactic method - Teaching method that may be contrasted with dialectical method
* Discourse
* False dilemma
* Reflective equilibrium
* Relational dialectics
* Tarka Shastra
* Unity of opposites

## Notes

## References

1. ↑ See Gorgias, 449B: "Socrates: Would you be willing then, Gorgias, to continue the discussion as we are now doing [Dialectic], by way of question and answer, and to put off to another occasion the (emotional) speeches (rhetoric) that (the sophist) Polus began?"
2. ↑ Ayer, A. J.; O'Grady, J. (1992). A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. p. 484.
3. ↑ McTaggart, J. M. E. (1964). A commentary on Hegel's logic. New York: Russell & Russell. p. 11.
4. ↑ Reale, Giovanni (1990). History of Ancient Philosophy. 2. Albany: State University of New York. p. 150.
5. ↑ Republic, VII, 533 c-d
6. ↑ Blackburn, Simon (1996). "dialectic". dialectic. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 0-19-283134-8. OCLC 32854872. https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000blac_c6v6/page/104.
7. ↑ Hamlyn, D. W. (1990). "Aristotle on Dialectic". Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 65 (254): 465–466. doi:10.1017/S003181910006469X. ISSN 0031-8191.
8. ↑ Smith, Robin (2022). "Aristotle's Logic". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. § Aristotle’s Logical Works: The Organon. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/#AriLogWorOrg.
9. ↑ Smith 2000, § Dialectical Argument and the Art of Dialectic.
10. ↑ Bolton, Robert (2003). "Aristotle: Epistemology and Methodology". in Shields, Christopher. The Blackwell guide to ancient philosophy. Blackwell. pp. 156–158. ISBN 978-0-631-22215-6.
11. ↑ Abelson, P. (1965). The seven liberal arts; a study in mediæval culture. New York: Russell & Russell. p. 82.
12. ↑ Hyman, A., & Walsh, J. J. (1983). Philosophy in the Middle Ages: the Christian, Islamic, and Jewish traditions. Indianapolis: Hackett. p. 164.
13. ↑ Adler, Mortimer Jerome (2000). "Dialectic". Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 0-415-22550-7
14. ↑ Herbermann, C. G. (1913). The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, and history of the Catholic church. New York: The Encyclopedia press. pp. 760–764.
15. ↑ From topic to tale: logic and narrativity in the Middle Ages, by Eugene Vance, pp. 43-45
16. ↑ "Peter Abelard". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1 March 1907. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01036b.htm. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
17. ↑ Kretzmann, Norman (January 1966). William of Sherwood's Introduction to logic. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 69–102. ISBN 978-0-8166-0395-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=f3uMdwDVvL8C&q=dialectical&pg=PA70.
18. ↑ Dronke, Peter (9 July 1992). A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-521-42907-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=7mcPcSuUa8EC&dq=Garlandus+Compotista+and+Dialectic+in+the+Eleventh+and+Twelfth+Centuries&pg=RA1-PA198.
19. ↑ Delany, Sheila (1990). Medieval literary politics: shapes of ideology. Manchester University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7190-3045-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=UnW7AAAAIAAJ&dq=William+of+Ockham+dialectical+materialism&pg=PA11.
20. ↑ "St. Thomas Aquinas". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1 March 1907. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
21. ↑ Nicholson, J. A. (1950). Philosophy of religion. New York: Ronald. p. 108.
22. ↑ Kant, I.; Guyer, P.; Wood, A. W. (2003). Critique of pure reason. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 495. ISBN 978-0-7583-3901-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=7bRychF0y0EC.
23. ↑ Maybee, Julie E. (Winter 2020). "Hegel's Dialectics". in Zalta, Edward N.. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. § 3\. Why does Hegel use dialectics?. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/hegel-dialectics/#WhyDoesHegeUseDial.
24. ↑ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (2010). The Science of Logic. Cambridge Hegel Translations. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–35. doi:10.1017/9780511780240. ISBN 978-0-511-78978-6. OCLC 664571199. "the necessity of the connectedness and the immanent emergence of distinctions must be found in the treatment of the fact itself, for it falls within the concept's own progressive determination. What propels the concept onward is the already mentioned negative which it possesses in itself; it is this that constitutes the truly dialectical factor. ... It is in this dialectic as understood here, and hence in grasping opposites in their unity, or the positive in the negative, that the speculative consists."
25. ↑ (in de) Historische Entwicklung der spekulativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel (4th ed.). Dresden-Leipzig. 1848. p. 367.
26. ↑ Fox, Michael Allen (2005). The Accessible Hegel. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books. p. 43. ISBN 1591022584. Also see Hegel's preface to the Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), §50–51, pp. 29–30.
27. ↑ Adorno, Theodor (2008). Lectures on Negative Dialectics: Fragments of a Lecture Course 1965/1966. Cambridge, UK: Polity. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-7456-3510-1.
28. ↑ Maybee, Julie E. (Winter 2020). "Hegel's Dialectics". in Zalta, Edward N.. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/hegel-dialectics/. Retrieved 2024-02-11.
29. ↑ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1812). Hegel's Science of Logic. London: Allen & Unwin. § 185.
30. ↑ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1874). "The Logic". Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences (2nd ed.). London: Oxford University Press. Note to § 81.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Ministry of Education and Training (Vietnam) (2023). Curriculum of the Basic Principles of Marxism-Leninism. 1. Banyan House. ISBN 9798987931608.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Marx, Karl (1887). "Afterword to the second German edition, 1873". Das Kapital. 1 (1st English ed.). https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/p3.htm. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
33. ↑ "Communist Manifesto (Chapter 2)". https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm.
34. ↑ Engels, Frederick, (1877) Anti-Dühring, Part I: Philosophy, XIII. Dialectics. Negation of the Negation.
35. ↑ Engels, Friedrich (1883). "Dialectics of Nature, chapter 3". https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/don/ch02.htm.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Wan, Poe Yu-ze (December 2013). "Dialectics, complexity, and the systemic approach: toward a critical reconciliation". Philosophy of the Social Sciences 43 (4): 412, 416, 419, 424, 428. doi:10.1177/0048393112441974.
37. ↑ Cook, Alexander C., ed (2013). "Introduction". Mao's Little Red Book: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05722-7.
38. ↑ Bogdanov, Alexander A. (1996). Bogdanov's Tektology. Book 1.. Hull, UK: Centre for Systems Studies Press. pp. x, 62–63. ISBN 0-85958-876-9. OCLC 36991138.
39. ↑ Biehl, Janet, ed (1997). The Murray Bookchin reader. London: Cassell. p. 209. ISBN 0-304-33873-7. OCLC 36477047.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Neo-orthodoxy". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409012/neoorthodoxy#tab=active~checked,items~checked&title=neoorthodoxy -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
41. ↑ "neo-orthodox". neo-orthodox. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/neo-orthodox. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
42. ↑ "Neo-orthodoxy". Neo-orthodoxy. http://www.bartleby.com/61/91/N0059100.html. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
43. ↑ See Church Dogmatics III/3, xii.
44. ↑ Karl Barth, The Epistle to the Romans (1933), p. 346
45. ↑ Bernard J. F. Lonergan, Insight: A Study of Human Understanding, Collected Works vol. 3, ed. Frederick E. Crowe and Robert M. Doran (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992, pp. 217-218).
46. ↑ McShane, Philip (1972). Foundations of Theology. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 194.
47. ↑ Nietzsche, Friedrich (2001). The Gay Science. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-521-63645-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=UPVwzQEACAAJ.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Nietzsche, Friedrich (1997). Twilight of the Idols or How to Philosophize with a Hammer. Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-354-9.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1

* Popper, Karl R. (October 1940). "What is dialectic?". Mind 49 (196): 407, 426. doi:10.1093/mind/XLIX.194.403.
* Popper, Karl R. (1962). "What is dialectic?". Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. New York: Basic Books. pp. 316, 335. ISBN 0-7100-6507-8. OCLC 316022.

50. ↑ Rescher, Nicholas (2007). Dialectics: A Classical Approach to Inquiry. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag. p. 116. doi:10.1515/9783110321289. ISBN 978-3-938793-76-3. OCLC 185032382.
51. ↑ Hook, Sidney (1940). "Sense and nonsense in dialectic". Reason, Social Myths and Democracy. New York: John Day. pp. 262–264. OCLC 265987. https://archive.org/details/reasonsocialmyth00hook/page/262.
52. ↑ Bunge, Mario Augusto (1981). "A critique of dialectics". Scientific materialism. Episteme. 9. Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 41–63. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-8517-9_4. ISBN 978-9027713049. OCLC 7596139. https://archive.org/details/scientificmateri0000bung/page/41.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Bunge, Mario Augusto (2012). Evaluating philosophies. Boston studies in the philosophy of science. 295. New York: Springer. pp. 84–85. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4408-0. ISBN 9789400744073. OCLC 806947226.
54. ↑ Heinrich, Michael (2004). "Dialectics—A Marxist 'Rosetta Stone'?". An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital. New York: Monthly Review Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1-58367-288-4. OCLC 768793094. https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth0000hein/page/36.
55. ↑ Lawvere, F. William (1996). "Unity and identity of opposites in calculus and physics". Applied Categorical Structures 4 (2–3): 167–174. doi:10.1007/BF00122250.
56. ↑ Eilenberg, Samuel; Kelly, G. Max (1966). "Closed Categories". Proceedings of the Conference on Categorical Algebra. pp. 421–562. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-99902-4_22. ISBN 978-3-642-99904-8.

## External links

* Learning materials related to the Dialectic algorithm at Wikiversity – an algorithm based on the principles of classical dialectics
* Hegel's Dialectics entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic by J. M. E. McTaggart (1896) at marxists.org

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Schools of thought

| By era|

* Ancient
* Western
* Medieval
* Renaissance
* Early modern
* Modern
* Contemporary

|

Ancient|

| Chinese|

* Agriculturalism
* Confucianism
* Legalism
* Logicians
* Mohism
* Chinese naturalism
* Neotaoism
* Taoism
* Yangism
* Chan

|

[[Philosophy:Ancient Greek philosopGreco-Hellenistic philosophy|Roman]] |

* Aristotelianism
* Atomism
* Cynicism
* Cyrenaics
* Eleatics
* Eretrian school
* Epicureanism
* Hermeneutics
* Ionian
* Ephesian
* Milesian
* Megarian school
* Neoplatonism
* Peripatetic
* Platonism
* Pluralism
* Presocratic
* Pyrrhonism
* Pythagoreanism
* Neopythagoreanism
* Sophistic
* Stoicism

Indian|

* Hindu
* Samkhya
* Nyaya
* Vaisheshika
* Yoga
* Mīmāṃsā
* Ājīvika
* Ajñana
* Cārvāka
* Jain
* Anekantavada
* Syādvāda
* Buddhist
* Śūnyatā
* Madhyamaka
* Yogacara
* Sautrāntika
* Svatantrika

Persian|

* Mazdakism
* Mithraism
* Zoroastrianism
* Zurvanism

Medieval|

| European|

* Christian
* Augustinianism
* Scholasticism
* Thomism
* Scotism
* Occamism
* Renaissance humanism

|

East Asian|

* Korean Confucianism
* Edo neo-Confucianism
* Neo-Confucianism

Indian|

* Vedanta
* Acintya bheda abheda
* Advaita
* Bhedabheda
* Dvaita
* Nimbarka Sampradaya
* Shuddhadvaita
* Vishishtadvaita
* Navya-Nyāya

Islamic|

* Averroism
* Avicennism
* Illuminationism
* ʿIlm al-Kalām
* Sufi

Jewish|

* Judeo-Islamic

Modern|

| People|

* Cartesianism
* Kantianism
* Neo-Kantianism
* Hegelianism
* Marxism
* Spinozism

|

* Anarchism
* Classical Realism
* Liberalism
* Collectivism
* Conservatism
* Determinism
* Dualism
* Empiricism
* Existentialism
* Foundationalism
* Historicism
* Holism
* Humanism
* Anti-
* Idealism
* Absolute
* British
* German
* Objective
* Subjective
* Transcendental
* Individualism
* Kokugaku
* Materialism
* Modernism
* Monism
* Naturalism
* Natural law
* Nihilism
* New Confucianism
* Neo-scholasticism
* Pragmatism
* Phenomenology
* Positivism
* Reductionism
* Rationalism
* Social contract
* Socialism
* Transcendentalism
* Utilitarianism

Contemporary|

| Analytic|

* Applied ethics
* Analytic feminism
* Analytical Marxism
* Communitarianism
* Consequentialism
* Critical rationalism
* Experimental philosophy
* Falsificationism
* Foundationalism / Coherentism
* Generative linguistics
* Internalism and externalism
* Logical positivism
* Legal positivism
* Normative ethics
* Meta-ethics
* Moral realism
* Quinean naturalism
* Ordinary language philosophy
* Postanalytic philosophy
* Quietism
* Rawlsian
* Reformed epistemology
* Systemics
* Scientism
* Scientific realism
* Scientific skepticism
* Transactionalism
* Contemporary utilitarianism
* Vienna Circle
* Wittgensteinian

|

Continental|

* Critical theory
* Deconstruction
* Existentialism
* Feminist
* Frankfurt School
* New Historicism
* Hermeneutics
* Neo-Marxism
* Phenomenology
* Posthumanism
* Postmodernism
* Post-structuralism
* Social constructionism
* Structuralism
* Western Marxism

Other|

* Kyoto School
* Objectivism
* Postcritique
* Russian cosmism
* more...

Positions

| Aesthetics|

* Formalism
* Institutionalism
* Aesthetic response

|

Ethics|

* Consequentialism
* Deontology
* Virtue

Free will|

* Compatibilism
* Determinism
* Hard
* Incompatibilism
* Hard
* Libertarianism

Metaphysics|

* Atomism
* Dualism
* Monism
* Naturalism

Epistemology|

* Constructivism
* Empiricism
* Idealism
* Particularism
* Fideism
* Rationalism
* /Nihilism-->
* Solipsism

Mind|

* Behaviorism
* Emergentism
* Eliminativism
* Epiphenomenalism
* Functionalism
* Objectivism
* Subjectivism

Normativity|

* Absolutism
* Particularism
* Relativism
* Nihilism
* Skepticism
* Universalism

Ontology|

* Action
* Event
* Process

Reality|

* Anti-realism
* Conceptualism
* Idealism
* Materialism
* Naturalism
* Nominalism
* Physicalism
* Realism

* By region
* Related lists
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| By region|

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|

Lists|

* Outline
* Index
* Years
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* Glossary
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* Publications

Miscellaneous|

* Natural law
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* Theoretical philosophy / Practical philosophy
* Women in philosophy

* Portal
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