Coating

A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, or substrate.[1] The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative, functional, or both.[2] Coatings may be applied as liquids, gases or solids e.g. powder coatings.

Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses, which are protecting the substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are only for decoration, and the paint on large industrial pipes is for identification (e.g. blue for process water, red for fire-fighting control) in addition to preventing corrosion. Along with corrosion resistance, functional coatings may also be applied to change the surface properties of the substrate, such as adhesion, wettability, or wear resistance.[3] In other cases the coating adds a completely new property, such as a magnetic response or electrical conductivity (as in semiconductor device fabrication, where the substrate is a wafer), and forms an essential part of the finished product.[4][5]

A major consideration for most coating processes is controlling coating thickness. Methods of achieving this range from a simple brush to expensive precision machinery in the electronics industry. Limiting coating area is crucial in some applications, such as printing.

"Roll-to-roll" or "web-based" coating is the process of applying a thin film of functional material to a substrate on a roll, such as paper, fabric, film, foil, or sheet stock. This continuous process is highly efficient for producing large volumes of coated materials, which are essential in various industries including printing, packaging, and electronics. The technology allows for consistent high-quality application of the coating material over large surface areas, enhancing productivity and uniformity.[6]

## Contents

* 1 Applications
* 1.1 Other
* 2 Analysis and characterization
* 3 Formulation
* 4 Processes
* 4.1 Vapor deposition
* 4.1.1 Chemical vapor deposition
* 4.1.2 Physical vapor deposition
* 4.2 Chemical and electrochemical techniques
* 4.3 Spraying
* 4.4 Roll-to-roll coating processes
* 4.5 Physical
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading

## Applications

Coatings can be both decorative and have other functions.[3][7] A pipe carrying water for a fire suppression system can be coated with a red (for identification) anticorrosion paint. Most coatings to some extent protect the substrate, such as maintenance coatings for metals and concrete.[8] A decorative coating can offer a particular reflective property, such as high gloss, satin, matte, or flat appearance.[9]

A major coating application is to protect metal from corrosion.[10][11][12][13][14] Automotive coatings are used to enhance the appearance and durability of vehicles. These include primers, basecoats, and clearcoats, primarily applied with spray guns and electrostatically.[15]

The body and underbody of automobiles receive some form of underbody coating.[16] Such anticorrosion coatings may use graphene in combination with water-based epoxies.[17]

Coatings are used to seal the surface of concrete, such as seamless polymer/resin flooring,[18][19][20][21][22] bund wall/containment lining, waterproofing and damp proofing concrete walls, and bridge decks.[23][24][25][26] Compare with tradition coatings, moisture curing polyurethane has been widely used because of the excellent adaptability and ease of construction. The mechanical properties could be enhanced by introducing multiple hydrogen bonds and optimize the microphase separation structure.[27]

Most roof coatings are designed primarily for waterproofing, though sun reflection (to reduce heating and cooling) may also be a consideration. They tend to be elastomeric to allow for movement of the roof without cracking within the coating membrane.[28][29][30]

Wood has been a key material in construction since ancient times, so its preservation by coating has received much attention.[31] Efforts to improve the performance of wood coatings continue.[32][33][34][35][36]

Coatings are used to alter tribological properties and wear characteristics.[37][38] These include anti-friction, wear and scuffing resistance coatings for rolling-element bearings[39]

Architectural coatings[40][41] or paints[42] are used to paint the exteriors and interiors of buildings, often called or external masonry coatings. Clear varnishes and lacquers are generally excluded.[40] Such products are usually designated for specific purposes such as roof coatings, wall paints, or deck finishes.[41] Coatings are eco-friendly building material that increases the efficiency of energy used and reduces impact on human well-being and the environment.[citation needed] The coatings are typically applied with brushes, rollers or sprayers.[43]

Wall coatings come in a variety of types, some of which can be applied by amateurs and DIYers without specialized training or equipment. For example, simple paint or primers can often be applied using brushes or rollers, and many people successfully complete such projects themselves.[44] Most masonry surfaces can be treated an exterior wall coating, such as render, pebbledash, stone, stucco or brick. Most coatings are designed to be microporous in nature, allowing captive moisture within the wall to evaporate outside, whilst not allowing the passage of water to be drawn inside the building, thus largely providing a secondary feature apart from decoration, and that is to weatherproof a wall, and to stop damp forming inside the building. These coatings are intended for on-site application and do not include "factory-applied coatings for building products such as vinyl siding or aluminium window frames [that] may ultimately be used for architectural end-uses".[41]

### Other

Other functions of coatings include:

* Anti-fouling coatings[45][46][47]
* Anti-microbial coatings.[48]
* Anti-reflective coatings for example on spectacles.[49]
* Coatings that alter or have magnetic, electrical or electronic properties.[50][51][52]
* Flame retardant coatings.[53][54][55] Flame-retardant materials and coatings are being developed that are phosphorus and bio-based.[56] These include coatings with intumescent functionality.[57]
* Non-stick PTFE coated cooking pots/pans.[58]
* Optical coatings are available that alter optical properties of a material or object.[59]
* UV coatings[60]

## Analysis and characterization

Numerous destructive and non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods exist for characterizing coatings.[61][62][63][64] The most common destructive method is microscopy of a mounted cross-section of the coating and its substrate.[65][66][67] The most common non-destructive techniques include ultrasonic thickness measurement, X-ray fluorescence (XRF),[68] X-Ray diffraction (XRD), photothermal coating thickness measurement[69] and micro hardness indentation.[70] X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is also a classical characterization method to investigate the chemical composition of the nanometer thick surface layer of a material.[71] Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX, or SEM-EDS) allows to visualize the surface texture and to probe its elementary chemical composition.[72] Other characterization methods include transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning tunneling microscope (STM), and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS). Various methods of Chromatography are also used,[73] as well as thermogravimetric analysis.[74]

## Formulation

The formulation of a coating depends primarily on the function required of the coating and also on aesthetics required such as color and gloss.[75] The four primary ingredients are the resin (or binder), solvent which may be water (or solventless), pigment(s) and additives (defoamers, surfactants, optical brighteners, etc.).[76][77] Research is ongoing to remove heavy metals from coating formulations completely.[78]

For example, on the basis of experimental and epidemiological evidence, it has been classified by the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) as a human carcinogen by inhalation (class I) (ISPESL, 2008).[79]

## Processes

Coating processes may be classified as follows:

### Vapor deposition

#### Chemical vapor deposition

Main article: Chemistry:Chemical vapor deposition

* Metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy
* Electrostatic spray assisted vapour deposition (ESAVD)
* Sherardizing
* Some forms of Epitaxy
* Molecular beam epitaxy

#### Physical vapor deposition

Main article: Physics:Physical vapor deposition

* Cathodic arc deposition
* Electron beam physical vapor deposition (EBPVD)
* Ion plating
* Ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD)
* Magnetron sputtering
* Pulsed laser deposition
* Sputter deposition
* Vacuum deposition
* Vacuum evaporation, evaporation (deposition)
* Pulsed electron deposition (PED)

### Chemical and electrochemical techniques

* Conversion coating
* Autophoretic, the registered trade name of a proprietary series of auto-depositing coatings specifically for ferrous metal substrates[80]
* Anodising
* Chromate conversion coating
* Plasma electrolytic oxidation
* Phosphate (coating)
* Ion beam mixing
* Pickled and oiled, a type of plate steel coating
* Plating
* Electroless plating
* nickel plating coating using a different material to preserve mechanical properties[81]
* Electroplating

### Spraying

* Spray painting
* High velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF)
* Plasma spraying
* Thermal spraying
* Kinetic metallization (KM)
* Plasma transferred wire arc thermal spraying
* The common forms of Powder coating

### Roll-to-roll coating processes

Common roll-to-roll coating processes include:

* Air knife coating
* Anilox coater
* Flexo coater
* Gap Coating
* Knife-over-roll coating
* Gravure coating
* Hot melt coating- when the necessary coating viscosity is achieved by temperature rather than solution of the polymers etc. This method commonly implies slot-die coating above room temperature, but it also is possible to have hot-melt roller coating; hot-melt metering-rod coating, etc.
* Immersion dip coating
* Kiss coating
* Metering rod (Meyer bar) coating
* Roller coating
* Forward roller coating
* Reverse roll coating
* Silk Screen coater
* Rotary screen
* Slot Die coating \- Slot die coating was originally developed in the 1950s.[82] Slot die coating has a low operational cost and is an easily scaled processing technique for depositing thin and uniform films rapidly, while minimizing material waste.[83] Slot die coating technology is used to deposit a variety of liquid chemistries onto substrates of various materials such as glass, metal, and polymers by precisely metering the process fluid and dispensing it at a controlled rate while the coating die is precisely moved relative to the substrate.[84] The complex inner geometry of conventional slot dies require machining or can be accomplished with 3-D printing.[85]
* Extrusion coating \- generally high pressure, often high temperature, and with the web travelling much faster than the speed of the extruded polymer
* Curtain coating\- low viscosity, with the slot vertically above the web and a gap between slot-die and web.
* Slide coating- bead coating with an angled slide between the slot-die and the bead. Commonly used for multilayer coating in the photographic industry.
* Slot die bead coating- typically with the web backed by a roller and a very small gap between slot-die and web.
* Tensioned-web slot-die coating- with no backing for the web.
* Inkjet printing
* Lithography
* Flexography

### Physical

* Langmuir-Blodgett
* Spin coating
* Dip coating

## See also

* Adhesion Tester
* Deposition
* Electrostatic coating
* Film coating drugs
* Food coating
* Formulations
* Langmuir-Blodgett film
* Nanoparticle deposition
* Optically active additive, for inspection purposes after a coating operation
* Paint
* Paper coating
* Plastic film
* Polymer science
* Printed electronics
* Seal (mechanical)
* Thermal barrier coating
* Thermal cleaning
* Thin-film deposition
* Thermosetting polymer
* Vitreous enamel

## Notes

1. ↑ Carroll, Gregory T.; Turro, Nicholas J.; Mammana, Angela; Koberstein, Jeffrey T. (2017). "Photochemical Immobilization of Polymers on a Surface: Controlling Film Thickness and Wettability" (in en). Photochemistry and Photobiology 93 (5): 1165–1169. doi:10.1111/php.12751. ISSN 0031-8655. PMID 28295380. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/php.12751.
2. ↑ Howarth, G A; Manock, H L (July 1997). "Water-borne polyurethane dispersions and their use in functional coatings". Surface Coatings International 80 (7): 324–328. doi:10.1007/bf02692680. ISSN 1356-0751.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Howarth G.A "Synthesis of a legislation compliant corrosion protection coating system based on urethane, oxazolidine and waterborne epoxy technology" Master of Science Thesis April 1997 Imperial College London
4. ↑ Wu, Kunjie; Li, Hongwei; Li, Liqiang; Zhang, Suna; Chen, Xiaosong; Xu, Zeyang; Zhang, Xi; Hu, Wenping et al. (2016-06-28). "Controlled Growth of Ultrathin Film of Organic Semiconductors by Balancing the Competitive Processes in Dip-Coating for Organic Transistors" (in en). Langmuir 32 (25): 6246–6254. doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b01083. ISSN 0743-7463. PMID 27267545. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b01083.
5. ↑ Campoy-Quiles, M.; Schmidt, M.; Nassyrov, D.; Peña, O.; Goñi, A. R.; Alonso, M. I.; Garriga, M. (2011-02-28). "Real-time studies during coating and post-deposition annealing in organic semiconductors" (in en). Thin Solid Films. 5th International Conference on Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (ICSE-V) 519 (9): 2678–2681. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2010.12.228. ISSN 0040-6090. Bibcode: 2011TSF...519.2678C. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040609011000927.
6. ↑ Granqvist, Claes G.; Bayrak Pehlivan, İlknur; Niklasson, Gunnar A. (2018-02-25). "Electrochromics on a roll: Web-coating and lamination for smart windows" (in en). Surface and Coatings Technology. Society of Vacuum Coaters Annual Technical Conference 2017 336: 133–138. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.08.006. ISSN 0257-8972. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0257897217307843.
7. ↑ Howarth, G A; Manock, H L (July 1997). "Water-borne polyurethane dispersions and their use in functional coatings". Surface Coatings International 80 (7): 324–328. doi:10.1007/bf02692680. ISSN 1356-0751.
8. ↑ Howarth, G.A (1995). "5". in Karsa, D.R. Waterborne Maintenance Systems for Concrete and Metal Structures. 165. Cambridge, U.K: The Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 0-85404-740-9.
9. ↑ Akram, Waseem; Farhan Rafique, Amer; Maqsood, Nabeel; Khan, Afzal; Badshah, Saeed; Khan, Rafi Ullah (2020-01-14). "Characterization of PTFE Film on 316L Stainless Steel Deposited through Spin Coating and Its Anticorrosion Performance in Multi Acidic Mediums" (in en). Materials 13 (2): 388. doi:10.3390/ma13020388. ISSN 1996-1944. PMID 31947700. Bibcode: 2020Mate...13..388A.
10. ↑ Li, Jiao; Bai, Huanhuan; Feng, Zhiyuan (January 2023). "Advances in the Modification of Silane-Based Sol-Gel Coating to Improve the Corrosion Resistance of Magnesium Alloys" (in en). Molecules 28 (6): 2563. doi:10.3390/molecules28062563. ISSN 1420-3049. PMID 36985537.
11. ↑ S. Grainger and J. Blunt, Engineering Coatings: Design and Application, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, UK, 2nd ed., 1998, ISBN 978-1-85573-369-5
12. ↑ Ramakrishnan, T.; Raja Karthikeyan, K.; Tamilselvan, V.; Sivakumar, S.; Gangodkar, Durgaprasad; Radha, H. R.; Narain Singh, Anoop; Asrat Waji, Yosef (2022-01-13). "Study of Various Epoxy-Based Surface Coating Techniques for Anticorrosion Properties" (in en). Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2022. doi:10.1155/2022/5285919. ISSN 1687-8434.
13. ↑ Mutyala, Kalyan C.; Ghanbari, E.; Doll, G.L. (August 2017). "Effect of deposition method on tribological performance and corrosion resistance characteristics of Cr x N coatings deposited by physical vapor deposition". Thin Solid Films 636: 232–239. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2017.06.013. ISSN 0040-6090. Bibcode: 2017TSF...636..232M.
14. ↑ Gao, Mei-lian; Wu, Xiao-bo; Gao, Ping-ping; Lei, Ting; Liu, Chun-xuan; Xie, Zhi-yong (2019-11-01). "Properties of hydrophobic carbon–PTFE composite coating with high corrosion resistance by facile preparation on pure Ti" (in en). Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 29 (11): 2321–2330. doi:10.1016/S1003-6326(19)65138-1. ISSN 1003-6326. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1003632619651381.
15. ↑ Jaiswal, Vishal. "Coating Process: Types, Applications, and Advantages" (in en). https://www.mechanicalsite.com/2023/05/coating-process.html.
16. ↑ "Applying underbody sealant" (in en). https://www.howacarworks.com/bodywork/applying-underbody-sealant.
17. ↑ Monetta, T.; Acquesta, A.; Carangelo, A.; Bellucci, F. (2018-09-01). "Considering the effect of graphene loading in water-based epoxy coatings" (in en). Journal of Coatings Technology and Research 15 (5): 923–931. doi:10.1007/s11998-018-0045-8. ISSN 1935-3804.
18. ↑ "Polymer Flooring Systems For Industrial and Manufacturing Facilities" (in en-US). https://www.surfacesolutionsusa.com/flooring-solutions/polymer/.
19. ↑ "Arizona Polymer Flooring | Industrial Epoxy Floor Coatings". https://www.apfepoxy.com/.
20. ↑ , Elwin Aloysius Cornelius Adrianus DE; Ferry Ludovicus Thys & Richard Hendrikus Gerrit Brinkhuis et al."Floor coating compositions"  patent WO2016166361A1, issued 2016-10-20
21. ↑ Gelfant, Frederick (2015). "Polymeric Floor Coatings". Protective Organic Coatings. pp. 139–151. doi:10.31399/asm.hb.v05b.a0006037. ISBN 978-1-62708-172-6. https://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/edited-volume/13/chapter-abstract/139655/Polymeric-Floor-Coatings?redirectedFrom=fulltext. Retrieved 2022-11-14.
22. ↑ Ateya, Taher & Balcı, Bekir & Bayraktar, Oğuzhan & Kaplan, Gökhan. (2019). Floor Coating Materials.
23. ↑ O'Reilly, Matthew; Darwin, David; Browning, JoAnn; Locke, Carl E. (January 2011) (in en). Evaluation of Multiple Corrosion Protection Systems for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks. https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/19840.
24. ↑ Weyers, Richard E.; Cady, Philip D. (1987-01-01). "Deterioration of Concrete Bridge Decks from Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel" (in English). Concrete International 9 (1). ISSN 0162-4075. https://www.concrete.org/publications/internationalconcreteabstractsportal/m/details/id/1959.
25. ↑ Grace, Nabil; Hanson, James; AbdelMessih, Hany (2004-10-01). "Inspection and Deterioration of Bridge Decks Constructed Using Stay-In-Place Metal Forms and Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement". Civil and Environmental Engineering. https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cenv_fac/138.
26. ↑ Babaei, K; Hawkins, N.M (1987). EVALUATION OF BRIDGE DECK PROTECTIVE STRATEGIES. Washington DC: Transportation Research Board. ISBN 0-309-04566-5. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_297.pdf.
27. ↑ Li, Weijie; Yao, Guangxin; Mo, Ruibin; Liu, Weiwei; Jiang, Xiang; Zhang, Xinya (2025). "Bioinspired Robust Mechanical and Waterproofing Properties of Moisture-Curing Polyurethane With Multiple Hydrogen Bonding Networks" (in en). Journal of Applied Polymer Science 142 (27). doi:10.1002/app.57112. ISSN 1097-4628. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.57112.
28. ↑ "History of Liquid Waterproofing". Liquid Roofing and Waterproofing Association. http://www.lrwa.org.uk/History-of-Liquid-Waterproofing.
29. ↑ "Liquid-Applied Monolithic Membrane Systems". Roof Coatings Manufacturers Association. http://www.roofcoatings.org/product.html#coldapplied.
30. ↑ "The benefits of liquid roofing". Why use liquid waterproofing. Liquid Roofing & Waterproofing Association. http://www.lrwa.org.uk/Why-use-Liquid-Waterproofing.
31. ↑ Rowell, Roger M. (2021-07-31). "Understanding Wood Surface Chemistry and Approaches to Modification: A Review" (in en). Polymers 13 (15): 2558. doi:10.3390/polym13152558. ISSN 2073-4360. PMID 34372161.
32. ↑ , Xiaohong; Jianming Xu & Yawei Xu et al."Wood coating composition"  patent WO2014190515A1, issued 2014-12-04
33. ↑ Hazir, Ender; Koc, Kücük Huseyin; Hazir, Ender; Koc, Kücük Huseyin (December 2019). "Evaluation of wood surface coating performance using water based, solvent based and powder coating". Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología 21 (4): 467–480. doi:10.4067/S0718-221X2019005000404. ISSN 0718-221X.
34. ↑ Désor, D.; Krieger, S.; Apitz, G.; Kuropka, R. (1999-10-01). "Water-borne acrylic dispersions for industrial wood coatings" (in en). Surface Coatings International 82 (10): 488–496. doi:10.1007/BF02692644. ISSN 1356-0751.
35. ↑ Podgorski, L.; Roux, M. (1999-12-01). "Wood modification to improve the durability of coatings" (in en). Surface Coatings International 82 (12): 590–596. doi:10.1007/BF02692672. ISSN 1356-0751.
36. ↑ Žigon, Jure; Kovač, Janez; Petrič, Marko (2022-01-01). "The influence of mechanical, physical and chemical pre-treatment processes of wood surface on the relationships of wood with a waterborne opaque coating" (in en). Progress in Organic Coatings 162. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2021.106574. ISSN 0300-9440.
37. ↑ Tafreshi, Mahshid; Allahkaram, Saeid Reza; Mahdavi, Soheil (2020-12-01). "Effect of PTFE on characteristics, corrosion, and tribological behavior of Zn–Ni electrodeposits". Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties 8 (4): 045013. doi:10.1088/2051-672X/ab9f05. ISSN 2051-672X. Bibcode: 2020SuTMP...8d5013T. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2051-672X/ab9f05.
38. ↑ Peng, Shiguang; Zhang, Lin; Xie, Guoxin; Guo, Yue; Si, Lina; Luo, Jianbin (2019-09-01). "Friction and wear behavior of PTFE coatings modified with poly (methyl methacrylate)" (in en). Composites Part B: Engineering 172: 316–322. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.04.047. ISSN 1359-8368. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359836818337119.
39. ↑ Mutyala, Kalyan C.; Singh, Harpal; Evans, R. D.; Doll, G. L. (23 June 2016). "Effect of Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings on Ball Bearing Performance in Normal, Oil-Starved, and Debris-Damaged Conditions". Tribology Transactions 59 (6): 1039–1047. doi:10.1080/10402004.2015.1131349.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Ashton 1995, p. 696.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Rogers, Neal (January 2012). "Architectural Coatings". in Koleske, Joseph V.. Paint and Coating Testing Manual: 15th Edition of the Gardner-Sward Handbook. doi:10.1520/MNL12240M. ISBN 978-0-8031-8891-4. http://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/MNL/PAGES/MNL12240M.htm. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
42. ↑ "Defining Architectural Paint Products for the Purposes of the Assessment". PaintCare. November 2012. http://www.paintcare.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/xx-definition-program-products.pdf.
43. ↑ Ashton 1995, pp. 701–702.
44. ↑ ((Editors of Family Handyman)), ed (2014). The Complete Do-it-Yourself Manual Newly Updated. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781621452010. https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Complete-Do-it-Yourself-Manual-Newly-Updated/Editors-Of-Family-Handyman/N-A/9781621452010. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
45. ↑ Cassé, Franck; Swain, Geoffrey W. (2006-04-01). "The development of microfouling on four commercial antifouling coatings under static and dynamic immersion" (in en). International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 57 (3): 179–185. doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2006.02.008. ISSN 0964-8305. Bibcode: 2006IBiBi..57..179C. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0964830506000394.
46. ↑ Chambers, L.D.; Stokes, K.R.; Walsh, F.C.; Wood, R.J.K. (December 2006). "Modern approaches to marine antifouling coatings". Surface and Coatings Technology 201 (6): 3642–3652. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2006.08.129. ISSN 0257-8972.
47. ↑ Yebra, Diego Meseguer; Kiil, Søren; Dam-Johansen, Kim (2004-07-01). "Antifouling technology—past, present and future steps towards efficient and environmentally friendly antifouling coatings" (in en). Progress in Organic Coatings 50 (2): 75–104. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2003.06.001. ISSN 0300-9440. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944003001644.
48. ↑ Salwiczek, Mario; Qu, Yue; Gardiner, James; Strugnell, Richard A.; Lithgow, Trevor; McLean, Keith M.; Thissen, Helmut (2014-02-01). "Emerging rules for effective antimicrobial coatings" (in English). Trends in Biotechnology 32 (2): 82–90. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2013.09.008. ISSN 0167-7799. PMID 24176168. https://www.cell.com/trends/biotechnology/abstract/S0167-7799(13)00207-2.
49. ↑ Anshel, Jeffrey (2005). Visual ergonomics handbook. CRC Press. p. 56. ISBN 1-56670-682-3.
50. ↑ Constantinides, Steve (2022-01-01), Croat, John; Ormerod, John, eds., "Chapter 11 - Permanent magnet coatings and testing procedures" (in en), Modern Permanent Magnets, Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials (Woodhead Publishing): pp. 371–402, doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-88658-1.00011-x, ISBN 978-0-323-88658-1, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978032388658100011X, retrieved 2022-11-14
51. ↑ Biehl, Philip; Von der Lühe, Moritz; Dutz, Silvio; Schacher, Felix H. (January 2018). "Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles Featuring Polyzwitterionic Coatings" (in en). Polymers 10 (1): 91. doi:10.3390/polym10010091. ISSN 2073-4360. PMID 30966126.
52. ↑ Abdolrahimi, Maryam; Vasilakaki, Marianna; Slimani, Sawssen; Ntallis, Nikolaos; Varvaro, Gaspare; Laureti, Sara; Meneghini, Carlo; Trohidou, Kalliopi N. et al. (July 2021). "Magnetism of Nanoparticles: Effect of the Organic Coating" (in en). Nanomaterials 11 (7): 1787. doi:10.3390/nano11071787. ISSN 2079-4991. PMID 34361173.
53. ↑ Liang, Shuyu; Neisius, N. Matthias; Gaan, Sabyasachi (2013-11-01). "Recent developments in flame retardant polymeric coatings" (in en). Progress in Organic Coatings 76 (11): 1642–1665. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2013.07.014. ISSN 0300-9440. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030094401300204X.
54. ↑ Gu, Jun-wei; Zhang, Guang-cheng; Dong, Shan-lai; Zhang, Qiu-yu; Kong, Jie (2007-06-25). "Study on preparation and fire-retardant mechanism analysis of intumescent flame-retardant coatings" (in en). Surface and Coatings Technology 201 (18): 7835–7841. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2007.03.020. ISSN 0257-8972. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0257897207003349.
55. ↑ Weil, Edward D. (May 2011). "Fire-Protective and Flame-Retardant Coatings - A State-of-the-Art Review" (in en). Journal of Fire Sciences 29 (3): 259–296. doi:10.1177/0734904110395469. ISSN 0734-9041. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734904110395469.
56. ↑ Naiker, Vidhukrishnan E.; Mestry, Siddhesh; Nirgude, Tejal; Gadgeel, Arjit; Mhaske, S. T. (2023-01-01). "Recent developments in phosphorous-containing bio-based flame-retardant (FR) materials for coatings: an attentive review" (in en). Journal of Coatings Technology and Research 20 (1): 113–139. doi:10.1007/s11998-022-00685-z. ISSN 1935-3804.
57. ↑ Puri, Ravindra G.; Khanna, A. S. (2017-01-01). "Intumescent coatings: A review on recent progress" (in en). Journal of Coatings Technology and Research 14 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1007/s11998-016-9815-3. ISSN 1935-3804.
58. ↑ Thomas, P. (1998-12-01). "The use of fluoropolymers for non-stick cooking utensils" (in en). Surface Coatings International 81 (12): 604–609. doi:10.1007/BF02693055. ISSN 1356-0751.
59. ↑ Yao, Junyi; Guan, Yiyang; Park, Yunhwan; Choi, Yoon E; Kim, Hyun Soo; Park, Jaewon (2021-03-04). "Optimization of PTFE Coating on PDMS Surfaces for Inhibition of Hydrophobic Molecule Absorption for Increased Optical Detection Sensitivity" (in en). Sensors 21 (5): 1754. doi:10.3390/s21051754. ISSN 1424-8220. PMID 33806281. Bibcode: 2021Senso..21.1754Y.
60. ↑ "Radiation-Cured Coatings Continue to Experience Growth" (in en). https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/june_2021/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1697302.
61. ↑ Walls, J. M. (1981-06-19). "The application of surface analytical techniques to thin films and surface coatings" (in en). Thin Solid Films 80 (1): 213–220. doi:10.1016/0040-6090(81)90224-8. ISSN 0040-6090. Bibcode: 1981TSF....80..213W.
62. ↑ Benninghoven, A. (1976-12-01). "Characterization of coatings" (in en). Thin Solid Films 39: 3–23. doi:10.1016/0040-6090(76)90620-9. ISSN 0040-6090. Bibcode: 1976TSF....39....3B.
63. ↑ Porter, Stuart C.; Felton, Linda A. (2010-01-21). "Techniques to assess film coatings and evaluate film-coated products". Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy 36 (2): 128–142. doi:10.3109/03639040903433757. ISSN 0363-9045. PMID 20050727.
64. ↑ Doménech-Carbó, María Teresa (2008-07-28). "Novel analytical methods for characterising binding media and protective coatings in artworks" (in en). Analytica Chimica Acta 621 (2): 109–139. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2008.05.056. ISSN 0003-2670. PMID 18573376. Bibcode: 2008AcAC..621..109D. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003267008009586.
65. ↑ Garcia-Ayuso, G.; Vázquez, L.; Martínez-Duart, J. M. (1996-03-01). "Atomic force microscopy (AFM) morphological surface characterization of transparent gas barrier coatings on plastic films" (in en). Surface and Coatings Technology 80 (1): 203–206. doi:10.1016/0257-8972(95)02712-2. ISSN 0257-8972.
66. ↑ Caniglia, Giada; Kranz, Christine (2020-09-01). "Scanning electrochemical microscopy and its potential for studying biofilms and antimicrobial coatings" (in en). Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 412 (24): 6133–6148. doi:10.1007/s00216-020-02782-7. ISSN 1618-2650. PMID 32691088.
67. ↑ Erich, S. J. F.; Laven, J.; Pel, L.; Huinink, H. P.; Kopinga, K. (2005-03-01). "Comparison of NMR and confocal Raman microscopy as coatings research tools" (in en). Progress in Organic Coatings 52 (3): 210–216. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2004.12.002. ISSN 0300-9440. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030094400400267X.
68. ↑ Revenko, A. G.; Tsvetyansky, A. L.; Eritenko, A. N. (2022-08-01). "X-ray fluorescence analysis of solid-state films, layers, and coatings" (in en). Radiation Physics and Chemistry 197. doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2022.110157. ISSN 0969-806X. Bibcode: 2022RaPC..19710157R. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969806X22001992.
69. ↑ Schorr, Brian S; Stein, Kevin J; Marder, Arnold R (1999-02-03). "Characterization of Thermal Spray Coatings" (in en). Materials Characterization 42 (2): 93–100. doi:10.1016/S1044-5803(98)00048-5. ISSN 1044-5803. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1044580398000485.
70. ↑ Martín Sánchez, A.; Nuevo, M. J.; Ojeda, M. A.; Guerra Millán, S.; Celestino, S.; Rodríguez González, E. (2020-02-01). "Analytical techniques applied to the study of mortars and coatings from the Tartessic archaeological site "El Turuñuelo" (Spain)" (in en). Radiation Physics and Chemistry. Special issue dedicated to the 14th International Symposium on Radiation Physics 167. doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2019.05.031. ISSN 0969-806X. Bibcode: 2020RaPC..16708341M. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969806X18313616.
71. ↑ Kravanja, Katja Andrina; Finšgar, Matjaž (December 2021). "Analytical Techniques for the Characterization of Bioactive Coatings for Orthopaedic Implants" (in en). Biomedicines 9 (12): 1936. doi:10.3390/biomedicines9121936. ISSN 2227-9059. PMID 34944750.
72. ↑ Cook, Desmond C. (2005-10-01). "Spectroscopic identification of protective and non-protective corrosion coatings on steel structures in marine environments" (in en). Corrosion Science. International Symposium on Corrosion and Protection of Marine Structures—in memory of the late Professor Toshihei Misawa 47 (10): 2550–2570. doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2004.10.018. ISSN 0010-938X. Bibcode: 2005Corro..47.2550C. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X05001186.
73. ↑ Lestido-Cardama, Antía; Vázquez-Loureiro, Patricia; Sendón, Raquel; Bustos, Juana; Santillana, Mª Isabel; Paseiro Losada, Perfecto; Rodríguez Bernaldo de Quirós, Ana (January 2022). "Characterization of Polyester Coatings Intended for Food Contact by Different Analytical Techniques and Migration Testing by LC-MSn" (in en). Polymers 14 (3): 487. doi:10.3390/polym14030487. ISSN 2073-4360. PMID 35160476.
74. ↑ Mansfield, Elisabeth; Tyner, Katherine M.; Poling, Christopher M.; Blacklock, Jenifer L. (2014-02-04). "Determination of Nanoparticle Surface Coatings and Nanoparticle Purity Using Microscale Thermogravimetric Analysis" (in en). Analytical Chemistry 86 (3): 1478–1484. doi:10.1021/ac402888v. ISSN 0003-2700. PMID 24400715. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ac402888v.
75. ↑ Müller, Bodo (2006). Coatings formulation: an international textbook. Urlich Poth. Hannover: Vincentz. ISBN 3-87870-177-2. OCLC 76886114.
76. ↑ Müller, Bodo (2006). Coatings formulation: an international textbook. Urlich Poth. Hannover: Vincentz. p. 19. ISBN 3-87870-177-2. OCLC 76886114.
77. ↑ "CoatingsTech - Novel Natural Additives for Surface Coatings" (in en). https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/library/item/july_2022/4025808/.
78. ↑ Puthran, Dayanand; Patil, Dilip (2023-01-01). "Usage of heavy metal-free compounds in surface coatings" (in en). Journal of Coatings Technology and Research 20 (1): 87–112. doi:10.1007/s11998-022-00648-4. ISSN 1935-3804.
79. ↑ Brizzi, Luca; Galbusera, Federico. ""Riduzione in situ del cromo esavalente mediante iniezione di substrati organici in acquifero"". https://www.politesi.polimi.it/retrieve/a81cb05b-9e75-616b-e053-1605fe0a889a/2015_12_Brizzi_Galbusera.pdf.
80. ↑ Fristad, W. E. (2000). "Epoxy Coatings for Automotive Corrosion Protection". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. doi:10.4271/2000-01-0617.
81. ↑ Zanier, Fabiana. ""Studio del processo di nichelatura chimica"". https://thesis.unipd.it/retrieve/b2309ec3-2fcc-4970-89ac-e50c42166fa1/STUDIO_DI_OTTIMIZZAZIONE_DI_UN_PROCESSO_DI_NICHELATURA_CHIMICA.pdf.
82. ↑ "Method of coating strip material" US patent 2681294, issued 1951-08-23
83. ↑ Beeker, L.Y. (March 2018). "Open-source parametric 3-D printed slot die system for thin film semiconductor processing". Additive Manufacturing 20: 90–100. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2017.12.004. ISSN 2214-8604. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02111388/file/Open-source_Parametric_3-D_Printed_Slot.pdf.
84. ↑ "Slot Die Coating - nTact" (in en-US). nTact. https://ntact.com/applications/slot-die-coating/.
85. ↑ "Open Source 3D printing cuts cost from $4,000 to only $0.25 says new study - 3D Printing Industry" (in en-US). 16 January 2018. https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/open-source-3d-printing-cuts-cost-4000-0-25-says-new-study-127484/.

## References

* Ashton, Harry E. (1995). "Architectural Coatings". in Koleske, Joseph V.. Paint and Coating Testing Manual: 14th Edition of the Gardner–Sward Handbook. ASTM International. ISBN 0803120605. https://books.google.com/books?id=ri6FkY2xvgcC. Retrieved 10 January 2016.

## Further reading

* Müller, Bodo (2006). Coatings formulation: an international textbook. Urlich Poth. Hannover: Vincentz. ISBN 3-87870-177-2. OCLC 76886114.
* Spyrou, Emmanouil (2012). Powder coatings chemistry and technology (3 ed.). Vincentz Network. ISBN 978-3-86630-884-8. OCLC 828194496.
* Titanium and titanium alloys, edited by C. Leyens and M. Peters, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 3-527-30534-3, table 6.2: overview of several coating systems and fabrication processes for titanium alloys and titanium aluminides (amended)
* Coating Materials for Electronic Applications: Polymers, Processes, Reliability, Testing by James J. Licari; William Andrew Publishing, Elsevier, ISBN 0-8155-1492-1
* High-Performance Organic Coatings, ed. AS Khanna, Elsevier BV, 2015, ISBN 978-1-84569-265-0

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Physics:Coating&oldid=4334787"