Diving physics

Short description: Aspects of physics which affect the underwater diver

Diving physics, or the physics of underwater diving, is the basic aspects of physics which describe the effects of the underwater environment on the underwater diver and their equipment, and the effects of blending, compressing, and storing breathing gas mixtures, and supplying them for use at ambient pressure. These effects are mostly consequences of immersion in water, the hydrostatic pressure of depth and the effects of pressure and temperature on breathing gases. An understanding of the physics behind is useful when considering the physiological effects of diving, breathing gas planning and management, diver buoyancy control and trim, and the hazards and risks of diving.

Changes in density of breathing gas affect the ability of the diver to breathe effectively, and variations in partial pressure of breathing gas constituents have profound effects on the health and ability to function underwater of the diver.

## Contents

* 1 Aspects of physics with particular relevance to diving
* 1.1 Buoyancy
* 1.2 Pressure
* 1.3 Gas property changes
* 1.4 Solubility of gases and diffusion
* 1.5 Density effects
* 1.6 Viscosity effects
* 1.7 Heat balance
* 1.8 Underwater vision
* 1.9 Underwater acoustics
* 2 Environmental physical phenomena of interest to divers
* 3 See also
* 4 References

## Aspects of physics with particular relevance to diving

The main laws of physics that describe the influence of the underwater diving environment on the diver and diving equipment include:

### Buoyancy

Archimedes' principle (Buoyancy) - Ignoring the minor effect of surface tension, an object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Thus, when in water, the weight of the volume of water displaced as compared to the weight of the diver's body and the diver's equipment, determine whether the diver floats or sinks.[1][2] Buoyancy control, and being able to maintain neutral buoyancy in particular, is an important safety skill. The diver needs to understand buoyancy to effectively and safely operate drysuits, buoyancy compensators, diving weighting systems and lifting bags.[3]

### Pressure

The concept of pressure as force distributed over area, and the variation of pressure with immersed depth are central to the understanding of the physiology of diving, particularly the physiology of decompression and of barotrauma.[4]

The absolute pressure on an ambient pressure diver is the sum of the local atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure.[5][6] Hydrostatic pressure is the component of ambient pressure due to the weight of the water column above the depth, and is commonly described in terms of metres or feet of sea water.[4]

The partial pressures of the component gases in a breathing gas mixture control the rate of diffusion into and out of the blood in the lungs, and their concentration in the arterial blood, and the concentration of blood gases affects their physiological effects in the body tissues. Partial pressure calculations are used in breathing gas blending and analysis[7]

A class of diving hazards commonly referred to as delta-P hazards are caused by a pressure difference other than variation of ambient pressure with depth. This pressure difference causes flow that may entrain the diver and carry them to places where injury could occur, such as the intake to a marine thruster or a sluice gate.[8]

### Gas property changes

Gas equations of state, which may be expressed in combination as the Combined gas law, or the Ideal gas law within the range of pressures normally encountered by divers, or as the traditionally expressed gas laws relating the relationships between two properties when the others are held constant, are used to calculate variations of pressure, volume and temperature, such as: Boyle's law, which describes the change in volume with a change in pressure at a constant temperature.[1] For example, the volume of gas in a non-rigid container (such as a diver's lungs or buoyancy compensation device), decreases as external pressure increases while the diver descends in the water. Likewise, the volume of gas in such non-rigid containers increases on the ascent. Changes in the volume of gases in the diver and the diver's equipment affect buoyancy. This creates a positive feedback loop on both ascent and descent. The quantity of open circuit gas breathed by a diver increases with pressure and depth.[6] Charles's law, which describes the change in volume with a change in temperature at a fixed pressure, Gay-Lussac's second law, which describes the change of pressure with a change of temperature for a fixed volume, (originally described by Guillaume Amontons, and sometimes called Amontons's law). This explains why a diver who enters cold water with a warm diving cylinder, for instance after a recent quick fill, finds the gas pressure of the cylinder drops by an unexpectedly large amount during the early part of the dive as the gas in the cylinder cools.[9][3]

In mixtures of breathing gases the concentration of the individual components of the gas mix is proportional to their partial pressures and volumetric gas fraction.[1] Gas fraction is constant for the components of a mixture, but partial pressure changes in proportion to changes in the total pressure. Partial pressure is a useful measure for expressing limits for avoiding nitrogen narcosis and oxygen toxicity.[6] Dalton's law describes the combination of partial pressures to form the total pressure of the mixture.[1]

Gases are highly compressible but liquids are almost incompressible. Gas spaces in the diver's body and gas held in flexible equipment contract as the diver descends and expand as the diver ascends.[10][6] When constrained from free expansion and contraction, gases will exert unbalanced pressure on the walls of their containment, which can cause damage or injury known as barotraum if excessive.[11]

### Solubility of gases and diffusion

Henry's law describes how as pressure increases the quantity of gas that can be dissolved in the tissues of the body increases.[12] This effect is involved in nitrogen narcosis, oxygen toxicity and decompression sickness.[6]

Concentration of gases dissolved in the body tissues affects a number of physiological processed and is influenced by diffusion rates, solubility of the components of the breathing gas in the tissues of the body and pressure. Given sufficient time under a specific pressure, tissues will saturate with the gases, and no more will be absorbed until the pressure increases. When the pressure decreases faster than the dissolved gas can be eliminated, the concentration rises and supersaturation occurs, and pre-existing bubble nuclei may grow. Bubble formation and growth in decompression sickness is affected by surface tension of the bubbles, as well as pressure changes and supersaturation.[3][4]

### Density effects

The density of the breathing gas is proportional to absolute pressure, and affects the breathing performance of regulators and the work of breathing, which affect the capacity of the diver to work, and in extreme cases, to breathe. Density of the water, the diver's body, and equipment, determines the diver's apparent weight in water, and therefore their buoyancy, and influences the use of buoyant equipment.[13] Density and the force of gravity are the factors in the generation of hydrostatic pressure. Divers use high density materials such as lead for diving weighting systems and low density materials such as air in buoyancy compensators and lifting bags.[6]

### Viscosity effects

The absolute (dynamic) viscosity of water is higher (order of 100 times) than that of air.[14] This increases the drag on an object moving through water, and more effort is required for propulsion in water than air relative to the speed of movement. Viscosity also affects the work of breathing.[15]

### Heat balance

Thermal conductivity of water is higher than that of air.[16] As water conducts heat 20 times more than air, and has a much higher thermal capacity, heat transfer from a diver's body to water is faster than to air, and to avoid excessive heat loss leading to hypothermia, thermal insulation in the form of diving suits, or active heating is used. Gases used in diving have very different thermal conductivities; Heliox, and to a lesser extent, trimix, conducts heat faster than air because of the helium content, and argon conducts heat slower than air, so technical divers breathing gases containing helium may inflate their dry suits with argon.[17][18] Some thermal conductivity values at 25 °C and sea level atmospheric pressure: argon: 16 mW/m/K; air: 26 mW/m/K; neoprene: 50 mW/m/K; wool felt: 70 mW/m/K; helium: 142 mW/m/K; water: 600 mW/m/K.[16]

### Underwater vision

Comparison of penetration of light of different wavelengths in the open ocean and coastal waters

Underwater vision is affected by the refractive index of water, which is similar to that of the cornea of the eye, and which is about 30% greater than air. Snell's law describes the angle of refraction relative to the angle of incidence.[19] This similarity in refractive index is the reason a diver cannot see clearly underwater without a diving mask with an internal airspace.[3] Absorption of light depends on wavelength, this causes loss of colour underwater.[20][21] The red end of the spectrum of light is absorbed over a short distance, and is lost even in shallow water.[20] Divers use artificial light underwater to reveal these absorbed colours. In deeper water no light from the surface penetrates, and artificial lighting is necessary to see at all.[6] Underwater vision is also affected by turbidity, which causes scattering, and dissolved materials which absorb light.[22]

### Underwater acoustics

Underwater acoustics affect the ability of the diver to hear through the hood of the diving suit or the helmet, and the ability to judge the direction of a source of sound.[23]

## Environmental physical phenomena of interest to divers

Graph showing a tropical ocean thermocline (depth vs. temperature)

The physical phenomena found in large bodies of water that may have a practical influence on divers include:

* Effects of weather such as wind, which causes waves, and changes of temperature and atmospheric pressure on and in the water. Even moderately high winds can prevent diving because of the increased risk of becoming lost at sea or injured. Low water temperatures make it necessary for divers to wear diving suits and can cause problems such as freezing of diving regulators.[3][6]
* Haloclines, or strong, vertical salinity gradients. For instance, where fresh water enters the sea, the fresh water floats over the denser saline water and may not mix immediately. Sometimes visual effects, such as shimmering and reflection, occur at the boundary between the layers, because the refractive indices differ.[3]
* Ocean currents can transport water over thousands of kilometres, and may bring water with different temperature and salinity into a region. Some ocean currents have a huge effect on local climate, for instance the warm water of the North Atlantic drift moderates the climate of the north west coast of Europe. The speed of water movement can affect dive planning and safety.[3][6]
* Thermoclines, or sudden changes in temperature. Where the air temperature is higher than the water temperature, shallow water may be warmed by the air and the sunlight but deeper water remains cold resulting in a lowering of temperature as the diver descends. This temperature change may be concentrated over a small vertical interval, when it is called a thermocline.[3][6]
* Where cold, fresh water enters a warmer sea the fresh water may float over the denser saline water, so the temperature rises as the diver descends.[3]
* In lakes exposed to geothermal activity, the temperature of the deeper water may be warmer than the surface water. This will usually lead to convection currents.[3]
* Water at near-freezing temperatures is less dense than slightly warmer water - maximum density of water is at about 4 °C - so when near freezing, water may be slightly warmer at depth than at the surface.[3]
* Tidal currents and changes in sea level caused by gravitational forces and the Earth's rotation. Some dive sites can only be dived safely at slack water when the tidal cycle reverses and the current slows. Strong currents can cause problems for divers. Buoyancy control can be difficult when a strong current meets a vertical surface. Divers consume more breathing gas when swimming against currents. Divers on the surface can be separated from their boat cover by currents. On the other hand, drift diving is only possible when there is a reasonable current.[3][6]

## See also

* Physics:Ambient pressure - Pressure of the surrounding medium
* Physics:Atmospheric pressure - Static pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere
* Physics:Buoyancy
* Physics:Pressure

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Acott, C. (1999). "The diving "Law-ers": A brief resume of their lives.". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal 29. ISSN 0813-1988. OCLC 16986801.
2. ↑ Taylor, Larry "Harris". "Practical Buoyancy Control". University of Michigan. http://www-personal.umich.edu/~lpt/practical.htm.
3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 NOAA Diving Program (U.S.) (28 Feb 2001). Joiner, James T.. ed. NOAA Diving Manual, Diving for Science and Technology (4th ed.). Silver Spring, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, National Undersea Research Program. ISBN 978-0-941332-70-5. https://archive.org/details/noaadivingmanual00noaa. CD-ROM prepared and distributed by the National Technical Information Service (NTIS)in partnership with NOAA and Best Publishing Company
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 US Navy (1 December 2016). U.S. Navy Diving Manual Revision 7 SS521-AG-PRO-010 0910-LP-115-1921. Washington, DC.: US Naval Sea Systems Command. https://www.navsea.navy.mil/Portals/103/Documents/SUPSALV/Diving/US DIVING MANUAL_REV7.pdf?ver=2016-12-14-135043-757.
5. ↑ "Pressure". Oracle ThinkQuest. http://library.thinkquest.org/28170/32.html.
6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 Scully, Reg (April 2013). CMAS-ISA Three Star Diver Theoretical Manual (1st ed.). Pretoria: CMAS-Instructors South Africa. ISBN 978-0-620-57025-1.
7. ↑ "Trimix Gas Blender Training Programme". CMAS Training standards. World Underwater Federation (CMAS). 2012. http://www.cmas.org/sitemap/trimix-gas-blender-training-programme.
8. ↑ Guideline for Diving Operations at dams and other work sites where Delta P hazards may exist. Canadian Association of Diving Contractors. 17 October 2011. http://www.cadc.ca/downloads/DeltaPHazards_CADC.pdf.
9. ↑ "Amonton's Law". Purdue University. http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch4/gaslaws3.html#amonton.
10. ↑ "Compressibility and Ideal Gas Approximations". UNC-Chapel Hill. http://www.shodor.org/unchem/advanced/gas/compress.html.
11. ↑ Neuman, T.S. (2003). "Arterial gas embolism and pulmonary barotrauma". in Brubakk, A.O.; Neuman, T.S.. Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving (5th Rev ed.). United States: Saunders. pp. 558–61. ISBN 978-0-7020-2571-6.
12. ↑ "Henry's Law". Online Medical Dictionary. http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?Henry's+law.
13. ↑ "Density and the Diver". Diving with Deep-Six. http://www.deep-six.com/page69.htm.
14. ↑ Dougherty, R.L.; Franzini, J.B. (1977). Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications (7th ed.). Kogakusha: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-085144-3.
15. ↑ Mitchell, Simon (2015). "Respiratory failure in technical diving". DAN Southern Africa. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBajM3xmOtc.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Thermal Conductivity of some common Materials". The Engineering Toolbax. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html.
17. ↑ Nuckols, M.L.; Giblo, J; Wood-Putnam, J.L. (September 15–18, 2008). "Thermal Characteristics of Diving Garments When Using Argon as a Suit Inflation Gas.". Proceedings of the Oceans 08 MTS/IEEE Quebec, Canada Meeting (MTS/IEEE).
18. ↑ Maiken, Eric. "Why Argon". http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Why_Argon.htm.
19. ↑ "Snell's Law". scienceworld.wolfram. http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/SnellsLaw.html.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Luria, S.M.; Kinney, J.A. (March 1970). "Underwater vision". Science 167 (3924): 1454–61. doi:10.1126/science.167.3924.1454. PMID 5415277. Bibcode: 1970Sci...167.1454L.
21. ↑ Braun, Charles L.; Smirnov, Sergei N. (1993). "Why is Water Blue". J. Chem. Educ. 70 (8): 612. doi:10.1021/ed070p612. Bibcode: 1993JChEd..70..612B. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
22. ↑ Luria, S. M.; Kinney, J. A. (December 1974). "Linear polarizing filters and underwater vision". Undersea Biomedical Research 1 (4): 371–8. PMID 4469103.
23. ↑ Charité (21 June 2024). "Scientists solve the puzzle of directional hearing underwater". https://phys.org/news/2024-06-scientists-puzzle-underwater.html.

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Underwater diving

* Diving modes
* Atmospheric pressure diving
* Freediving
* Saturation diving
* Scuba diving
* Snorkeling
* Surface-supplied diving
* Unmanned diving

Diving equipment

| Basic equipment|

* Diving mask
* Snorkel
* Swimfin

|

Breathing gas|

* Bailout gas
* Bottom gas
* Breathing air
* Decompression gas
* Emergency gas supply
* Heliox
* Nitrox
* Oxygen
* Travel gas
* Trimix

Buoyancy and
trim equipment|

* Buoyancy control device
* Power inflator
* Dump valve
* Diving weighting system
* Ankle weights
* Integrated weights
* Trim weights
* Weight belt

Decompression
equipment|

* Decompression buoy
* Decompression cylinder
* Decompression trapeze
* Dive computer
* Diving shot
* Jonline

Environmental
protection|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving suit
* Dry suit
* Sladen suit
* Standard diving suit
* Rash vest
* Wetsuit
* Dive skins
* Hot-water suit

Helmets
and masks|

* Anti-fog
* Diving helmet
* Free-flow helmet
* Lightweight demand helmet
* Reclaim helmet
* Standard diving helmet
* Diving mask
* Band mask
* Half mask
* Full-face mask

Instrumentation|

* Bottom timer
* Depth gauge
* Dive computer
* Dive timer
* Diving compass
* Diving watch
* Pneumofathometer
* Submersible pressure gauge

Mobility
equipment|

* Diving bell
* Closed bell
* Wet bell
* Diving stage
* Diver propulsion vehicle
* Advanced SEAL Delivery System
* Cosmos CE2F series
* Dry Combat Submersible
* Human torpedo
* Motorised Submersible Canoe
* R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
* SEAL Delivery Vehicle
* Shallow Water Combat Submersible
* Siluro San Bartolomeo
* Wet Nellie
* Wet sub
* Necker Nymph
* Swimfins
* Monofin
* Towboard

Safety
equipment|

* Alternative air source
* Bailout block
* Bailout bottle
* Bolt snap
* Buddy line
* Distance line
* Dive light
* Dive reel
* Diver's cutting tool
* Diver's knife
* Diver's telephone
* Through-water communications
* Diving bell
* Diving safety harness
* Emergency gas supply
* Lifeline
* Screw gate carabiner
* Line marker
* Octopus regulator
* Pony bottle
* Rescue tether
* Safety helmet
* Shark-proof cage
* Surface marker buoy
* Personal locator beacon

Underwater
breathing
apparatus|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving cylinder
* Burst disc
* Diving cylinder valve
* Diving helmet
* Diving regulator
* Single-hose regulator
* Twin-hose regulator
* Regulator malfunction
* Regulator freeze
* Full face diving mask
* Reclaim helmet
* Open-circuit scuba
* Scuba set
* Bailout bottle
* Decompression cylinder
* Independent doubles
* Manifolded twin set
* Scuba manifold
* Pony bottle
* Sidemount
* Sling cylinder
* Scuba replacement
* Standard diving dress
* Diving rebreather
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Carleton CDBA
* CDLSE
* Cis-Lunar
* Cryogenic rebreather
* CUMA
* DSEA
* Dolphin
* Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
* FROGS
* Halcyon PVR-BASC
* Halcyon RB80
* IDA71
* Interspiro DCSC
* KISS
* LAR-5
* LAR-6
* LAR-V
* LARU
* Porpoise
* Dräger Ray
* Siebe Gorman CDBA
* Siva
* Viper
* Surface-supplied diving equipment
* Air line
* Diver's umbilical
* Diving air compressor
* Hookah
* Sea Trek
* Snuba
* Standard diving dress

Diving
equipment
manufacturers|

* AP Diving
* Apeks
* Aqua Lung America
* Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
* Beuchat
* René Cavalero
* Cressi-Sub
* Dacor
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* Dive Xtras
* Divex
* Diving Unlimited International
* Drägerwerk
* Fenzy
* Maurice Fernez
* Technisub
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* HeinrichsWeikamp
* Johnson Outdoors
* Mares
* Morse Diving
* Nemrod
* Oceanic Worldwide
* Porpoise
* Sub Sea Systems
* Shearwater Research
* Siebe Gorman
* Submarine Products
* Suunto

Diving support equipment

| Breathing gas|

* Air filtration
* Booster pump
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Cascade filling system
* Diver's pump
* Diving air compressor
* Diving air filter
* High pressure breathing air compressor
* Low pressure breathing air compressor
* Gas blending
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Gas panel
* Gas reclaim system
* Gas storage bank
* Gas storage quad
* Gas storage tube
* Helium analyzer
* Nitrox production
* Membrane method of gas concentration
* Pressure swing adsorption
* Oxygen analyser
* Oxygen compatibility

|

Decompression
equipment|

* Built-in breathing system
* Decompression tables
* Dive computer
* Diving bell
* Bell cursor
* Closed bell
* Clump weight
* Launch and recovery system
* Wet bell
* Diving chamber
* Diving stage
* Jersey upline
* Recreational Dive Planner
* Saturation system

Platforms|

* Dive boat
* Boarding stirrup
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Combat Rubber Raiding Craft
* Diving platform (scuba)
* Liveaboard
* Subskimmer
* Diving support vessel
* HMS Challenger (K07)
* Moon pool
* Underwater habitat
* Aquarius Reef Base
* Continental Shelf Station Two
* Helgoland Habitat
* Jules' Undersea Lodge
* Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
* SEALAB
* Tektite habitat

Remotely operated
underwater vehicles|

* 8A4-class ROUV
* ABISMO
* Atlantis ROV Team
* CURV
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* Goldfish-class ROUV
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* Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
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* Seabed tractor
* Seafox drone
* Seahorse ROUV
* SeaPerch
* SJT-class ROUV
* T1200 Trenching Unit
* VideoRay UROVs

Safety equipment|

* Diver down flag
* Diving shot
* Hyperbaric lifeboat
* Hyperbaric stretcher
* Jackstay
* Jonline
* Reserve gas supply

General|

* Diving ladder
* Hot water system
* Downline

Freediving

| Activities|

* Aquathlon
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Haenyeo
* Pearl hunting
* Ama
* Snorkeling
* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater ice hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

|

Competitions|

* Nordic Deep
* Vertical Blue
* Disciplines
* Constant weight (CWT)
* Constant weight without fins (CNF)
* Dynamic apnea (DYN)
* Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
* Free immersion (FIM)
* No-limits apnea (NLT)
* Static apnea (STA)
* Skandalopetra diving
* Variable weight apnea (VWT)
* Variable weight apnea without fins

Equipment|

* Diving mask
* Diving suit
* Fins
* Hawaiian sling
* Monofin
* Polespear
* Snorkel (swimming)
* Speargun
* Water polo cap

Freedivers|

* Deborah Andollo
* Peppo Biscarini
* Sara Campbell
* Derya Can Göçen
* Goran Čolak
* Carlos Coste
* Robert Croft
* Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
* Yasemin Dalkılıç
* Leonardo D'Imporzano
* Flavia Eberhard
* Şahika Ercümen
* Emma Farrell
* Francisco Ferreras
* Pierre Frolla
* Flavia Eberhard
* Mehgan Heaney-Grier
* Elisabeth Kristoffersen
* Loïc Leferme
* Enzo Maiorca
* Jacques Mayol
* Audrey Mestre
* Karol Meyer
* Stéphane Mifsud
* Alexey Molchanov
* Natalia Molchanova
* Dave Mullins
* Patrick Musimu
* Guillaume Néry
* Herbert Nitsch
* Umberto Pelizzari
* Annelie Pompe
* Michal Risian
* Stig Severinsen
* Tom Sietas
* Aharon Solomons
* Martin Štěpánek
* Walter Steyn
* Tanya Streeter
* William Trubridge
* Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
* Danai Varveri
* Alessia Zecchini
* Nataliia Zharkova

Hazards|

* Barotrauma
* Drowning
* Freediving blackout
* Deep-water blackout
* Shallow-water blackout
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Historical|

* Ama
* Octopus wrestling
* Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming

Organisations|

* AIDA International
* Scuba Schools International
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* Performance Freediving International

Professional diving

| Occupations|

* Ama
* Commercial diving
* Commercial offshore diving
* Hazmat diving
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Diving safety officer
* Diving supervisor
* Haenyeo
* Media diving
* Underwater photography
* Underwater videography
* Military diving
* Army engineer diver
* Clearance diver
* Frogman
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Scientific diving
* Underwater archaeology

|

Underwater work|

* Commercial offshore diving
* Dive guide
* Diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Hyperbaric welding
* Nondestructive testing
* Pearl hunting
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Salvage diving
* Scientific diving
* Sponge diving
* Submarine pipeline
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater demolition
* Underwater photography
* Underwater search and recovery
* Underwater videography

Tools & equipment|

* Abrasive waterjet
* Airlift
* In-water surface cleaning
* Brush cart
* Cavitation cleaning
* Pressure washing
* Lifting bag
* Remotely operated underwater vehicle
* Silt screw
* Snoopy loop
* Thermal lance
* Tremie
* Water jetting

Underwater
weapons|

* Limpet mine
* Speargun
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear

| Underwater
firearm|

* Gyrojet
* Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
* Powerhead
* Underwater pistols
* Heckler & Koch P11
* SPP-1 underwater pistol
* Underwater revolvers
* AAI underwater revolver
* Underwater rifles
* ADS amphibious rifle
* APS underwater rifle
* ASM-DT amphibious rifle

|

Recreational diving

| Specialties|

* Altitude diving
* Cave diving
* Deep diving
* Ice diving
* Muck diving
* Open-water diving
* Rebreather diving
* Sidemount diving
* Solo diving
* Technical diving
* Wreck diving

|

Diver
organisations|

* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)

Diving tourism
industry|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Scuba diving tourism
* Shark tourism
* Sinking ships for wreck diving sites

Recreational
dive sites|

| Reef diving
regions|

* Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park
* Great Barrier Reef
* iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area
* Poor Knights Islands
* Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area

|

Reef dive
sites|

* Artificial reef
* Gibraltar Artificial Reef
* Shark River Reef
* Osborne Reef
* Palancar Reef
* Underwater artworks
* Cancún Underwater Museum
* Christ of the Abyss
* The Diver
* Molinere Underwater Sculpture Park

Wreck diving
regions|

* Chuuk Lagoon
* Maritime Heritage Trail – Battle of Saipan
* Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
* Wreck Alley, San Diego

Wreck dive
sites|

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* Fujikawa Maru
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* USNS General Hoyt S. Vandenberg
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* Zingara

Cave diving
sites|

* Devil's Throat at Punta Sur
* Engelbrecht
* Fossil Cave
* Piccaninnie Ponds
* Pollatoomary
* Sistema Ox Bel Ha
* Sistema Sac Actun
* Sistema Dos Ojos
* Sistema Nohoch Nah Chich

Freshwater
dives|

* Ewens Ponds
* Little Blue Lake

Training sites|

* Capernwray Dive Centre
* National Diving and Activity Centre
* Stoney Cove

Open ocean
diving|

* Blue-water diving
* Black-water diving

Diving safety

* Ergonomics of diving equipment
* Human factors in diving safety
* Life support system
* Safety-critical system

| Diving hazards|

* Trait anxiety
* Cold shock response
* Decompression
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Nitrogen narcosis
* Overconfidence effect
* Oxygen toxicity
* Panic
* Penetration diving
* Seasickness
* Silt out
* Single point of failure
* Task loading
* Uncontrolled decompression

|

Consequences|

* Barotrauma
* Decompression sickness
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Risk
management|

* Checklist
* Hazard identification and risk assessment
* Hazard analysis
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Risk control
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Incident pit
* Lockout-tagout
* Permit To Work
* Redundancy
* Safety data sheet
* Situation awareness
* Diving team
* Bellman
* Chamber operator
* Diver's attendant
* Diving supervisor
* Diving systems technician
* Life support technician
* Stand-by diver
* Equipment safety
* Breathing gas quality
* Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
* Hydrostatic test
* Sustained load cracking
* Diving regulators
* Breathing performance of regulators
* Occupational safety and health
* Approaches to safety
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Toolbox talk
* Housekeeping
* Association of Diving Contractors International
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving regulations
* Emergency procedure
* Emergency response plan
* Evacuation plan
* Hazardous Materials Identification System
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Administrative controls
* Engineering controls
* Hazard elimination
* Hazard substitution
* Personal protective equipment
* International Marine Contractors Association
* Occupational hazard
* Biological hazard
* Chemical hazard
* Physical hazard
* Psychosocial hazard
* Occupational hygiene
* Exposure assessment
* Occupational exposure limit
* Workplace health surveillance
* Safety culture
* Code of practice
* Health and safety representative
* Operations manual
* Safety meeting
* Standard operating procedure

Diving
procedures|

* Ascending and descending
* Emergency ascent
* Boat diving
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Buddy diving
* Decompression
* Decompression practice
* Pyle stop
* Ratio decompression
* Dive briefing
* Dive log
* Dive planning
* Scuba gas planning
* Diver communications
* Diving hand signals
* Diving line signals
* Diver voice communications
* Diver rescue
* Diver training
* Doing It Right
* Drift diving
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Night diving
* Solo diving
* Water safety

Incidents|

| Diver rescues|

* Tham Luang cave rescue

|

Early diving|

* John Day (carpenter)
* Charles Spalding
* Ebenezer Watson

Freediving|

* Loïc Leferme
* Audrey Mestre
* Nicholas Mevoli
* Natalia Molchanova

Professional
diving|

* Johnson Sea Link accident
* Offshore diving incidents
* Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
* Drill Master diving accident
* Star Canopus diving accident
* Venture One diving accident
* Waage Drill II diving accident
* Wildrake diving accident
* Professional diver fatalities
* Roger Baldwin
* John Bennett
* Victor F. Guiel Jr.
* Craig M. Hoffman
* Peter Henry Michael Holmes
* Edwin Clayton Link
* Gerard Anthony Prangley
* Pier Skipness
* Robert John Smyth
* Albert D. Stover
* Richard A. Walker
* Lothar Michael Ward
* Joachim Wendler
* Death of Bradley Westell
* Arne Zetterström

Scuba diving
fatalities|

* Ricardo Armbruster
* Allan Bridge
* David Bright
* Berry L. Cannon
* Cotton Coulson
* Cláudio Coutinho
* E. Yale Dawson
* Deon Dreyer
* Milan Dufek
* Sheck Exley
* Maurice Fargues
* Guy Garman
* Steve Irwin
* Jim Jones
* Henry Way Kendall
* Artur Kozłowski
* Chris and Chrissy Rouse
* Kirsty MacColl
* Agnes Milowka
* François de Roubaix
* Dave Shaw
* Wesley C. Skiles
* Dewey Smith
* Rob Stewart
* Esbjörn Svensson
* Josef Velek

Diving medicine

| Diving
disorders|

* List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
* Cramps
* Motion sickness
* Surfer's ear

| Pressure
related|

* Aerosinusitis
* Air embolism
* Alternobaric vertigo
* Barodontalgia
* Barostriction
* Barotrauma
* Compression arthralgia
* Decompression illness
* Dental barotrauma
* Dysbarism
* Pulmonary barotrauma

| Oxygen|

* Freediving blackout
* Hyperoxia
* Hypoxia
* Oxygen toxicity

|

Inert gases|

* Avascular necrosis
* Decompression sickness
* Isobaric counterdiffusion
* Taravana
* Dysbaric osteonecrosis
* High-pressure nervous syndrome
* Hydrogen narcosis
* Nitrogen narcosis

Carbon dioxide|

* Hypercapnia
* Hypocapnia

Breathing gas
contaminants|

* Carbon monoxide poisoning

Immersion
related|

* Asphyxia
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Immersion diuresis
* Instinctive drowning response
* Laryngospasm
* Salt water aspiration syndrome
* Swimming-induced pulmonary edema

Treatment|

* Demand valve oxygen therapy
* First Aid
* Hyperbaric medicine
* Hyperbaric treatment schedules
* In-water recompression
* Oxygen therapy
* Therapeutic recompression

Personnel|

* Diving Medical Examiner
* Diving Medical Practitioner
* Diving Medical Technician
* Hyperbaric nursing

Screening|

* Atrial septal defect
* Fitness to dive
* Psychological fitness to dive

Research|

| Researchers in
diving physiology
and medicine|

* Arthur J. Bachrach
* Albert R. Behnke
* Paul Bert
* George F. Bond
* Robert Boyle
* Albert A. Bühlmann
* John R. Clarke
* Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
* William Paul Fife
* John Scott Haldane
* Robert William Hamilton Jr.
* Leonard Erskine Hill
* Brian Andrew Hills
* Felix Hoppe-Seyler
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Simon Mitchell
* Charles Momsen
* John Rawlins R.N.
* Charles Wesley Shilling
* Edward D. Thalmann
* Jacques Triger

|

Diving medical
research
organisations|

* Aerospace Medical Association
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
* Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
* European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
* European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
* National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
* Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
* Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
* Rubicon Foundation
* South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
* Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
* Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
* United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)

Law

* Civil liability in recreational diving
* Duty of care
* List of legislation regulating underwater diving
* Investigation of diving accidents

History of underwater diving

* Aqua-Lung
* History of decompression research and development
* History of scuba diving
* List of researchers in underwater diving
* Porpoise regulator
* Standard diving dress
* Timeline of diving technology
* Underwater diving in popular culture
* Vintage scuba

Publications

| Manuals|

* NOAA Diving Manual
* U.S. Navy Diving Manual
* Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival

|

Standards and
Codes of Practice|

* DIN 7876

General non-fiction|

* The Darkness Beckons
* Goldfinder
* The Last Dive
* Shadow Divers

Training and registration

| Diver
training|

* Diving instructor
* Diving school
* Occupational diver training
* Commercial diver training
* Military diver training
* Public safety diver training
* Scientific diver training
* Competence and assessment
* Competency-based learning
* Skill assessment
* Refresher training (diving)
* Diver training standard
* Recreational diver training
* Introductory diving
* Skills
* Diver navigation
* Diver trim
* Ear clearing
* Frenzel maneuver
* Valsalva maneuver
* Finning techniques
* Scuba skills
* Buddy breathing
* Low impact diving
* Diamond Reef System
* Surface-supplied diving skills
* Underwater searches
* Teaching methods
* Muscle memory
* Overtraining
* Stress exposure training

|

Organisations|

* European Underwater Federation (EUF)
* International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
* International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
* International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
* List of diver certification organizations
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Universal Referral Program
* World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)

| Commercial diver
certification
authorities|

* Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
* Commercial diver registration in South Africa
* Divers Institute of Technology
* Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
* Department of Employment and Labour

|

Commercial diving
schools|

* Divers Academy International

Free-diving
certification
agencies|

* AIDA International (AIDA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Performance Freediving International (PI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)

Recreational scuba
certification
agencies|

* American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* International Diving Educators Association (IDEA)
* Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
* Scuba Diving International (SDI)
* Scuba Educators International (SEI)
* Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* United Diving Instructors (UDI)
* YMCA SCUBA Program

Recreational scuba
certification
levels|

* Advanced Open Water Diver
* Autonomous diver
* CMAS* scuba diver
* CMAS** scuba diver
* Dive leader
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Introductory diving
* Low Impact Diver
* Master Instructor
* Master Scuba Diver
* Open Water Diver
* Rescue Diver
* Solo diver
* Supervised diver

Scientific diver
certification
authorities|

* American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
* CMAS Scientific Committee

Technical
certification
agencies|

* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)
* Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
* Technical Extended Range (TXR)

| Cave
diving|

* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)

|

Underwater sports

| Surface snorkeling|

* Finswimming (surface swimming & bi-fins)

|

Snorkeling/breath-hold|

* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

Breath-hold|

* Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Underwater ice hockey

Open Circuit Scuba|

* Immersion finswimming
* Sport diving (sport)
* Underwater orienteering
* Underwater photography (sport)

Rebreather|

* Underwater photography (sport)

Sports governing
organisations|

* International
* AIDA International
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
* National
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Octopush Association
* British Underwater Sports Association
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* South African Underwater Sports Federation
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
* Underwater Society of America)

Freediver Federations|

* AIDA International
* AIDA Hellas
* British Freediving Association (BFA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)

Sports federations|

* Australian Underwater Federation (AUF)
* British Octopush Association (BOA)
* British Underwater Sports Association (BUSA)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* South African Underwater Sports Federation (SAUSF)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* Underwater Society of America (USOA)

Underwater divers

| Pioneers of diving|

* Aquanaut
* Jacques Cousteau
* Hans Hass
* Arne Zetterström

|

Underwater scientists and archaeologists|

* Michael Arbuthnot
* Robert Ballard
* George Bass
* Mensun Bound
* Louis Boutan
* Hugh Bradner
* Cathy Church
* Eugenie Clark
* James P. Delgado
* Sylvia Earle
* John Christopher Fine
* George R. Fischer
* Anders Franzén
* Honor Frost
* David Gibbins
* Robert F. Marx
* Charles T. Meide
* Mark M. Newell
* John Peter Oleson
* Margaret Rule
* Gunter Schöbel
* E. Lee Spence
* Robert Sténuit
* Peter Throckmorton

Scuba record holders|

* Sheck Exley
* Nuno Gomes

Underwater filmmakers|

* Samir Alhafith
* David Attenborough
* Ramón Bravo
* Ivan Tors
* Andrew Wight

Underwater photographers|

* Tamara Benitez
* Georges Beuchat
* Adrian Biddle
* Jonathan Bird
* Eric Cheng
* Neville Coleman
* Jacques Cousteau
* John D. Craig
* Ben Cropp
* Bernard Delemotte
* David Doubilet
* John Christopher Fine
* Dermot FitzGerald
* Rodney Fox
* Ric Frazier
* Stephen Frink
* Peter Gimbel
* Monty Halls
* Hans Hass
* Henry Way Kendall
* Rudie Kuiter
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Luis Marden
* Agnes Milowka
* Noel Monkman
* Steve Parish
* Zale Parry
* Pierre Petit
* Leni Riefenstahl
* Peter Scoones
* Brian Skerry
* Wesley C. Skiles
* E. Lee Spence
* Philippe Tailliez
* Ron and Valerie Taylor
* Albert Tillman
* John Veltri
* Stan Waterman
* Jiang Wenhao
* Michele Westmorland
* John Ernest Williamson
* J. Lamar Worzel

Underwater explorers|

* Caves
* Sheck Exley
* Martyn Farr
* Jill Heinerth
* William Hogarth Main
* Rick Stanton
* Bill Stone
* John Volanthen
* Reefs
*   * Wrecks
* Clive Cussler
* Aristotelis Zervoudis

Science of underwater diving

| Diving
physics|

* Breathing performance of regulators
* Buoyancy
* Archimedes' principle
* Neutral buoyancy
* Diffusion
* Molecular diffusion
* Force
* Gas law
* Amontons's law
* Boyle's law
* Charles's law
* Combined gas law
* Dalton's law
* Gay-Lussac's law
* Ideal gas law
* Oxygen fraction
* Permeation
* Pressure
* Absolute pressure
* Ambient pressure
* Atmospheric pressure
* Gauge pressure
* Hydrostatic pressure
* Metre sea water
* Partial pressure
* Psychrometric constant
* Solubility
* Henry's law
* Saturation
* Solution
* Supersaturation
* Surface tension
* Hydrophobe
* Surfactant
* Torricellian chamber
* Underwater vision
* Snell's law
* Weight
* Apparent weight

|

Diving
physiology|

* Artificial gills
* Circulatory system
* Blood shift
* Patent foramen ovale
* Perfusion
* Systemic circulation
* Cold shock response
* Diving reflex
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Lipid
* Maximum operating depth
* Metabolism
* Physiological response to water immersion
* Respiration
* Blood–air barrier
* Breathing
* CO₂ retention
* dead space
* Gas exchange
* Hypocapnia
* Normocapnia
* Respiratory exchange ratio
* Respiratory quotient
* Respiratory system
* Work of breathing
* Tissue
* Underwater vision

| Decompression
theory|

* Decompression models:
* Bühlmann decompression algorithm
* Haldane's decompression model
* Reduced gradient bubble model
* Thalmann algorithm
* Thermodynamic model of decompression
* Varying Permeability Model
* Equivalent air depth
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Maximum operating depth
* Oxygen window in diving decompression
* Physiology of decompression
* Pulmonary circulation

|

Diving
environment|

| Diving
environment
classification|

* Altitude diving
* Benign water diving
* Confined water diving
* Deep diving
* Inland diving
* Inshore diving
* Muck diving
* Night diving
* Open water diving
* Open ocean diving
* Black-water diving
* Blue-water diving
* Penetration diving
* Cave diving
* Ice diving
* Wreck diving
* Recreational dive sites
* Underwater environment

|

Environmental
impact|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving

Environmental
factors|

* Algal bloom
* Currents:
* Current
* Longshore drift
* Ocean current
* Rip current
* Tidal race
* Undertow
* Upwelling
* Ekman transport
* Halocline
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Reef
* Coral reef
* Stratification
* Thermocline
* Tides
* Turbidity
* Wind wave
* Breaking wave
* Surf
* Surge
* Wave shoaling

Special interest groups

* Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC)
* CMAS Europe
* Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA)
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Green Fins
* Historical Diving Society
* Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS)
* Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club
* Project AWARE
* Reef Life Survey
* Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS)
* SeaKeys
* Sea Research Society

Other

* Submarine escape training facility

* Category
* Commons
*   * Glossary
* Indexes: dive sites
* divers
* diving
*   * Outline
* Portal

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