Hypothermia

Hypothermia is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 °C (95.0 °F) in humans.[1] Symptoms depend on the temperature. In mild hypothermia, there is shivering and mental confusion. In moderate hypothermia, shivering stops and confusion increases.[2] In severe hypothermia, there may be hallucinations and paradoxical undressing, or the victim's removal of their clothing, as well as an increased risk of the heart's stopping.[1]

Hypothermia has two main types of causes. It classically occurs from exposure to cold weather and cold water immersion. It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss.[3] Commonly, this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar, anorexia, and advanced age.[1][3] Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F) through thermoregulation.[1] Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering, increased voluntary activity, and putting on warmer clothing.[1][4] Hypothermia may be diagnosed by either a person's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or measuring a person's core temperature.[1]

The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks, warm clothing, and voluntary physical activity.[1] In those with moderate hypothermia, heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended.[1] People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently.[1] In severe hypothermia, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful.[1] In those without a pulse, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is indicated along with the above measures.[1] Rewarming is typically continued until a victim's temperature is greater than 32 °C (90 °F).[1] If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 millimoles per litre at any time, resuscitation may be discontinued.[1]

Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1,500 deaths a year in the United States.[1] It is more common in older people and males.[5] One of the lowest documented body temperatures which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 12.7 °C (54.9 °F) in a 2-year-old boy from Poland named Adam.[6] Survival after more than six hours' CPR has been described.[1] When ECMO or bypass is used, survival is around 50%.[1] Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars.[3]

The term is from Greek ῠ̔πο (ypo), meaning "under", and θέρμη (thérmē), meaning "heat". The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia, an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation.[7][8]

## Contents

* 1 Classification
* 2 Signs and symptoms
* 2.1 Mild
* 2.2 Moderate
* 2.3 Severe
* 2.4 Paradoxical undressing
* 2.5 Terminal burrowing
* 3 Causes
* 3.1 Alcohol
* 3.2 Water immersion
* 4 Pathophysiology
* 5 Diagnosis
* 6 Prevention
* 7 Management
* 7.1 Rewarming
* 7.2 Fluids
* 7.3 Cardiac arrest
* 8 Prognosis
* 9 Epidemiology
* 10 History
* 11 Medical use
* 12 Other animals
* 13 See also
* 14 References
* 15 External links

## Classification

Hypothermia classification  Swiss system[1] | Symptoms | By degree[9] | Temperature

|
|
|

Stage 1  | Awake and shivering  | Mild  | 32–35 °C (89.6–95.0 °F)
Stage 2  | Drowsy and not shivering  | Moderate  | 28–32 °C (82.4–89.6 °F)
Stage 3  | Unconscious, not shivering  | Severe  | 20–28 °C (68.0–82.4 °F)
Stage 4  | No vital signs | Profound  | <20 °C (68.0 °F)

Hypothermia is often defined as any body temperature below 35.0 °C (95.0 °F). With this method it is divided into degrees of severity based on the core temperature.[9]

Another classification system, the Swiss staging system, divides hypothermia on the basis of the presenting symptoms, as is preferred when it is not possible to determine an accurate core temperature.[1]

Other cold-related injuries that can be present either alone or in combination with hypothermia include:

* Chilblains: condition caused by repeated exposure of skin to temperatures just above freezing. The cold causes damage to small blood vessels in the skin. This damage is permanent and the redness and itching will return with additional exposure. The redness and itching typically occurs on cheeks, ears, fingers, and toes.[10]
* Frostbite: the freezing and destruction of tissue,[11] which happens below the freezing point of water
* Frostnip: a superficial cooling of tissues without cellular destruction[12]
* Trench foot or immersion foot: a condition caused by repetitive exposure to cold water at non-freezing temperatures[11]

The normal human body temperature is often stated as 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F).[13] Hyperthermia and fevers are defined as a temperature of greater than 37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F).[8]

## Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms vary depending on the degree of hypothermia, and may be divided by the three stages of severity. People with hypothermia may appear pale and feel cold to touch. Infants with hypothermia may feel cold when touched, with bright red skin and an unusual lack of energy.[14]

Behavioural changes such as impaired judgement, impaired sense of time and place, unusual aggression, and numbness can be observed in individuals with hypothermia; they can also deny their condition and refuse any help. A hypothermic person can be euphoric and hallucinating.

Cold stress refers to a near-normal body temperature with low skin temperature; signs include shivering. Cold stress is caused by cold exposure and can lead to hypothermia and frostbite if not treated.

### Mild

Symptoms of mild hypothermia may be vague,[15] with sympathetic nervous system excitation (shivering, high blood pressure, fast heart rate, fast respiratory rate, and contraction of blood vessels). These are all physiological responses to preserve heat.[16] Increased urine production due to cold, mental confusion, and liver dysfunction may also be present.[17] Hyperglycemia may be present, as glucose consumption by cells and insulin secretion both decrease, and tissue sensitivity to insulin may be blunted.[18] Sympathetic activation also releases glucose from the liver, but in many cases this appears to result more often from hypoglycemia, especially in people with alcoholic intoxication.[18] Hypoglycemia is also found in many people with hypothermia, as hypothermia may be a result of hypoglycemia,[19] which dysregulates body temperature by decreasing energy demand and impairs judgment.[20]

### Moderate

As hypothermia progresses, symptoms include amnesia, confusion, slurred speech, decreased reflexes, and loss of fine motor skills.[21]

### Severe

As the temperature decreases, further physiological systems falter and heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure all decrease. This results in an expected heart rate in the 30s at a temperature of 28 °C (82 °F).[17]

There is often cold, inflamed skin, hallucinations, lack of reflexes, fixed dilated pupils, low blood pressure, pulmonary edema, and shivering is often absent.[21] Pulse and respiration rates usually decrease significantly, but fast heart rates (ventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation) can also occur. Atrial fibrillation is not typically a concern in and of itself.[1]

### Paradoxical undressing

Twenty to fifty percent of hypothermia deaths are associated with paradoxical undressing. This typically occurs during moderate and severe hypothermia, as the victim becomes disoriented, confused, and combative. They may begin discarding their clothing, so increasing the rate of heat loss.[22][23]

Rescuers who are trained in mountain survival techniques are taught to expect this; however, people who die from hypothermia in urban environments and are found undressed are sometimes incorrectly assumed to have been subjected to sexual assault.[24]

One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the victim to feel overheated.[24][25]

### Terminal burrowing

An apparent self-protective behaviour, known as "terminal burrowing", or "hide-and-die syndrome",[26] occurs in the final stages of hypothermia. Those affected will enter small, enclosed spaces, such as underneath beds or behind wardrobes. It is often associated with paradoxical undressing.[27] Researchers in Germany claim this is "obviously an autonomous process of the brain stem, which is triggered in the final state of hypothermia and produces a primitive and burrowing-like behavior of protection, as seen in hibernating mammals".[28] This happens mostly in cases where temperature drops slowly.[25]

## Causes

The rate of death from hypothermia is strongly related to age in the United States.

Hypothermia usually occurs from exposure to low temperatures, and is frequently complicated by alcohol consumption. Any condition that decreases heat production, increases heat loss, or impairs thermoregulation, however, may contribute.[3] Thus, hypothermia risk factors include: substance use disorders (including alcohol use disorder), homelessness, any condition that affects judgment (such as hypoglycemia), the extremes of age, poor clothing, chronic medical conditions (such as hypothyroidism and sepsis), and living in a cold environment.[29][30] Hypothermia occurs frequently in major trauma, and is also observed in severe cases of anorexia nervosa. Hypothermia is also associated with worse outcomes in people with sepsis‍— while most people with sepsis develop fevers (elevated body temperature), some develop hypothermia.[31]

In urban areas, hypothermia frequently occurs with chronic cold exposure, such as in cases of homelessness, as well as with immersion accidents involving alcohol, other drugs, or mental illness.[32] While studies have shown that people experiencing homelessness are at risk of premature death from hypothermia, the true incidence of hypothermia-related deaths in this population is difficult to determine.[33] In more rural environments, the incidence of hypothermia is higher among people with significant comorbidities and less ability to move independently.[32] With rising interest in wilderness exploration and outdoor and water sports, the incidence of hypothermia secondary to accidental cold exposure may become more frequent in the general population.[32]

### Alcohol

Alcohol consumption increases the risk of hypothermia in two ways: vasodilation and dysregulation of temperature-controlling systems in the brain.[31][34][35] Vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, resulting in heat being lost to the environment.[34] This produces the effect of feeling warm, when one is actually losing heat.[35] Alcohol also affects the temperature-regulating system in the brain, decreasing the body's ability to shiver and use energy that would normally aid the body in generating heat.[34] The overall effects of alcohol lead to a decrease in both body temperature and ability to generate body heat in response to cold environments.[35] Alcohol is a common risk factor for death due to hypothermia.[34] Between 33% and 73% of hypothermia cases are complicated by alcohol.[31]

### Water immersion

Two American marines participating in an immersion hypothermia exercise

Hypothermia continues to be a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water.[36] The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries.[36][37]

Other factors predisposing to immersion hypothermia include dehydration, inadequate rewarming between repetitive dives, starting a dive while wearing cold, wet dry suit undergarments, sweating with work, inadequate thermal insulation, and poor physical conditioning.[36]

Heat is lost much more quickly to water[36] than to air. Thus, water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia, although this is not usually the direct clinical cause of death for those not rescued from accidental immmersion in cold water. A water temperature of 10 °C (50 °F) can kill a human adult in as little as one hour, and water temperatures near freezing can kill in as little as 15 minutes.[38] During the sinking of the Titanic, most people who entered the −2 °C (28 °F) water died in 15-30 minutes.[39]

The actual cause of death in cold water is usually the bodily reactions to heat loss and to freezing water, rather than hypothermia (loss of core temperature) itself. For example, plunged into freezing seas, around 20% of victims die within two minutes from cold shock (uncontrolled rapid breathing and gasping, causing water inhalation; massive increase in blood pressure and cardiac strain, leading to cardiac arrest; and panic, causing ineffectual flailing of the limbs); another 50% die within 15–30 minutes from cold incapacitation (inability to use or control limbs and hands for swimming or gripping, as the body "protectively" shuts down the peripheral muscles of the limbs to protect its core).[40] Exhaustion and unconsciousness cause drowning, claiming the rest within a similar time.[38]

## Pathophysiology

Template:HumanTemperature Heat is primarily generated in muscle tissue, including the heart, and in the liver, while it is lost through the skin (90%) and lungs (10%). Heat production may be increased (to over 1200 W in trained endurance athletes)[41] through muscle contractions (i.e. exercise and shivering). The rate of heat loss is determined, as with any object, by convection, conduction, and radiation.[15] The rates of these can be affected by thermal inertia—that is, by body mass index, body surface area to volume ratios, clothing, and other environmental conditions.[42]

Many changes to physiology occur as body temperatures decrease. These occur in the cardiovascular system leading to the Osborn J wave and other dysrhythmias, decreased central nervous system electrical activity, cold diuresis, and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema.[43]

Research has shown that glomerular filtration rates (GFR) decrease as a result of hypothermia.[44] In essence, hypothermia increases preglomerular vasoconstriction, thus decreasing both renal blood flow (RBF) and GFR.[45]

## Diagnosis

Atrial fibrillation and Osborn J waves in a person with hypothermia. Note what could be mistaken for ST elevation.

Accurate determination of core temperature often requires a special low temperature thermometer, as most clinical thermometers do not measure accurately below 34.4 °C (93.9 °F).[16] A low temperature thermometer can be placed in the rectum, esophagus or bladder. Esophageal measurements are the most accurate and are recommended once a person is intubated.[1] Other methods of measurement such as in the mouth, under the arm, or using an infrared ear thermometer are often not accurate.[1]

As a hypothermic person's heart rate may be very slow, prolonged feeling for a pulse could be required before detecting. In 2005, the American Heart Association recommended at least 30–45 seconds to verify the absence of a pulse before initiating CPR.[46] Others recommend a 60-second check.[1]

The classical ECG finding of hypothermia is the Osborn J wave. Also, ventricular fibrillation frequently occurs below 28 °C (82 °F) and asystole below 20 °C (68 °F).[15] The Osborn J may look very similar to those of an acute ST elevation myocardial infarction.[17] Thrombolysis as a reaction to the presence of Osborn J waves is not indicated, as it would only worsen the underlying coagulopathy caused by hypothermia.

## Prevention

Staying dry and wearing proper clothing help to prevent hypothermia. Synthetic and wool fabrics are superior to cotton as they provide better insulation when wet and dry. Some synthetic fabrics, such as polypropylene and polyester, are used in clothing designed to wick perspiration away from the body, such as liner socks and moisture-wicking undergarments. Clothing should be loose fitting, as tight clothing reduces the circulation of warm blood.[47] In planning outdoor activity, prepare appropriately for possible cold weather. Those who drink alcohol before or during outdoor activity should ensure at least one sober person responsible for safety is present.

Covering the head is effective, but no more effective than covering any other part of the body. While common folklore says that people lose most of their heat through their heads, heat loss from the head is no more significant than that from other uncovered parts of the body.[48][49] However, heat loss from the head is significant in infants, whose head is larger relative to the rest of the body than in adults. Several studies have shown that for uncovered infants, lined hats significantly reduce heat loss and thermal stress.[50][51][52] Children have a larger surface area per unit mass, and other things being equal should have one more layer of clothing than adults in similar conditions, and the time they spend in cold environments should be limited. However, children are often more active than adults, and may generate more heat. In both adults and children, overexertion causes sweating and thus increases heat loss.[53]

Building a shelter can aid survival where there is danger of death from exposure. Shelters can be constructed out of a variety of materials. Metal can conduct heat away from the occupants and is sometimes best avoided. The shelter should not be too big so body warmth stays near the occupants. Good ventilation is essential especially if a fire will be lit in the shelter. Fires should be put out before the occupants sleep to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning. People caught in very cold, snowy conditions can build an igloo or snow cave to shelter.[54][55]

The United States Coast Guard promotes using life vests to protect against hypothermia through the 50/50/50 rule: If someone is in 10 °C (50 °F) water for 50 minutes, they have a 50 percent better chance of survival if they are wearing a life jacket.[56] A heat escape lessening position can be used to increase survival in cold water.

Babies should sleep at 16–20 °C (61–68 °F) and housebound people should be checked regularly to make sure the temperature of the home is at least 18 °C (64 °F).[28][53][57][58]

## Management

Degree[1][46] | Rewarming technique

|

Mild (stage 1) | Passive rewarming
Moderate (stage 2) | Active external rewarming
Severe (stage 3 and 4) | Active internal rewarming

Aggressiveness of treatment is matched to the degree of hypothermia.[1] Treatment ranges from noninvasive, passive external warming to active external rewarming, to active core rewarming.[16] In severe cases resuscitation begins with simultaneous removal from the cold environment and management of the airway, breathing, and circulation. Rapid rewarming is then commenced. Moving the person as little and as gently as possible is recommended as aggressive handling may increase risks of a dysrhythmia.[46]

Hypoglycemia is a frequent complication and must be tested for and treated. Intravenous thiamine and glucose is often recommended, as many causes of hypothermia are complicated by Wernicke's encephalopathy.[59]

The UK National Health Service advises against putting a person in a hot bath, massaging their arms and legs, using a heating pad, or giving them alcohol. These measures can cause a rapid fall in blood pressure and potential cardiac arrest.[60]

### Rewarming

Rewarming can be done with a number of methods including passive external rewarming, active external rewarming, and active internal rewarming.[61] Passive external rewarming involves the use of a person's own ability to generate heat by providing properly insulated dry clothing and moving to a warm environment.[62] Passive external rewarming is recommended for those with mild hypothermia.[62]

Active external rewarming involves applying warming devices externally, such as a heating blanket.[1] These may function by warmed forced air (Bair Hugger is a commonly used device), chemical reactions, or electricity.[1][62] In wilderness environments, hypothermia may be helped by placing hot water bottles in both armpits and in the groin.[63] Active external rewarming is recommended for moderate hypothermia.[62] Active core rewarming involves the use of intravenous warmed fluids, irrigation of body cavities with warmed fluids (the chest or abdomen), use of warm humidified inhaled air, or use of extracorporeal rewarming such as via a heart lung machine or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).[61] Extracorporeal rewarming is the fastest method for those with severe hypothermia.[62] When severe hypothermia has led to cardiac arrest, effective extracorporeal warming results in survival with normal mental function about 50% of the time. Chest irrigation is recommended if bypass or ECMO is not possible.[1]

Rewarming shock (or rewarming collapse) is a sudden drop in blood pressure in combination with a low cardiac output which may occur during active treatment of a severely hypothermic person.[64][65] There was a theoretical concern that external rewarming rather than internal rewarming may increase the risk.[1] These concerns were partly believed to be due to afterdrop, a situation detected during laboratory experiments where there is a continued decrease in core temperature after rewarming has been started.[1] Recent studies have not supported these concerns, and problems are not found with active external rewarming.[1][46]

### Fluids

For people who are alert and able to swallow, drinking warm (not hot) sweetened liquids can help raise the temperature.[1] General medical consensus advises against alcohol and caffeinated drinks.[66] As most hypothermic people are moderately dehydrated due to cold-induced diuresis, warmed intravenous fluids to a temperature of 38–45 °C (100–113 °F) are often recommended.[1][16]

### Cardiac arrest

In those without signs of life, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be continued during active rewarming.[1] For ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia, a single defibrillation should be attempted.[67] However, people with severe hypothermia may not respond to pacing or defibrillation.[67] It is not known if further defibrillation should be withheld until the core temperature reaches 30 °C (86 °F).[67] In Europe, epinephrine is not recommended until the person's core temperature reaches 30 °C (86 °F), while the American Heart Association recommends up to three doses of epinephrine before a core temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) is reached.[1] Once a temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) has been reached, normal ACLS protocols should be followed.[46]

## Prognosis

It is usually recommended not to declare a person dead until their body is warmed to a near normal body temperature of greater than 32 °C (90 °F),[1] since extreme hypothermia can suppress heart and brain function.[68] This is summarized in the common saying "You're not dead until you're warm and dead."[69] Exceptions include if there are obvious fatal injuries or the chest is frozen so that it cannot be compressed.[46] If a person was buried in an avalanche for more than 35 minutes and is found with a mouth packed full of snow without a pulse, stopping early may also be reasonable.[1] This is also the case if a person's blood potassium is greater than 12 mmol/L.[1]

Those who are stiff with pupils that do not move may survive if treated aggressively.[1] Survival with good function also occasionally occurs even after the need for hours of CPR.[1] Children who have near-drowning accidents in water near 0 °C (32 °F) can occasionally be revived, even over an hour after losing consciousness.[70][71] The cold water lowers the metabolism, allowing the brain to withstand a much longer period of hypoxia. While survival is possible, mortality from severe or profound hypothermia remains high despite optimal treatment. Studies estimate mortality at between 38%[72][73] and 75%.[15]

In those who have hypothermia due to another underlying health problem, when death occurs it is frequently from that underlying health problem.[1]

## Epidemiology

Between 1995 and 2004 in the United States, an average of 1,560 cold-related emergency department visits occurred per year and in the years 1999 to 2004, an average of 647 people died per year due to hypothermia.[29][74] Of deaths reported between 1999 and 2002 in the US, 49% of those affected were 65 years or older and two-thirds were male.[33] Most deaths were not work related (63%) and 23% of affected people were at home.[33] Hypothermia was most common during the autumn and winter months of October through March.[33] In the United Kingdom, an estimated 300 deaths per year are due to hypothermia, whereas the annual incidence of hypothermia-related deaths in Canada is 8,000.[33]

## History

File:Russia 3577 - 1812 (4166101638).jpgThe armies of Napoleon retreat from Russia in 1812. Snow-storm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps, J. M. W. Turner

Hypothermia has played a major role in the success or failure of many military campaigns, from Hannibal's loss of nearly half his men in the Second Punic War (218 B.C.) to the near destruction of Napoleon's armies in Russia in 1812. Men wandered around confused by hypothermia, some lost consciousness and died, others shivered, later developed torpor, and tended to sleep. Others too weak to walk fell on their knees; some stayed that way for some time resisting death. The pulse of some was weak and hard to detect; others groaned; yet others had eyes open and wild with quiet delirium.[75] Deaths from hypothermia in Russian regions continued through the first and second world wars, especially on the Eastern Front in battles such as the Battle of Moscow and the Battle of Stalingrad where German soldiers were not provided with winter clothing.[76]

Civilian examples of deaths caused by hypothermia occurred during the sinkings of the RMS Titanic and RMS Lusitania, and more recently of the MS Estonia.[77][78][79]

Antarctic explorers developed hypothermia; Ernest Shackleton and his team measured body temperatures "below 94.2°, which spells death at home", though this probably referred to oral temperatures rather than core temperature and corresponded to mild hypothermia. One of Scott's team, Atkinson, became confused through hypothermia.[75]

Nazi human experimentation during World War II amounting to medical torture included hypothermia experiments, which killed many victims. There were 360 to 400 experiments and 280 to 300 subjects, indicating some had more than one experiment performed on them. Various methods of rewarming were attempted: "One assistant later testified that some victims were thrown into boiling water for rewarming".[80]

In 2024, at least six babies in Gaza Strip died of hypothermia under the harsh rain and cold, which they had to endure in flimsy camps due to the bombing of their homes and forced displacement inflicted upon them by the Israel Defense Forces.[81] Three of the babies died in the coastal zone of Al-Mawasi, which their families had been forced to evacuate to, given its designation as a "safe zone".[82]

## Medical use

Main article: Biology:Targeted temperature management

Various degrees of hypothermia may be deliberately induced in medicine for purposes of treatment of brain injury, or lowering metabolism so that total brain ischemia can be tolerated for a short time. Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest is a medical technique in which the brain is cooled as low as 10 °C, which allows the heart to be stopped and blood pressure to be lowered to zero, for the treatment of aneurysms and other circulatory problems that do not tolerate arterial pressure or blood flow. The time limit for this technique, as also for accidental arrest in ice water (which internal temperatures may drop to as low as 15 °C), is about one hour.[83]

## Other animals

Hypothermia can happen in most mammals in cold weather and can be fatal. Baby mammals such as kittens are unable to regulate their body temperatures and have a risk of hypothermia if they are not kept warm by their mothers.

Water bears (Tardigrade), microscopic multicellular organisms, can survive freezing at low temperatures by replacing most of their internal water with the sugar trehalose solution, preventing the crystallization that otherwise damages cell membranes.

## See also

* Biology:Diving reflex - Physiological responses to immersion of air-breathing vertebrates
* Dyatlov Pass incident

## References

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 "Accidental hypothermia". The New England Journal of Medicine 367 (20): 1930–8. November 2012. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1114208. PMID 23150960.
2. ↑ Fears, J. Wayne (2011-02-14) (in en). The Pocket Outdoor Survival Guide: The Ultimate Guide for Short-Term Survival. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-62636-680-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=tF2CDwAAQBAJ.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Marx, John (2010). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice 7th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 1870. ISBN 978-0-323-05472-0.
4. ↑ Robertson, David (2012). Primer on the autonomic nervous system (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/AP. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-12-386525-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=FycmOkb-T1gC&pg=PA288.
5. ↑ Bracker, Mark (2012). The 5-Minute Sports Medicine Consult (2 ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 320. ISBN 978-1-4511-4812-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=-LOm9enAxQ8C&pg=PA320.
6. ↑ "2-latek z Polski rekordzistą. Przeżył wychłodzenie poniżej 12 st. C." (in pl). 5 December 2014. https://dzienniknaukowy.pl/zdrowie/2-latek-z-polski-rekordzista-przezyl-wychlodzenie-ponizej-12-st-c.
7. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `NC08`
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `CC09`
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Marx, John (2006). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice. Mosby/Elsevier. p. 2239. ISBN 978-0-323-02845-5. https://archive.org/details/rosensemergencym0002unse.
10. ↑ "CDC - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic - Cold Stress - Cold Related Illnesses" (in en-us). 2018-06-06. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/coldstress/coldrelatedillnesses.html.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Cold Stress". Center for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/coldstress/.
12. ↑ Marx 2010 p.1862
13. ↑ "Hypothermia therapy after traumatic brain injury in children". The New England Journal of Medicine 359 (11): 1179–80. September 2008. doi:10.1056/NEJMc081418. PMID 18788094.
14. ↑ "Hypothermia". https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-hypothermia.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 "Accidental hypothermia". Critical Care Clinics 15 (2): 235–49. 1999. doi:10.1016/s0749-0704(05)70052-x. PMID 10331126.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 "Diagnosis and treatment of hypothermia". American Family Physician 70 (12): 2325–32. December 2004. PMID 15617296.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Marx 2010 p.1869
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Accidental hypothermia: hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia". Western Journal of Medicine 134 (5): 455–6. May 1981. PMID 7257359.
19. ↑ eMedicine Specialties > Emergency Medicine > Environmental >Hypothermia Author: Jamie Alison Edelstein, MD. Coauthors: James Li, MD; Mark A Silverberg, MD; Wyatt Decker, MD. Updated: October 29, 2009
20. ↑ Tran, C (October 2012). "Hypothermia is a frequent sign of severe hypoglycaemia in patients with diabetes". National Library of Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22559928/.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Management of accidental hypothermia and cold injury". Current Problems in Surgery 51 (10): 417–31. October 2014. doi:10.1067/j.cpsurg.2014.07.004. PMID 25242454.
22. ↑ New Scientist (2007). "The word: Paradoxical undressing – being-human". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg19426002.600-the-word-paradoxical-undressing.html. Retrieved 2008-06-18.
23. ↑ Turk, EE (June 2010). "Hypothermia.". Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology 6 (2): 106–15. doi:10.1007/s12024-010-9142-4. PMID 20151230.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Ramsay, David; Michael J. Shkrum (2006). Forensic Pathology of Trauma (Forensic Science and Medicine). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 417. ISBN 1-58829-458-7.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "'Terminal burrowing behaviour'—a phenomenon of lethal hypothermia". International Journal of Legal Medicine 107 (5): 250–6. 1995. doi:10.1007/BF01245483. PMID 7632602.
26. ↑ "Letter to the editor: Terminal burrowing behaviour — a phenomenon of lethal hypothermia". International Journal of Legal Medicine (Berlin / Heidelberg: Springer) 108 (2): 116. 1995. doi:10.1007/BF01369918. PMID 8547158.
27. ↑ ""Terminal burrowing behaviour"--a phenomenon of lethal hypothermia". International Journal of Legal Medicine 107 (5): 250–6. 1995. doi:10.1007/BF01245483. PMID 7632602.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Lallanilla, Marc (December 2013). "Get Naked and Dig: The Bizarre Effects of Hypothermia". https://www.livescience.com/41730-hypothermia-terminal-burrowing-paradoxical-undressing.html.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "Hypothermia and other cold-related morbidity emergency department visits: United States, 1995-2004". Wilderness Environ Med 19 (4): 233–7. 2008. doi:10.1580/07-WEME-OR-104.1. PMID 19099327.
30. ↑ Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (March 2006). "Hypothermia-related deaths—United States, 1999–2002 and 2005". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 55 (10): 282–4. PMID 16543884.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Walls, Ron; Hockberger, Robert; Gausche-Hill, Marianne (2017-03-09). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice. Walls, Ron M.,, Hockberger, Robert S.,, Gausche-Hill, Marianne (Ninth ed.). Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-323-39016-3. OCLC 989157341.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 James Li (2021-10-21). Joe Alcock. ed. "Hypothermia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology". Medscape. https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/770542-overview.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 "BMJ Best Practice" (in en-us). https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/654/epidemiology.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Mihic, John; Koob, George; Mayfield, Jody; Harris, Adron; Brunton, Laurence; Hilal-Dandan, Randa; Knollmann, Björn (2017). "Ethanol". 's: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (13 ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-1-259-58473-2.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Danzl, Daniel; Jameson, Larry; Fauci, Anthony; Kasper, Dennis; Hauser, Stephen (2018). "Hypothermia and Peripheral Cold Injuries". Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (20th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-1-259-64403-0.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 Sterba, JA (1990). "﻿Field Management of Accidental Hypothermia during Diving﻿". US Navy Experimental Diving Unit Technical Report (Navy Experimental Diving Unit Panama City Fla.). http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4248. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
37. ↑ "Changes in manual dexterity following short-term hand and forearm immersion in 10 degrees C water". Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 74 (9): 990–3. September 2003. PMID 14503680. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/asma/asem/2003/00000074/00000009/art00013. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 "Hypothermia safety". United States Power Squadrons. January 23, 2007. http://www.usps.org/national/ensign/uspscompass/compassarchive/compassv1n1/hypothermia.htm.
39. ↑ Butler, Daniel Allen (1998). Unsinkable: The Full Story of RMS Titanic. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-1814-1. https://archive.org/details/unsinkablefullst00butl.
40. ↑ Vittone, Mario (October 21, 2010). "The Truth About Cold Water". Survival. Mario Vittone. http://mariovittone.com/2010/10/the-truth-about-cold-water/.
41. ↑ "Article Page 13". IJATT. https://journals.humankinetics.com/previewpdf/view/journals/ijatt/1/4/article-p13.xml.
42. ↑ "Hypothermia and afterdrop following open water swimming: the Alcatraz/San Francisco Swim Study". American Journal of Emergency Medicine 18 (6): 703–7. October 2000. doi:10.1053/ajem.2000.16313. PMID 11043627.
43. ↑ Marx, John (2010). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice 7th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. pp. 1869–1870. ISBN 978-0-323-05472-0.
44. ↑ "The effects of hypothermia on renal function and haemodynamics in the rat". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 153 (2): 179–184. 1995. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1995.tb09849.x. PMID 7778458.
45. ↑ "Influence of the sympathetic nervous system on renal function during hypothermia". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 163 (3): 241–249. 1998. doi:10.1046/j.1365-201x.1998.00356.x. PMID 9715736.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.5 ECC Committee, Subcommittees and Task Forces of the American Heart Association (December 2005). "2005 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care". Circulation 112 (24 Suppl): IV–136. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166550. PMID 16314375. http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/112/24_suppl/IV-136.
47. ↑ "Workplace Safety & Health Topics: Cold Stress". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/coldstress/.
48. ↑ "Thermoregulatory vasoconstriction decreases cutaneous heat loss". Anesthesiology 73 (4): 656–60. 1990. doi:10.1097/00000542-199010000-00011. PMID 2221434.
49. ↑ Sample, Ian (December 18, 2008). "Scientists debunk myth that most heat is lost through head | Science". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/dec/17/medicalresearch-humanbehaviour.
50. ↑ Stothers JK (1981). "Head insulation and heat loss in the newborn". Archives of Disease in Childhood (Royal Coll Paediatrics) 56 (7): 530–534. doi:10.1136/adc.56.7.530. PMID 7271287.
51. ↑ "Hats for the newborn infant". British Medical Journal 2 (6190): 570–1. September 2, 1979. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.6190.570. PMID 387172.
52. ↑ "The effect of wool vs. cotton head covering and length of stay with the mother following delivery on infant temperature". International Journal of Nursing Studies 41 (8): 843–846. November 2004. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2004.03.010. PMID 15476757.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Hypothermia - Symptoms and causes". https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypothermia/symptoms-causes/syc-20352682.
54. ↑ How to build an Igloo, survive a blizzard, finish your mission on time This web page gives basic instructions for westerners.
55. ↑ Cold Weather Survival, Shelkters This has instructions about building different types of shelter
56. ↑ United States Coast Guard. "Rescue and Survival Systems Manual". United States Coast Guard. https://www.uscg.mil/directives/cim/10000-10999/CIM_10470_10G.pdf.
57. ↑ "Hypothermia". October 18, 2017. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hypothermia/.
58. ↑ "Hypothermia (cont.)". https://www.onhealth.com/content/3/404?refurl=/hypothermia/page5.htm.
59. ↑ Tintinalli, Judith (2004). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, Sixth edition. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 1181. ISBN 0-07-138875-3.
60. ↑ "Hypothermia" (in en-GB). October 18, 2017. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hypothermia/.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 "Diagnosis and treatment of hypothermia". American Family Physician 70 (12): 2325–32. Dec 2004. PMID 15617296.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 "Part 12: cardiac arrest in special situations: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care". Circulation 122 (18 Suppl 3): S829–61. 2010-11-02. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971069. PMID 20956228.
63. ↑ Wilderness medicine. (5th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Elsevier Mosby. 2007. pp. Chapter 5. ISBN 978-0-323-03228-5.
64. ↑ Tveita T (October 2000). "Rewarming from hypothermia. Newer aspects on the pathophysiology of rewarming shock". International Journal of Circumpolar Health 59 (3–4): 260–6. PMID 11209678.
65. ↑ "Cardiovascular effects of epinephrine during rewarming from hypothermia in an intact animal model". Journal of Applied Physiology 100 (2): 457–64. February 2006. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00356.2005. PMID 16210439.
66. ↑ "Accidental Hypothermia". Wilderness medicine (6th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Mosby. 2011. pp. Chapter 5. ISBN 978-1-4377-1678-8.
67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 "Part 12: cardiac arrest in special situations: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care". Circulation 122 (18 Suppl 3): S829–61. 2010. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971069. PMID 20956228.
68. ↑ "No one is dead until warm and dead". The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 134 (4): 1042–3. 2007. doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.05.028. PMID 17903527.
69. ↑ Foggle, John L. (February 2019). "Accidental Hypothermia: 'You're Not Dead Until You're Warm and Dead'". Rhode Island Medical Journal 102 (1): 28–32. PMID 30709071.
70. ↑ "The use of extracorporeal rewarming in a child submerged for 66 minutes". Journal of the American Medical Association 260 (3): 377–379. 1988. doi:10.1001/jama.260.3.377. PMID 3379747.
71. ↑ Life after Death: How seven kids came back from the dead https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/stories-50630441
72. ↑ "The efficacy of rewarming with a portable and percutaneous cardiopulmonary bypass system in accidental deep hypothermia patients with hemodynamic instability". The Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 65 (6): 1391–5. December 2008. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e3181485490. PMID 19077632.
73. ↑ "Severe accidental hypothermia treated in an ICU: prognosis and outcome". Chest 120 (6): 1998–2003. December 2001. doi:10.1378/chest.120.6.1998. PMID 11742934.
74. ↑ "Hypothermia-Related Mortality – Montana, 1999–2004". https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5615a3.htm#tab.
75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Guly, H (January 2011). "History of accidental hypothermia.". Resuscitation 82 (1): 122–5. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2010.09.465. PMID 21036455.
76. ↑ Marx, John (2010). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice 7th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 1868. ISBN 978-0-323-05472-0.
77. ↑ "Findings: Titanic victims in 'cold shock'". May 24, 2002. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/169325.article.
78. ↑ John Updike (July 1, 2002). "Remember the Lusitania". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2002/07/01/remember-the-lusitania. Retrieved November 22, 2014.
79. ↑ "Identification of victims from the M/S Estonia". International Journal of Legal Medicine 114 (4–5): 259–262. 2001. doi:10.1007/s004140000180. PMID 11355406.
80. ↑ Berger, RL (May 17, 1990). "Nazi science--the Dachau hypothermia experiments.". The New England Journal of Medicine 322 (20): 1435–40. doi:10.1056/NEJM199005173222006. PMID 2184357.
81. ↑ Baker, Aryn (2024-12-30). "Cold Takes More Infant Lives in Gaza, Adding to the War's Civilian Toll" (in en). The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/30/world/middleeast/gaza-baby-deaths-cold.html.
82. ↑ "Sixth baby dies from severe cold in Gaza as Israel raids hospitals" (in en). https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/12/30/sixth-baby-freezes-to-death-in-gaza-as-israel-raids-hospitals.
83. ↑ "Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest". Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain 10 (5): 138–142. July 2010. doi:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkq024. "Most patients tolerate 30 min of DHCA without significant neurological dysfunction, but when this is extended to longer than 40 min, there is a marked increase in the incidence of brain injury. Above 60 min, the majority of patients will suffer irreversible brain injury, although there are still a small number of patients who can tolerate this.".

Bibliography

* Marx, John (2010). Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 1862. ISBN 978-0-323-05472-0.

## External links

* CDC - NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Cold Stress

Classification|

* ICD-10: T68, T88.5, P80, R68.0
* ICD-9-CM: 991.6
* MeSH: D007035
* DiseasesDB: 6542

|

External resources|

* MedlinePlus: 000038
* eMedicine: med/1144

* v
* t
* e

Consequences of external causes (T66–T78, 990–995)

Temperature|

| Elevated|

Hyperthermia
Heat syncope

|

Reduced|

Hypothermia
Immersion foot syndromes

Trench foot
Tropical immersion foot
Warm water immersion foot
Chilblains
Frostbite
Aerosol burn
Cold intolerance
Acrocyanosis
Erythrocyanosis crurum

Radiation|

Radiation poisoning
Radiation burn
Chronic radiation keratosis
Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy
Radiation acne
Radiation-induced cancer
Radiation recall reaction
Radiation-induced erythema multiforme
Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar
Radiation-induced keloid
Radiation-induced morphea

Air|

* Hypoxia/Asphyxia
* Barotrauma
* Aerosinusitis
* Decompression sickness
* High altitude
* Altitude sickness
* Chronic mountain sickness
* Death zone
* HAPE
* HACE

Food|

* Starvation

Maltreatment|

* Physical abuse
* Sexual abuse
* Psychological abuse

Travel|

* Motion sickness
* Seasickness
* Airsickness
* Space adaptation syndrome

Adverse effect|

* Hypersensitivity
* Anaphylaxis
* Angioedema
* Allergy
* Arthus reaction

* Adverse drug reaction

Other|

* Electrical injury
* Drowning
* Lightning injuries

Ungrouped
skin conditions
resulting from
physical factors|

* Dermatosis neglecta
* Pinch mark
* Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules
* Sclerosing lymphangitis
* Tropical anhidrotic asthenia
* UV-sensitive syndrome

environmental skin conditions
Electrical burn
frictional/traumatic/sports

Black heel and palm
Equestrian perniosis
Jogger's nipple
Pulling boat hands
Runner's rump
Surfer's knots
Tennis toe
Vibration white finger
Weathering nodule of ear
Wrestler's ear
Coral cut
Painful fat herniation
Uranium dermatosis

iv use

Skin pop scar
Skin track
Slap mark
Pseudoacanthosis nigricans
Narcotic dermopathy

* v
* t
* e

Underwater diving

* Diving modes
* Atmospheric pressure diving
* Freediving
* Saturation diving
* Scuba diving
* Snorkeling
* Surface-supplied diving
* Unmanned diving

Diving equipment

| Basic equipment|

* Diving mask
* Snorkel
* Swimfin

|

Breathing gas|

* Bailout gas
* Bottom gas
* Breathing air
* Decompression gas
* Emergency gas supply
* Heliox
* Nitrox
* Oxygen
* Travel gas
* Trimix

Buoyancy and
trim equipment|

* Buoyancy control device
* Power inflator
* Dump valve
* Diving weighting system
* Ankle weights
* Integrated weights
* Trim weights
* Weight belt

Decompression
equipment|

* Decompression buoy
* Decompression cylinder
* Decompression trapeze
* Dive computer
* Diving shot
* Jonline

Environmental
protection|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving suit
* Dry suit
* Sladen suit
* Standard diving suit
* Rash vest
* Wetsuit
* Dive skins
* Hot-water suit

Helmets
and masks|

* Anti-fog
* Diving helmet
* Free-flow helmet
* Lightweight demand helmet
* Reclaim helmet
* Standard diving helmet
* Diving mask
* Band mask
* Half mask
* Full-face mask

Instrumentation|

* Bottom timer
* Depth gauge
* Dive computer
* Dive timer
* Diving compass
* Diving watch
* Pneumofathometer
* Submersible pressure gauge

Mobility
equipment|

* Diving bell
* Closed bell
* Wet bell
* Diving stage
* Diver propulsion vehicle
* Advanced SEAL Delivery System
* Cosmos CE2F series
* Dry Combat Submersible
* Human torpedo
* Motorised Submersible Canoe
* R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
* SEAL Delivery Vehicle
* Shallow Water Combat Submersible
* Siluro San Bartolomeo
* Wet Nellie
* Wet sub
* Necker Nymph
* Swimfins
* Monofin
* Towboard

Safety
equipment|

* Alternative air source
* Bailout block
* Bailout bottle
* Bolt snap
* Buddy line
* Distance line
* Dive light
* Dive reel
* Diver's cutting tool
* Diver's knife
* Diver's telephone
* Through-water communications
* Diving bell
* Diving safety harness
* Emergency gas supply
* Lifeline
* Screw gate carabiner
* Line marker
* Octopus regulator
* Pony bottle
* Rescue tether
* Safety helmet
* Shark-proof cage
* Surface marker buoy
* Personal locator beacon

Underwater
breathing
apparatus|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving cylinder
* Burst disc
* Diving cylinder valve
* Diving helmet
* Diving regulator
* Single-hose regulator
* Twin-hose regulator
* Regulator malfunction
* Regulator freeze
* Full face diving mask
* Reclaim helmet
* Open-circuit scuba
* Scuba set
* Bailout bottle
* Decompression cylinder
* Independent doubles
* Manifolded twin set
* Scuba manifold
* Pony bottle
* Sidemount
* Sling cylinder
* Scuba replacement
* Standard diving dress
* Diving rebreather
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Carleton CDBA
* CDLSE
* Cis-Lunar
* Cryogenic rebreather
* CUMA
* DSEA
* Dolphin
* Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
* FROGS
* Halcyon PVR-BASC
* Halcyon RB80
* IDA71
* Interspiro DCSC
* KISS
* LAR-5
* LAR-6
* LAR-V
* LARU
* Porpoise
* Dräger Ray
* Siebe Gorman CDBA
* Siva
* Viper
* Surface-supplied diving equipment
* Air line
* Diver's umbilical
* Diving air compressor
* Hookah
* Sea Trek
* Snuba
* Standard diving dress

Diving
equipment
manufacturers|

* AP Diving
* Apeks
* Aqua Lung America
* Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
* Beuchat
* René Cavalero
* Cressi-Sub
* Dacor
* DESCO
* Dive Xtras
* Divex
* Diving Unlimited International
* Drägerwerk
* Fenzy
* Maurice Fernez
* Technisub
* Oscar Gugen
* Heinke
* HeinrichsWeikamp
* Johnson Outdoors
* Mares
* Morse Diving
* Nemrod
* Oceanic Worldwide
* Porpoise
* Sub Sea Systems
* Shearwater Research
* Siebe Gorman
* Submarine Products
* Suunto

Diving support equipment

| Breathing gas|

* Air filtration
* Booster pump
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Cascade filling system
* Diver's pump
* Diving air compressor
* Diving air filter
* High pressure breathing air compressor
* Low pressure breathing air compressor
* Gas blending
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Gas panel
* Gas reclaim system
* Gas storage bank
* Gas storage quad
* Gas storage tube
* Helium analyzer
* Nitrox production
* Membrane method of gas concentration
* Pressure swing adsorption
* Oxygen analyser
* Oxygen compatibility

|

Decompression
equipment|

* Built-in breathing system
* Decompression tables
* Dive computer
* Diving bell
* Bell cursor
* Closed bell
* Clump weight
* Launch and recovery system
* Wet bell
* Diving chamber
* Diving stage
* Jersey upline
* Recreational Dive Planner
* Saturation system

Platforms|

* Dive boat
* Boarding stirrup
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Combat Rubber Raiding Craft
* Diving platform (scuba)
* Liveaboard
* Subskimmer
* Diving support vessel
* HMS Challenger (K07)
* Moon pool
* Underwater habitat
* Aquarius Reef Base
* Continental Shelf Station Two
* Helgoland Habitat
* Jules' Undersea Lodge
* Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
* SEALAB
* Tektite habitat

Remotely operated
underwater vehicles|

* 8A4-class ROUV
* ABISMO
* Atlantis ROV Team
* CURV
* Épaulard
* Global Explorer ROV
* Goldfish-class ROUV
* Kaikō ROV
* Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
* Mini Rover ROV
* OpenROV
* ROV KIEL 6000
* ROV PHOCA
* Scorpio ROV
* Sea Dragon-class ROV
* Seabed tractor
* Seafox drone
* Seahorse ROUV
* SeaPerch
* SJT-class ROUV
* T1200 Trenching Unit
* VideoRay UROVs

Safety equipment|

* Diver down flag
* Diving shot
* Hyperbaric lifeboat
* Hyperbaric stretcher
* Jackstay
* Jonline
* Reserve gas supply

General|

* Diving ladder
* Hot water system
* Downline

Freediving

| Activities|

* Aquathlon
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Haenyeo
* Pearl hunting
* Ama
* Snorkeling
* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater ice hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

|

Competitions|

* Nordic Deep
* Vertical Blue
* Disciplines
* Constant weight (CWT)
* Constant weight without fins (CNF)
* Dynamic apnea (DYN)
* Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
* Free immersion (FIM)
* No-limits apnea (NLT)
* Static apnea (STA)
* Skandalopetra diving
* Variable weight apnea (VWT)
* Variable weight apnea without fins

Equipment|

* Diving mask
* Diving suit
* Fins
* Hawaiian sling
* Monofin
* Polespear
* Snorkel (swimming)
* Speargun
* Water polo cap

Freedivers|

* Deborah Andollo
* Peppo Biscarini
* Sara Campbell
* Derya Can Göçen
* Goran Čolak
* Carlos Coste
* Robert Croft
* Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
* Yasemin Dalkılıç
* Leonardo D'Imporzano
* Flavia Eberhard
* Şahika Ercümen
* Emma Farrell
* Francisco Ferreras
* Pierre Frolla
* Flavia Eberhard
* Mehgan Heaney-Grier
* Elisabeth Kristoffersen
* Loïc Leferme
* Enzo Maiorca
* Jacques Mayol
* Audrey Mestre
* Karol Meyer
* Stéphane Mifsud
* Alexey Molchanov
* Natalia Molchanova
* Dave Mullins
* Patrick Musimu
* Guillaume Néry
* Herbert Nitsch
* Umberto Pelizzari
* Annelie Pompe
* Michal Risian
* Stig Severinsen
* Tom Sietas
* Aharon Solomons
* Martin Štěpánek
* Walter Steyn
* Tanya Streeter
* William Trubridge
* Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
* Danai Varveri
* Alessia Zecchini
* Nataliia Zharkova

Hazards|

* Barotrauma
* Drowning
* Freediving blackout
* Deep-water blackout
* Shallow-water blackout
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Historical|

* Ama
* Octopus wrestling
* Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming

Organisations|

* AIDA International
* Scuba Schools International
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* Performance Freediving International

Professional diving

| Occupations|

* Ama
* Commercial diving
* Commercial offshore diving
* Hazmat diving
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Diving safety officer
* Diving supervisor
* Haenyeo
* Media diving
* Underwater photography
* Underwater videography
* Military diving
* Army engineer diver
* Clearance diver
* Frogman
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Scientific diving
* Underwater archaeology

|

Underwater work|

* Commercial offshore diving
* Dive guide
* Diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Hyperbaric welding
* Nondestructive testing
* Pearl hunting
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Salvage diving
* Scientific diving
* Sponge diving
* Submarine pipeline
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater demolition
* Underwater photography
* Underwater search and recovery
* Underwater videography

Tools & equipment|

* Abrasive waterjet
* Airlift
* In-water surface cleaning
* Brush cart
* Cavitation cleaning
* Pressure washing
* Lifting bag
* Remotely operated underwater vehicle
* Silt screw
* Snoopy loop
* Thermal lance
* Tremie
* Water jetting

Underwater
weapons|

* Limpet mine
* Speargun
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear

| Underwater
firearm|

* Gyrojet
* Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
* Powerhead
* Underwater pistols
* Heckler & Koch P11
* SPP-1 underwater pistol
* Underwater revolvers
* AAI underwater revolver
* Underwater rifles
* ADS amphibious rifle
* APS underwater rifle
* ASM-DT amphibious rifle

|

Recreational diving

| Specialties|

* Altitude diving
* Cave diving
* Deep diving
* Ice diving
* Muck diving
* Open-water diving
* Rebreather diving
* Sidemount diving
* Solo diving
* Technical diving
* Wreck diving

|

Diver
organisations|

* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)

Diving tourism
industry|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Scuba diving tourism
* Shark tourism
* Sinking ships for wreck diving sites

Recreational
dive sites|

| Reef diving
regions|

* Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park
* Great Barrier Reef
* iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area
* Poor Knights Islands
* Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area

|

Reef dive
sites|

* Artificial reef
* Gibraltar Artificial Reef
* Shark River Reef
* Osborne Reef
* Palancar Reef
* Underwater artworks
* Cancún Underwater Museum
* Christ of the Abyss
* The Diver
* Molinere Underwater Sculpture Park

Wreck diving
regions|

* Chuuk Lagoon
* Maritime Heritage Trail – Battle of Saipan
* Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
* Wreck Alley, San Diego

Wreck dive
sites|

* HMS A1
* HMS A3
* Engineering:USS Aaron Ward
* Abessinia
* Aeolian Sky
* Albert C. Field
* Andrea Doria
* Antilla
* Antilles
* Aquila
* Engineering:USS Arkansas
* HMS Boadicea
* Bianca C.
* Booya
* HMSAS Bloemfontein
* Breda
* HMAS Brisbane
* Bungsberg
* HMAS Canberra
* Carl D. Bradley
* Carnatic
* SMS Dresden
* Dunraven
* Eastfield
* HMT Elk
* Ellengowan
* RMS Empress of Ireland
* HMS Falmouth
* Fifi
* SS Francisco Morazan
* Fujikawa Maru
* Fumizuki
* SATS General Botha
* USNS General Hoyt S. Vandenberg
* HMS Ghurka
* Glen Strathallan
* SAS Good Hope
* Gothenburg
* Herzogin Cecilie
* Hilma Hooker
* Hispania
* HMS Hood
* HMAS Hobart
* Igara
* James Eagan Layne
* Captain Keith Tibbetts
* King Cruiser
* SMS Kronprinz
* Kyarra
* HMS Laforey
* USAT Liberty
* Louis Sheid
* Engineering:USS LST-507
* SMS Markgraf
* Mikhail Lermontov
* HMS M2
* Maine
* Maloja
* HMS Maori
* Marguerite
* SS Mauna Loa
* USAT Meigs
* Mendi
* USCGC Mohawk
* Mohegan
* RMS Moldavia
* HMS Montagu
* MV RMS Mulheim
* Nagato
* Oceana
* Engineering:USS Oriskany
* Oslofjord
* P29
* P31
* Pedernales
* Persier
* HMAS Perth
* SAS Pietermaritzburg
* Piłsudski
* Pool Fisher
* HMS Port Napier
* Preußen
* President Coolidge
* PS Queen Victoria
* Radaas
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* RMS Rhone
* Rondo
* Rosehill
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* Royal Charter
* Rozi
* HMS Safari
* Salem Express
* Engineering:USS Saratoga
* Engineering:USS Scuffle
* HMS Scylla
* HMS Sidon
* Engineering:USS Spiegel Grove
* Stanegarth
* Stanwood
* Stella
* HMAS Swan
* Engineering:USS Tarpon
* Thesis
* Thistlegorm
* Toa Maru
* Torrey Canyon
* SAS Transvaal
* Tulagi
* Tulamben
* U-40
* U-352
* U-1195
* Um El Faroud
* Varvassi
* Walter L M Russ
* Washingtonian (1913)
* HMNZS Wellington
* Engineering:USS Yancey
* Yongala
* Zenobia
* Zealandia
* Zingara

Cave diving
sites|

* Devil's Throat at Punta Sur
* Engelbrecht
* Fossil Cave
* Piccaninnie Ponds
* Pollatoomary
* Sistema Ox Bel Ha
* Sistema Sac Actun
* Sistema Dos Ojos
* Sistema Nohoch Nah Chich

Freshwater
dives|

* Ewens Ponds
* Little Blue Lake

Training sites|

* Capernwray Dive Centre
* National Diving and Activity Centre
* Stoney Cove

Open ocean
diving|

* Blue-water diving
* Black-water diving

Diving safety

* Ergonomics of diving equipment
* Human factors in diving safety
* Life support system
* Safety-critical system

| Diving hazards|

* Trait anxiety
* Cold shock response
* Decompression
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Nitrogen narcosis
* Overconfidence effect
* Oxygen toxicity
* Panic
* Penetration diving
* Seasickness
* Silt out
* Single point of failure
* Task loading
* Uncontrolled decompression

|

Consequences|

* Barotrauma
* Decompression sickness
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Risk
management|

* Checklist
* Hazard identification and risk assessment
* Hazard analysis
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Risk control
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Incident pit
* Lockout-tagout
* Permit To Work
* Redundancy
* Safety data sheet
* Situation awareness
* Diving team
* Bellman
* Chamber operator
* Diver's attendant
* Diving supervisor
* Diving systems technician
* Life support technician
* Stand-by diver
* Equipment safety
* Breathing gas quality
* Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
* Hydrostatic test
* Sustained load cracking
* Diving regulators
* Breathing performance of regulators
* Occupational safety and health
* Approaches to safety
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Toolbox talk
* Housekeeping
* Association of Diving Contractors International
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving regulations
* Emergency procedure
* Emergency response plan
* Evacuation plan
* Hazardous Materials Identification System
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Administrative controls
* Engineering controls
* Hazard elimination
* Hazard substitution
* Personal protective equipment
* International Marine Contractors Association
* Occupational hazard
* Biological hazard
* Chemical hazard
* Physical hazard
* Psychosocial hazard
* Occupational hygiene
* Exposure assessment
* Occupational exposure limit
* Workplace health surveillance
* Safety culture
* Code of practice
* Health and safety representative
* Operations manual
* Safety meeting
* Standard operating procedure

Diving
procedures|

* Ascending and descending
* Emergency ascent
* Boat diving
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Buddy diving
* Decompression
* Decompression practice
* Pyle stop
* Ratio decompression
* Dive briefing
* Dive log
* Dive planning
* Scuba gas planning
* Diver communications
* Diving hand signals
* Diving line signals
* Diver voice communications
* Diver rescue
* Diver training
* Doing It Right
* Drift diving
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Night diving
* Solo diving
* Water safety

Incidents|

| Diver rescues|

* Tham Luang cave rescue

|

Early diving|

* John Day (carpenter)
* Charles Spalding
* Ebenezer Watson

Freediving|

* Loïc Leferme
* Audrey Mestre
* Nicholas Mevoli
* Natalia Molchanova

Professional
diving|

* Johnson Sea Link accident
* Offshore diving incidents
* Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
* Drill Master diving accident
* Star Canopus diving accident
* Venture One diving accident
* Waage Drill II diving accident
* Wildrake diving accident
* Professional diver fatalities
* Roger Baldwin
* John Bennett
* Victor F. Guiel Jr.
* Craig M. Hoffman
* Peter Henry Michael Holmes
* Edwin Clayton Link
* Gerard Anthony Prangley
* Pier Skipness
* Robert John Smyth
* Albert D. Stover
* Richard A. Walker
* Lothar Michael Ward
* Joachim Wendler
* Death of Bradley Westell
* Arne Zetterström

Scuba diving
fatalities|

* Ricardo Armbruster
* Allan Bridge
* David Bright
* Berry L. Cannon
* Cotton Coulson
* Cláudio Coutinho
* E. Yale Dawson
* Deon Dreyer
* Milan Dufek
* Sheck Exley
* Maurice Fargues
* Guy Garman
* Steve Irwin
* Jim Jones
* Henry Way Kendall
* Artur Kozłowski
* Chris and Chrissy Rouse
* Kirsty MacColl
* Agnes Milowka
* François de Roubaix
* Dave Shaw
* Wesley C. Skiles
* Dewey Smith
* Rob Stewart
* Esbjörn Svensson
* Josef Velek

Diving medicine

| Diving
disorders|

* List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
* Cramps
* Motion sickness
* Surfer's ear

| Pressure
related|

* Aerosinusitis
* Air embolism
* Alternobaric vertigo
* Barodontalgia
* Barostriction
* Barotrauma
* Compression arthralgia
* Decompression illness
* Dental barotrauma
* Dysbarism
* Pulmonary barotrauma

| Oxygen|

* Freediving blackout
* Hyperoxia
* Hypoxia
* Oxygen toxicity

|

Inert gases|

* Avascular necrosis
* Decompression sickness
* Isobaric counterdiffusion
* Taravana
* Dysbaric osteonecrosis
* High-pressure nervous syndrome
* Hydrogen narcosis
* Nitrogen narcosis

Carbon dioxide|

* Hypercapnia
* Hypocapnia

Breathing gas
contaminants|

* Carbon monoxide poisoning

Immersion
related|

* Asphyxia
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Immersion diuresis
* Instinctive drowning response
* Laryngospasm
* Salt water aspiration syndrome
* Swimming-induced pulmonary edema

Treatment|

* Demand valve oxygen therapy
* First Aid
* Hyperbaric medicine
* Hyperbaric treatment schedules
* In-water recompression
* Oxygen therapy
* Therapeutic recompression

Personnel|

* Diving Medical Examiner
* Diving Medical Practitioner
* Diving Medical Technician
* Hyperbaric nursing

Screening|

* Atrial septal defect
* Fitness to dive
* Psychological fitness to dive

Research|

| Researchers in
diving physiology
and medicine|

* Arthur J. Bachrach
* Albert R. Behnke
* Paul Bert
* George F. Bond
* Robert Boyle
* Albert A. Bühlmann
* John R. Clarke
* Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
* William Paul Fife
* John Scott Haldane
* Robert William Hamilton Jr.
* Leonard Erskine Hill
* Brian Andrew Hills
* Felix Hoppe-Seyler
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Simon Mitchell
* Charles Momsen
* John Rawlins R.N.
* Charles Wesley Shilling
* Edward D. Thalmann
* Jacques Triger

|

Diving medical
research
organisations|

* Aerospace Medical Association
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
* Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
* European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
* European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
* National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
* Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
* Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
* Rubicon Foundation
* South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
* Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
* Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
* United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)

Law

* Civil liability in recreational diving
* Duty of care
* List of legislation regulating underwater diving
* Investigation of diving accidents

History of underwater diving

* Aqua-Lung
* History of decompression research and development
* History of scuba diving
* List of researchers in underwater diving
* Porpoise regulator
* Standard diving dress
* Timeline of diving technology
* Underwater diving in popular culture
* Vintage scuba

Publications

| Manuals|

* NOAA Diving Manual
* U.S. Navy Diving Manual
* Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival

|

Standards and
Codes of Practice|

* DIN 7876

General non-fiction|

* The Darkness Beckons
* Goldfinder
* The Last Dive
* Shadow Divers

Training and registration

| Diver
training|

* Diving instructor
* Diving school
* Occupational diver training
* Commercial diver training
* Military diver training
* Public safety diver training
* Scientific diver training
* Competence and assessment
* Competency-based learning
* Skill assessment
* Refresher training (diving)
* Diver training standard
* Recreational diver training
* Introductory diving
* Skills
* Diver navigation
* Diver trim
* Ear clearing
* Frenzel maneuver
* Valsalva maneuver
* Finning techniques
* Scuba skills
* Buddy breathing
* Low impact diving
* Diamond Reef System
* Surface-supplied diving skills
* Underwater searches
* Teaching methods
* Muscle memory
* Overtraining
* Stress exposure training

|

Organisations|

* European Underwater Federation (EUF)
* International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
* International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
* International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
* List of diver certification organizations
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Universal Referral Program
* World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)

| Commercial diver
certification
authorities|

* Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
* Commercial diver registration in South Africa
* Divers Institute of Technology
* Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
* Department of Employment and Labour

|

Commercial diving
schools|

* Divers Academy International

Free-diving
certification
agencies|

* AIDA International (AIDA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Performance Freediving International (PI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)

Recreational scuba
certification
agencies|

* American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* International Diving Educators Association (IDEA)
* Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
* Scuba Diving International (SDI)
* Scuba Educators International (SEI)
* Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* United Diving Instructors (UDI)
* YMCA SCUBA Program

Recreational scuba
certification
levels|

* Advanced Open Water Diver
* Autonomous diver
* CMAS* scuba diver
* CMAS** scuba diver
* Dive leader
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Introductory diving
* Low Impact Diver
* Master Instructor
* Master Scuba Diver
* Open Water Diver
* Rescue Diver
* Solo diver
* Supervised diver

Scientific diver
certification
authorities|

* American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
* CMAS Scientific Committee

Technical
certification
agencies|

* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)
* Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
* Technical Extended Range (TXR)

| Cave
diving|

* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)

|

Underwater sports

| Surface snorkeling|

* Finswimming (surface swimming & bi-fins)

|

Snorkeling/breath-hold|

* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

Breath-hold|

* Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Underwater ice hockey

Open Circuit Scuba|

* Immersion finswimming
* Sport diving (sport)
* Underwater orienteering
* Underwater photography (sport)

Rebreather|

* Underwater photography (sport)

Sports governing
organisations|

* International
* AIDA International
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
* National
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Octopush Association
* British Underwater Sports Association
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* South African Underwater Sports Federation
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
* Underwater Society of America)

Freediver Federations|

* AIDA International
* AIDA Hellas
* British Freediving Association (BFA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)

Sports federations|

* Australian Underwater Federation (AUF)
* British Octopush Association (BOA)
* British Underwater Sports Association (BUSA)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* South African Underwater Sports Federation (SAUSF)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* Underwater Society of America (USOA)

Underwater divers

| Pioneers of diving|

* Aquanaut
* Jacques Cousteau
* Hans Hass
* Arne Zetterström

|

Underwater scientists and archaeologists|

* Michael Arbuthnot
* Robert Ballard
* George Bass
* Mensun Bound
* Louis Boutan
* Hugh Bradner
* Cathy Church
* Eugenie Clark
* James P. Delgado
* Sylvia Earle
* John Christopher Fine
* George R. Fischer
* Anders Franzén
* Honor Frost
* David Gibbins
* Robert F. Marx
* Charles T. Meide
* Mark M. Newell
* John Peter Oleson
* Margaret Rule
* Gunter Schöbel
* E. Lee Spence
* Robert Sténuit
* Peter Throckmorton

Scuba record holders|

* Sheck Exley
* Nuno Gomes

Underwater filmmakers|

* Samir Alhafith
* David Attenborough
* Ramón Bravo
* Ivan Tors
* Andrew Wight

Underwater photographers|

* Tamara Benitez
* Georges Beuchat
* Adrian Biddle
* Jonathan Bird
* Eric Cheng
* Neville Coleman
* Jacques Cousteau
* John D. Craig
* Ben Cropp
* Bernard Delemotte
* David Doubilet
* John Christopher Fine
* Dermot FitzGerald
* Rodney Fox
* Ric Frazier
* Stephen Frink
* Peter Gimbel
* Monty Halls
* Hans Hass
* Henry Way Kendall
* Rudie Kuiter
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Luis Marden
* Agnes Milowka
* Noel Monkman
* Steve Parish
* Zale Parry
* Pierre Petit
* Leni Riefenstahl
* Peter Scoones
* Brian Skerry
* Wesley C. Skiles
* E. Lee Spence
* Philippe Tailliez
* Ron and Valerie Taylor
* Albert Tillman
* John Veltri
* Stan Waterman
* Jiang Wenhao
* Michele Westmorland
* John Ernest Williamson
* J. Lamar Worzel

Underwater explorers|

* Caves
* Sheck Exley
* Martyn Farr
* Jill Heinerth
* William Hogarth Main
* Rick Stanton
* Bill Stone
* John Volanthen
* Reefs
*   * Wrecks
* Clive Cussler
* Aristotelis Zervoudis

Science of underwater diving

| Diving
physics|

* Breathing performance of regulators
* Buoyancy
* Archimedes' principle
* Neutral buoyancy
* Diffusion
* Molecular diffusion
* Force
* Gas law
* Amontons's law
* Boyle's law
* Charles's law
* Combined gas law
* Dalton's law
* Gay-Lussac's law
* Ideal gas law
* Oxygen fraction
* Permeation
* Pressure
* Absolute pressure
* Ambient pressure
* Atmospheric pressure
* Gauge pressure
* Hydrostatic pressure
* Metre sea water
* Partial pressure
* Psychrometric constant
* Solubility
* Henry's law
* Saturation
* Solution
* Supersaturation
* Surface tension
* Hydrophobe
* Surfactant
* Torricellian chamber
* Underwater vision
* Snell's law
* Weight
* Apparent weight

|

Diving
physiology|

* Artificial gills
* Circulatory system
* Blood shift
* Patent foramen ovale
* Perfusion
* Systemic circulation
* Cold shock response
* Diving reflex
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Lipid
* Maximum operating depth
* Metabolism
* Physiological response to water immersion
* Respiration
* Blood–air barrier
* Breathing
* CO₂ retention
* dead space
* Gas exchange
* Hypocapnia
* Normocapnia
* Respiratory exchange ratio
* Respiratory quotient
* Respiratory system
* Work of breathing
* Tissue
* Underwater vision

| Decompression
theory|

* Decompression models:
* Bühlmann decompression algorithm
* Haldane's decompression model
* Reduced gradient bubble model
* Thalmann algorithm
* Thermodynamic model of decompression
* Varying Permeability Model
* Equivalent air depth
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Maximum operating depth
* Oxygen window in diving decompression
* Physiology of decompression
* Pulmonary circulation

|

Diving
environment|

| Diving
environment
classification|

* Altitude diving
* Benign water diving
* Confined water diving
* Deep diving
* Inland diving
* Inshore diving
* Muck diving
* Night diving
* Open water diving
* Open ocean diving
* Black-water diving
* Blue-water diving
* Penetration diving
* Cave diving
* Ice diving
* Wreck diving
* Recreational dive sites
* Underwater environment

|

Environmental
impact|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving

Environmental
factors|

* Algal bloom
* Currents:
* Current
* Longshore drift
* Ocean current
* Rip current
* Tidal race
* Undertow
* Upwelling
* Ekman transport
* Halocline
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Reef
* Coral reef
* Stratification
* Thermocline
* Tides
* Turbidity
* Wind wave
* Breaking wave
* Surf
* Surge
* Wave shoaling

Special interest groups

* Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC)
* CMAS Europe
* Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA)
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Green Fins
* Historical Diving Society
* Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS)
* Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club
* Project AWARE
* Reef Life Survey
* Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS)
* SeaKeys
* Sea Research Society

Other

* Submarine escape training facility

* Category
* Commons
*   * Glossary
* Indexes: dive sites
* divers
* diving
*   * Outline
* Portal

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