Physical metallurgy

Short description: Physics studies of metallurgy

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Physical metallurgy is one of the two main branches of the scientific approach to metallurgy, which considers in a systematic way the physical properties of metals and alloys. It is basically the fundamentals and applications of the theory of phase transformations in metal and alloys.[1] While chemical metallurgy involves the domain of reduction/oxidation of metals, physical metallurgy deals mainly with mechanical and magnetic/electric/thermal properties of metals – as described by solid-state physics.

## Contents

* 1 Early history
* 2 See also
* 3 References
* 4 External links

## Early history

File:FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svgAn iron-carbon phase diagram showing the conditions necessary to form different phases

Timeline:[2]

* 1831 – Pavel Petrovich Anosov looks at metals in a microscope.
* 1841 – Anosov finds the secret to Damascus steel.
* 1868 – Dmitry Chernov founds physical metallurgy. He identifies the critical points of steel.
* 1875 – William Chandler Roberts-Austen provides the diagram Ag-Cu.
* 1878 – Adolf Martens describes relations between microstructure and physical properties, specially the role of kinks, defects and crystallization.
* 1887 – Henry Clifton Sorby determines the pearlite structure.
* 1887 – Floris Osmond gives the name and symbols associated to the phases of steel.
* 1896 – First attempt at the Fe-C diagram of steel by Albert Sauveur.
* 1897 – Roberts-Austen provides the complete Fe-C diagram. He also described the high temperature phase of steel (austenite).
* 1900 – Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom publishes the Fe Fe3C diagram taking into accounts Gibbs phase rule.
* 1906 – Alfred Wilm discovers age hardening by accident.
* 1919 –Gustav Heinrich Tammann predicts the order-disorder transition of alloys at low temperature
* 1922 – Arne Westgren (de) and Robert P. Fragman showed that the γ phase of steel is face-centered cubic (fcc), while the α, β and δ phases are body centered cubic.
* 1923 – Edgar Bain discovers superlattices
* 1926 – Bain describes the atomistic formation of martensite.
* 1926 – William Hume-Rothery enumerates the Hume-Rothery rules.[3]
* 1930 – Georgy Kurdyumov and George Sachs reveal the orientation of martensite and austenite, now named the Kurdyumov–Sachs orientation.
* 1947 – Ernest Kirkendall experiment reveals the vacancy mechanism of diffusion. It's discovery was called the Kirkendall effect.
* 1953 – E. O. Hall and independently N. J. Petch publish their theory of grain boundary strengthening (Hall–Petch law).

## See also

* Extractive metallurgy

## References

1. ↑ Christian, John Wyrill (2002). The theory of transformations in metals and alloys (3 ed.). Oxford Boston: Pergamon. ISBN 978-0-08-044019-4.
2. ↑ Schastlivtsev, Vadim M.; Zel'dovich, Vitaly I. (2022-02-07) (in en). Physical Metallurgy: Metals, Alloys, Phase Transformations. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-075802-3. https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Physical_Metallurgy/sutcEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=history+of+physical+metallurgy+austen&pg=PA2&printsec=frontcover.
3. ↑ "Hume-Rothery, William (1899–1968)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press), 2018-02-06, https://doi.org/10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.34051, retrieved 2025-09-24

## External links

* MIT Ocw (MIT OpenCourseWare) Course on Physical Metallurgy
* A series of Lectures by Prof. "Harry" Harshad Bhadeshia, University of Cambridge on the Physical Metallurgy of Steels
* Additional teaching materials by Prof. "Harry" Harshad Bhadeshia, University of Cambridge, at the Phase Transformations & Complex

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