Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics

Short description: Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics

A timeline of atomic and subatomic physics.

## Contents

* 1 Antiquity
* 2 The beginning of chemistry
* 3 The age of quantum mechanics
* 4 Quantum field theory
* 5 The formation and successes of the Standard Model
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 External links

## Antiquity

* 6th - 2nd Century BCE Kanada (philosopher) proposes that anu is an indestructible particle of matter, an "atom"; anu is an abstraction and not observable.[1]

* 430 BCE[2] Democritus speculates about fundamental indivisible particles—calls them "atoms"

## The beginning of chemistry

* 1766 Henry Cavendish discovers and studies hydrogen
* 1778 Carl Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier discover that air is composed mostly of nitrogen and oxygen
* 1781 Joseph Priestley creates water by igniting hydrogen and oxygen
* 1800 William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle use electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen
* 1803 John Dalton introduces atomic ideas into chemistry and states that matter is composed of atoms of different weights
* 1805 (approximate time) Thomas Young conducts the double-slit experiment with light
* 1811 Amedeo Avogadro claims that equal volumes of gases should contain equal numbers of molecules
* 1832 Michael Faraday states his laws of electrolysis
* 1839 Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect
* 1871 Dmitri Mendeleyev systematically examines the periodic table and predicts the existence of gallium, scandium, and germanium
* 1873 Johannes van der Waals introduces the idea of weak attractive forces between molecules
* 1885 Johann Balmer finds a mathematical expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths
* 1887 Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect
* 1894 Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay discover argon by spectroscopically analyzing the gas left over after nitrogen and oxygen are removed from air
* 1895 William Ramsay discovers terrestrial helium by spectroscopically analyzing gas produced by decaying uranium
* 1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers the radioactivity of uranium
* 1896 Pieter Zeeman studies the splitting of sodium D lines when sodium is held in a flame between strong magnetic poles
* 1897 Emil Wiechert, Walter Kaufmann and J.J. Thomson discover the electron
* 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie discovered the existence of the radioactive elements radium and polonium in their research of pitchblende
* 1898 William Ramsay and Morris Travers discover neon, and negatively charged beta particles

## The age of quantum mechanics

* 1887 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect that will play a very important role in the development of the quantum theory with Einstein's explanation of this effect in terms of quanta of light
* 1896 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers the X-rays while studying electrons in plasma; scattering X-rays—that were considered as 'waves' of high-energy electromagnetic radiation—Arthur Compton will be able to demonstrate in 1922 the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.
* 1900 Paul Villard discovers gamma-rays while studying uranium decay
* 1900 Johannes Rydberg refines the expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths
* 1900 Max Planck states his quantum hypothesis and blackbody radiation law
* 1902 Philipp Lenard observes that maximum photoelectron energies are independent of illuminating intensity but depend on frequency
* 1905 Albert Einstein explains the photoelectric effect
* 1906 Charles Barkla discovers that each element has a characteristic X-ray and that the degree of penetration of these X-rays is related to the atomic weight of the element
* 1909 Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden discover large angle deflections of alpha particles by thin metal foils
* 1909 Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrate that alpha particles are doubly ionized helium atoms
* 1911 Ernest Rutherford explains the Geiger–Marsden experiment by invoking a nuclear atom model and derives the Rutherford cross section
* 1908-1911 Jean Perrin proves the existence of atoms and molecules with experimental work to test Einstein's theoretical explanation of Brownian motion
* 1911 Ștefan Procopiu measures the magnetic dipole moment of the electron
* 1912 Max von Laue suggests using crystal lattices to diffract X-rays
* 1912 Walter Friedrich and Paul Knipping diffract X-rays in zinc blende
* 1913 William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg work out the Bragg condition for strong X-ray reflection
* 1913 Henry Moseley shows that nuclear charge is the real basis for numbering the elements
* 1913 Niels Bohr presents his quantum model of the atom[3]
* 1913 Robert Millikan measures the fundamental unit of electric charge
* 1913 Johannes Stark demonstrates that strong electric fields will split the Balmer spectral line series of hydrogen
* 1914 James Franck and Gustav Hertz observe atomic excitation
* 1914 Ernest Rutherford suggests that the positively charged atomic nucleus contains protons[4]
* 1915 Arnold Sommerfeld develops a modified Bohr atomic model with elliptic orbits to explain relativistic fine structure
* 1916 Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir formulate an electron shell model of chemical bonding
* 1917 Albert Einstein introduces the idea of stimulated radiation emission
* 1918 Ernest Rutherford notices that, when alpha particles were shot into nitrogen gas, his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of hydrogen nuclei.
* 1921 Alfred Landé introduces the Landé g-factor
* 1922 Arthur Compton studies X-ray photon scattering by electrons demonstrating the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.
* 1922 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach show "spin quantization"
* 1923 Lise Meitner discovers what is now referred to as the Auger process
* 1924 Louis de Broglie suggests that electrons may have wavelike properties in addition to their 'particle' properties; the wave–particle duality has been later extended to all fermions and bosons.
* 1924 John Lennard-Jones proposes a semiempirical interatomic force law
* 1924 Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo proposes a neutron.
* 1924 Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein introduce Bose–Einstein statistics
* 1925 Wolfgang Pauli states the quantum exclusion principle for electrons
* 1925 George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit postulate electron spin
* 1925 Pierre Auger discovers the Auger process (2 years after Lise Meitner)
* 1925 Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan formulate quantum matrix mechanics
* 1926 Erwin Schrödinger states his nonrelativistic quantum wave equation and formulates quantum wave mechanics
* 1926 Erwin Schrödinger proves that the wave and matrix formulations of quantum theory are mathematically equivalent
* 1926 Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon state their relativistic quantum wave equation, now the Klein–Gordon equation
* 1926 Enrico Fermi discovers the spin–statistics connection, for particles that are now called 'fermions', such as the electron (of spin-1/2).
* 1926 Paul Dirac introduces Fermi–Dirac statistics
* 1926 Gilbert N. Lewis introduces the term "photon", thought by him to be "the carrier of radiant energy."[5][6]
* 1927 Clinton Davisson, Lester Germer, and George Paget Thomson confirm the wavelike nature of electrons[7]
* 1927 Werner Heisenberg states the quantum uncertainty principle
* 1927 Max Born interprets the probabilistic nature of wavefunctions
* 1927 Walter Heitler and Fritz London introduce the concepts of valence bond theory and apply it to the hydrogen molecule.
* 1927 Thomas and Fermi develop the Thomas–Fermi model
* 1927 Max Born and Robert Oppenheimer introduce the Born–Oppenheimer approximation
* 1928 Chandrasekhara Raman studies optical photon scattering by electrons
* 1928 Paul Dirac states the Dirac equation
* 1928 Charles G. Darwin and Walter Gordon solve the Dirac equation for a Coulomb potential
* 1928 Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken introduce the concept of molecular orbital
* 1929 Oskar Klein discovers the Klein paradox
* 1929 Oskar Klein and Yoshio Nishina derive the Klein–Nishina cross section for high energy photon scattering by electrons
* 1929 Nevill Mott derives the Mott cross section for the Coulomb scattering of relativistic electrons
* 1930 Paul Dirac introduces electron hole theory
* 1930 Erwin Schrödinger predicts the zitterbewegung motion
* 1930 Fritz London explains van der Waals forces as due to the interacting fluctuating dipole moments between molecules
* 1931 John Lennard-Jones proposes the Lennard-Jones interatomic potential
* 1931 Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot observe but misinterpret neutron scattering in paraffin
* 1931 Wolfgang Pauli puts forth the neutrino hypothesis to explain the apparent violation of energy conservation in beta decay
* 1931 Linus Pauling discovers resonance bonding and uses it to explain the high stability of symmetric planar molecules
* 1931 Paul Dirac shows that charge quantization can be explained if magnetic monopoles exist
* 1931 Harold Urey discovers deuterium using evaporation concentration techniques and spectroscopy
* 1932 John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton split lithium and boron nuclei using proton bombardment
* 1932 James Chadwick discovers the neutron
* 1932 Werner Heisenberg presents the proton–neutron model of the nucleus and uses it to explain isotopes
* 1932 Carl D. Anderson discovers the positron
* 1933 Ernst Stueckelberg (1932), Lev Landau (1932), and Clarence Zener discover the Landau–Zener transition
* 1933 Max Delbrück suggests that quantum effects will cause photons to be scattered by an external electric field
* 1934 Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot bombard aluminium atoms with alpha particles to create artificially radioactive phosphorus-30
* 1934 Leó Szilárd realizes that nuclear chain reactions may be possible
* 1934 Enrico Fermi publishes a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced.
* 1934 Lev Landau tells Edward Teller that non-linear molecules may have vibrational modes which remove the degeneracy of an orbitally degenerate state (Jahn–Teller effect)
* 1934 Enrico Fermi suggests bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons to make a 93 proton element
* 1934 Pavel Cherenkov reports that light is emitted by relativistic particles traveling in a nonscintillating liquid
* 1935 Hideki Yukawa presents a theory of the nuclear force and predicts the scalar meson
* 1935 Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen put forth the EPR paradox
* 1935 Henry Eyring develops the transition state theory
* 1935 Niels Bohr presents his analysis of the EPR paradox
* 1936 Alexandru Proca formulates the relativistic quantum field equations for a massive vector meson of spin-1 as a basis for nuclear forces
* 1936 Eugene Wigner develops the theory of neutron absorption by atomic nuclei
* 1936 Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller present their systematic study of the symmetry types for which the Jahn–Teller effect is expected[8]
* 1937 Carl Anderson proves experimentally the existence of the pion predicted by Yukawa's theory.
* 1937 Hans Hellmann finds the Hellmann–Feynman theorem
* 1937 Seth Neddermeyer, Carl Anderson, J.C. Street, and E.C. Stevenson discover muons using cloud chamber measurements of cosmic rays
* 1939 Richard Feynman finds the Hellmann–Feynman theorem
* 1939 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombard uranium salts with thermal neutrons and discover barium among the reaction products
* 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch determine that nuclear fission is taking place in the Hahn–Strassmann experiments
* 1942 Enrico Fermi makes the first controlled nuclear chain reaction
* 1942 Ernst Stueckelberg introduces the propagator to positron theory and interprets positrons as negative energy electrons moving backwards through spacetime

## Quantum field theory

* 1947 Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford measure the Lamb–Retherford shift
* 1947 Cecil Powell, César Lattes, and Giuseppe Occhialini discover the pi meson by studying cosmic ray tracks
* 1947 Richard Feynman presents his propagator approach to quantum electrodynamics[9]
* 1948 Hendrik Casimir predicts a rudimentary attractive Casimir force on a parallel plate capacitor
* 1951 Martin Deutsch discovers positronium
* 1952 David Bohm propose his interpretation of quantum mechanics
* 1953 Robert Wilson observes Delbruck scattering of 1.33 MeV gamma-rays by the electric fields of lead nuclei
* 1953 Charles H. Townes, collaborating with J. P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger, builds the first ammonia maser
* 1954 Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills investigate a theory of hadronic isospin by demanding local gauge invariance under isotopic spin space rotations, the first non-Abelian gauge theory
* 1955 Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis discover the antiproton
* 1956 Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan detect antineutrino
* 1956 Chen Ning Yang and Tsung Lee propose parity violation by the weak nuclear force
* 1956 Chien Shiung Wu discovers parity violation by the weak force in decaying cobalt
* 1957 Gerhart Luders proves the CPT theorem
* 1957 Richard Feynman, Murray Gell-Mann, Robert Marshak, and E.C.G. Sudarshan propose a vector/axial vector (VA) Lagrangian for weak interactions.[10][11][12][13][14][15]
* 1958 Marcus Sparnaay experimentally confirms the Casimir effect
* 1959 Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm predict the Aharonov–Bohm effect
* 1960 R.G. Chambers experimentally confirms the Aharonov–Bohm effect[16]
* 1961 Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman discover the Eightfold Way patterns, the SU(3) group
* 1961 Jeffrey Goldstone considers the breaking of global phase symmetry
* 1962 Leon Lederman shows that the electron neutrino is distinct from the muon neutrino
* 1963 Eugene Wigner discovers the fundamental roles played by quantum symmetries in atoms and molecules

## The formation and successes of the Standard Model

* 1964 Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig propose the quark/aces model[17][18]
* 1964 Peter Higgs considers the breaking of local phase symmetry
* 1964 John Stewart Bell shows that all local hidden variable theories must satisfy Bell's inequality
* 1964 Val Fitch and James Cronin observe CP violation by the weak force in the decay of K mesons
* 1967 Steven Weinberg puts forth his electroweak model of leptons[19][20]
* 1969 John Clauser, Michael Horne, Abner Shimony and Richard Holt propose a polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality
* 1970 Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos, and Luciano Maiani propose the charm quark
* 1971 Gerard 't Hooft shows that the Glashow-Salam-Weinberg electroweak model can be renormalized[21]
* 1972 Stuart Freedman and John Clauser perform the first polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality
* 1973 David Politzer and Frank Anthony Wilczek propose the asymptotic freedom of quarks[18]
* 1974 Burton Richter and Samuel Ting discover the J/ψ particle implying the existence of the charm quark
* 1974 Robert J. Buenker and Sigrid D. Peyerimhoff introduce the multireference configuration interaction method.
* 1975 Martin Perl discovers the tau lepton
* 1977 Steve Herb finds the upsilon resonance implying the existence of the beauty/bottom quark
* 1982 Alain Aspect, J. Dalibard, and G. Roger perform a polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality that rules out conspiratorial polarizer communication
* 1983 Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer, and the CERN UA-1 collaboration find the W and Z intermediate vector bosons[22]
* 1989 The Z intermediate vector boson resonance width indicates three quark–lepton generations
* 1994 The CERN LEAR Crystal Barrel Experiment justifies the existence of glueballs (exotic meson).
* 1995 The D0 and CDF experiments at the Fermilab Tevatron discover the top quark.
* 1998 Super-Kamiokande (Japan) observes evidence for neutrino oscillations, implying that at least one neutrino has mass.
* 1999 Ahmed Zewail wins the Nobel prize in chemistry for his work on femtochemistry for atoms and molecules.[23]
* 2001 The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada) confirms the existence of neutrino oscillations.
* 2005 At the RHIC accelerator of Brookhaven National Laboratory they have created a quark–gluon liquid of very low viscosity, perhaps the quark–gluon plasma
* 2010 The Large Hadron Collider at CERN begins operation with the primary goal of searching for the Higgs boson.
* 2012 CERN announces the discovery of a new particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson of the Standard Model after experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.

## See also

* History of subatomic physics
* History of quantum mechanics
* History of quantum field theory
* History of the molecule
* History of thermodynamics
* History of chemistry
* Golden age of physics

## References

1. ↑ Narayan, Rupa (2013). Space, Time and Anu in Vaisheshika. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA. http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/roopa51.pdf.
2. ↑ Teresi, Dick (2010). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science. Simon and Schuster. pp. 213–214. ISBN 978-1-4391-2860-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C&pg=PA214.
3. ↑ Jammer, Max (1966), The conceptual development of quantum mechanics, New York: McGraw-Hill, OCLC 534562
4. ↑ Tivel, David E. (September 2012) (in en). Evolution: The Universe, Life, Cultures, Ethnicity, Religion, Science, and Technology. Dorrance Publishing. ISBN 9781434929747. https://books.google.com/books?id=NZsW0gj1OIcC&q=1914+Ernest+Rutherford+suggests+that+the+positively+charged+atomic+nucleus+contains+protons&pg=PA155.
5. ↑ Gilbert N. Lewis. Letter to the editor of Nature (Vol. 118, Part 2, December 18, 1926, pp. 874–875).
6. ↑ The origin of the word "photon"
7. ↑ The Davisson–Germer experiment, which demonstrates the wave nature of the electron
8. ↑ A. Abragam and B. Bleaney. 1970. Electron Parmagnetic Resonance of Transition Ions, Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K., p. 911
9. ↑ Feynman, R.P. (2006). QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12575-9.
10. ↑ Richard Feynman; QED. Princeton University Press: Princeton, (1982)
11. ↑ Richard Feynman; Lecture Notes in Physics. Princeton University Press: Princeton, (1986)
12. ↑ The Character of Physical Law. MIT Press. 2001. ISBN 0-262-56003-8.
13. ↑ Feynman, R.P. (2006). QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12575-9.
14. ↑ Schweber, Silvan S.; Q.E.D. and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga, Princeton University Press (1994) ISBN:0-691-03327-7
15. ↑ Schwinger, Julian; Selected Papers on Quantum Electrodynamics, Dover Publications, Inc. (1958) ISBN:0-486-60444-6
16. ↑ *Kleinert, H. (2008). Multivalued Fields in Condensed Matter, Electrodynamics, and Gravitation. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-279-170-2. http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/public_html/kleiner_reb11/psfiles/mvf.pdf.
17. ↑ Yndurain, Francisco Jose; Quantum Chromodynamics: An Introduction to the Theory of Quarks and Gluons, Springer Verlag, New York, 1983. ISBN:0-387-11752-0
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Frank Wilczek (1999) "Quantum field theory", Reviews of Modern Physics 71: S83–S95. Also doi=10.1103/Rev. Mod. Phys. 71.
19. ↑ Weinberg, Steven; The Quantum Theory of Fields: Foundations (vol. I), Cambridge University Press (1995) ISBN:0-521-55001-7. The first chapter (pp. 1–40) of Weinberg's monumental treatise gives a brief history of Q.F.T., pp. 608.
20. ↑ Weinberg, Steven; The Quantum Theory of Fields: Modern Applications (vol. II), Cambridge University Press:Cambridge, U.K. (1996) ISBN:0-521-55001-7, pp. 489.
21. ↑ * Gerard 't Hooft (2007) "The Conceptual Basis of Quantum Field Theory" in Butterfield, J., and John Earman, eds., Philosophy of Physics, Part A. Elsevier: 661-730.
22. ↑ Pais, Abraham; Inward Bound: Of Matter & Forces in the Physical World, Oxford University Press (1986) ISBN:0-19-851997-4 Written by a former Einstein assistant at Princeton, this is a beautiful detailed history of modern fundamental physics, from 1895 (discovery of X-rays) to 1983 (discovery of vectors bosons at C.E.R.N.)
23. ↑ "Press Release: The 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry". 12 October 1999. https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1999/press.html.

## External links

* Alain Connes official website with downloadable papers.
* Alain Connes's Standard Model.
* A History of Quantum Mechanics
* A Brief History of Quantum Mechanics

* v
* t
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Particles in physics

Elementary|

| Fermions|

| Quarks|

* Up (quark
* antiquark)
* Down (quark
* antiquark)
* Charm (quark
* antiquark)
* Strange (quark
* antiquark)
* Top (quark
* antiquark)
* Bottom (quark
* antiquark)

|

Leptons|

* Electron
* Positron
* Muon
* Antimuon
* Tau
* Antitau
* Electron neutrino
* Electron antineutrino
* Muon neutrino
* Muon antineutrino
* Tau neutrino
* Tau antineutrino

Bosons|

| Gauge|

* Photon
* Gluon
* W and Z bosons

|

Scalar|

* Higgs boson

Ghost fields|

* Faddeev–Popov ghosts

Hypothetical|

| Superpartners|

| Gauginos|

* Gluino
* Gravitino
* Photino

|

Others|

* Higgsino
* Neutralino
* Chargino
* Axino
* Sfermion (Stop squark)

Others|

* Planck particle
* Axion
* Dilaton
* Dual graviton
* Graviton
* Leptoquark
* Majoron
* Majorana fermion
* Magnetic monopole
* Preon
* Sterile neutrino
* Tachyon
* W′ and Z′ bosons
* X and Y bosons

Composite|

| Hadrons|

| Baryons / hyperons|

* Nucleon
* Proton
* Antiproton
* Neutron
* Antineutron
* Delta baryon
* Lambda baryon
* Sigma baryon
* Xi baryon
* Omega baryon

|

Mesons / quarkonia|

* Pion
* Rho meson
* Eta and eta prime mesons
* Phi meson
* J/psi meson
* Omega meson
* Upsilon meson
* Kaon
* B meson
* D meson

Exotic hadrons|

* Tetraquark
* Pentaquark

Others|

* Atomic nuclei
* Atoms
* Exotic atoms
* Positronium
* Muonium
* Tauonium
* Onia
* Superatoms
* Molecules

Hypothetical|

| Hypothetical baryons|

* Hexaquark
* Skyrmion

|

Hypothetical mesons|

* Glueball
* Theta meson
* T meson

Others|

* Mesonic molecule
* Pomeron
* Diquarks

Quasiparticles|

* Davydov soliton
* Dropleton
* Exciton
* Hole
* Magnon
* Phonon
* Plasmaron
* Plasmon
* Polariton
* Polaron
* Roton
* Trion

Lists|

* Baryons
* Mesons
* Particles
* Quasiparticles
* Timeline of particle discoveries

Related|

* History of subatomic physics
* timeline
* Standard Model
* mathematical formulation
* Subatomic particles
* Particles
* Antiparticles
* Nuclear physics
* Eightfold Way
* Quark model
* Exotic matter
* Massless particle
* Relativistic particle
* Virtual particle
* Wave–particle duality
* Particle chauvinism

Wikipedia books|

* Hadronic Matter
* Particles of the Standard Model
* Leptons
* Quarks

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