Bishkek

Bishkek,[lower-alpha 1] formerly known as Pishpek (until 1926),[lower-alpha 2] and then Frunze (1926–1991),[lower-alpha 3] is the capital and largest urban city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative centre of the Chüy Region.[lower-alpha 4] Bishkek is situated near the border with Kazakhstan and has a population of around 1,200,000 people, as of 2024.[1]

The Khanate of Kokand established the fortress of Pishpek in 1825 to control local caravan routes and to collect tribute from Kyrgyz tribes. On 4 September 1860, with the approval of the Kyrgyz, Russian forces led by Colonel Apollon Zimmermann destroyed the fortress. In the present day, the fortress ruins can be found just north of Jibek Jolu Street, near the new main mosque.[2] A Russian settlement was established in 1868 on the site of the fortress under its original name, Pishpek. It lay within the General Governorship of Russian Turkestan and its Semirechye Oblast.

The Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast was established in 1925 in Russian Turkestan, promoting Pishpek to its capital. In 1926, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union renamed the city Frunze, after Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze (1885–1925), who was born there. Frunze became the capital of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, during the final stages of national delimitation in the Soviet Union. In 1991, the Kyrgyz parliament changed the capital's name to a modified original name of Pishpek as Bishkek.

Bishkek is situated at an altitude of about 800 metres (2,600 ft), just off the northern fringe of the Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range, an extension of the Tian Shan mountain range. These mountains rise to a height of 4,895 metres (16,060 ft). North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighbouring Kazakhstan. The river Chüy drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the Turkestan–Siberia Railway by a spur line.

Bishkek is a very large city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards. There are also thousands of smaller, privately built houses, mostly outside the city centre. Streets follow a grid pattern, with most flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels, which provide water to trees which provide shade during the hot summers.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 2.1 Kokhand rule
* 2.2 Tsarist era
* 2.3 Soviet era
* 2.4 Independence era
* 3 Geography
* 3.1 Orientation
* 3.2 City centre
* 3.3 Outer neighbourhoods
* 3.4 Outside the city
* 3.5 Distances
* 3.6 Climate
* 4 Demographics
* 5 Ecology and environment
* 5.1 Air quality
* 6 Economy
* 6.1 Housing
* 7 Government
* 7.1 Administrative divisions
* 8 Culture
* 8.1 Religion
* 8.2 Sports
* 9 Education
* 10 Transportation
* 10.1 Mass public transport
* 10.2 Commuter and long-distance buses
* 10.3 Rail
* 10.4 Air
* 11 Notable people
* 12 Twin towns – sister cities
* 13 See also
* 14 Notes
* 15 References
* 16 Bibliography
* 17 External links

## Etymology

Bishkek is supposedly named after the paddle used to churn fermenting milk.[3][4][5]

The official website of the Bishkek's city hall provides the following etymological justification for the name of the city: the pregnant wife of a hero lost a paddle used to churn kumis. While looking for it, she suddenly gave birth to a boy, who she named Bishkek. Bishkek would grow up to be a noble figure and after his death, was buried on a mound near the banks of the Alamüdün. There, a tombstone was erected. The building was seen and described by travelers of the 17th and 18th centuries.[6]

Under Soviet rule, from 1926 to 1991, the city was named Frunze in honour of Bolshevik Mikhail Frunze.

## History

Based on DNA evidence, the area near Bishkek is considered one of the possible origins of the Black Death between AD 1346 and 1353.[7]

### Kokhand rule

Originally a caravan rest stop, possibly founded by the Sogdians, on one of the branches of the Silk Road through the Tian Shan range, the location was fortified in 1825 by the khan of Kokand with a mud fort. In the last years of Kokhand rule, the Pishpek fortress was led by Atabek, the Datka. In 1844, the forces of Ormon Khan, the leader of the Кыргыз хандыгы (ky), briefly captured the fortress.[8]

### Tsarist era

In 1860, Imperial Russia annexed the area, and the military forces of Colonel Apollon Zimmerman took and razed the fort. Colonel Zimmermann rebuilt the town over the destroyed fort and appointed field-Poruchik Titov as head of a new Russian garrison. The Imperial Russian government redeveloped the site from 1877 onward, encouraging the settlement of Russian peasants by giving them fertile land to develop.

### Soviet era

Statue of Mikhail Frunze near the railway station

In 1926, the city became the capital of the newly established Kirghiz ASSR and was renamed Frunze after Mikhail Frunze, Lenin's close associate who was born in Bishkek and played key roles during the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 and during the Russian Civil War of the early 1920s.

### Independence era

The early 1990s were a tumultuous time for Bishkek. In June 1990, a state of emergency was declared following severe ethnic riots in southern Kyrgyzstan that threatened to spread to the capital. The city was renamed Bishkek on 5 February 1991, and Kyrgyzstan achieved independence later that year during the breakup of the Soviet Union. Before independence, the majority of Bishkek's population were ethnic Russians. In 2004, Russians made up approximately 20% of the city's population, and about 7–8% in 2011.[9]

Bishkek is Kyrgyzstan's financial centre, with all of the country's 21 commercial banks headquartered there. During the Soviet era, the city was home to many industrial plants, but most have been shut down since 1991 or now operate on a much-reduced scale. One of Bishkek's largest employment centres today is the Dordoy Bazaar open market, where many of the Chinese goods imported to CIS countries are sold.

## Geography

Map including Bishkek (labelled as Frunze) (AMS, 1948)

### Orientation

Although Bishkek itself is relatively young, its surrounding area has some sites of interest dating to prehistoric times. There are also sites from the Greco-Buddhist period, the period of Nestorian influence, the era of the Central Asian khanates, and the Soviet period.[10]

Russian Orthodox cathedral of the Holy Resurrection

The central part of the city is laid out on a rectangular grid plan. The city's main street is the east-west Chüy Avenue (Chüy Prospekti), named after the region's main river. In the Soviet era, it was called Lenin Avenue. Along or near it are many important government buildings and universities. These include the Academy of Sciences compound. The westernmost section of the avenue is known as Deng Xiaoping Avenue.

Sovietskaya Street forms the primary north–south corridor through Bishkek. Officially, Sovietskaya Street has been renamed Yusup Abdrakhmanov Street, but it is still commonly referred to by its original name. Its northern and southern sections are called, respectively, Yelebesov and Baityk Batyr Streets. Several major shopping centres are located along with it, and in the north, it provides access to Dordoy Bazaar.

Erkindik ("Freedom") Boulevard runs from north to south, from the main railroad station (Bishkek II) south of Chüy Avenue to the museum quarter and sculpture park just north of Chüy Avenue, and further north toward the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In the past, it was called Dzerzhinsky Boulevard, named after a Communist revolutionary, Felix Dzerzhinsky, and its northern continuation is still called Dzerzhinsky Street.

An important east–west street is Jibek Jolu ('Silk Road'). It runs parallel to Chüy Avenue about 2 km (1.2 mi) north of it and is part of the main east–west road of Chüy Region. Both the eastern and western bus terminals are located along Jibek Jolu.

There is a Roman Catholic church located at ul. Vasiljeva 197 (near Rynok Bayat). It is the only Catholic cathedral in Kyrgyzstan.[11]

A stadium named in honour of Dolon Omurzakov is located near the centre of Bishkek. This is the largest stadium in the Kyrgyz Republic.

### City centre

* Kyrgyz State Historical Museum, located in Ala-Too Square, the main city square.
* State Museum of Applied Arts, containing examples of traditional Kyrgyz handicrafts.
* Frunze House Museum.
* Statue of Ivan Panfilov in the park near the White House.
* An equestrian statue of Mikhail Frunze stands in a large park (Boulevard Erkindik) across from the train station.
* The train station was built in 1946 by German prisoners of war and has survived since then without further renovation or repairs; most of those who built it perished and were buried in unmarked pits near the station.[12]
* The main government building, the White House, is a large seven-story marble building and the former headquarters of the Communist Party of the Kirghiz SSR.
* At Ala-Too Square there is an independence monument where the changing of the guards may be watched.
* Osh Bazaar, west of the city centre, is a large, picturesque produce market.
* Kyrgyz National Philharmonic, concert hall.

### Outer neighbourhoods

The Dordoy Bazaar, just inside the bypass highway on the north-eastern edge of the city, is a major retail and wholesale market.

### Outside the city

The Kyrgyz Ala-Too mountain range, some 40 kilometres (25 mi) away, provides a spectacular backdrop to the city; the Ala Archa National Park is only a 30- to 45-minute drive away.

### Distances

Bishkek is about 300 km away directly from the country's second largest city Osh. However, its nearest large city is Almaty of Kazakhstan, which is 190 km to the east. Furthermore, it is 470 km from Tashkent (Uzbekistan), 680 km from Dushanbe (Tajikistan), and about 1,000 km each from Astana (Kazakhstan), Ürümqi (China), Islamabad (Pakistan), and Kabul (Afghanistan).

### Climate

Bishkek has a Mediterranean-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dsa), as the average mean temperature in the winter is below 0 °C (32.0 °F).[13] Average precipitation is around 440 millimetres (17 in) per year. Average daily high temperatures range from 3 °C (37.4 °F) in January to about 31 °C (87.8 °F) during July.[14] The summer months are dominated by dry periods, punctuated by the occasional thunderstorm, which produces strong gusty winds and rare dust storms. The mountains to the south provide a natural boundary and protection from damaging weather, as does the smaller mountain chain that runs north-west to south-east. In the winter months, sparse snow storms and frequent heavy fog are the dominating features. There are sometimes temperature inversions, during which the fog can last for days at a time.

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## Demographics

Bishkek is the most populated city in Kyrgyzstan. Its population, estimated in 2021, was 1,074,075.[16] From the foundation of the city to the mid-1990s, ethnic Russians and other peoples of European descent (Ukrainians, Germans) comprised the majority of the city's population. According to the 1970 census, the ethnic Kyrgyz were only 12.3%, while Europeans comprised more than 80% of the Frunze population. Now Bishkek is a predominantly Kyrgyz city, with 75% of its residents Kyrgyz, while European peoples make up around 15% of the population.[17] Despite this fact, Russian is the main language while Kyrgyz continues losing ground, especially among the younger generations.[18]

Historical populations in Bishkek

| Year| Pop.| ±% p.a.

|
|

1876| 182| —
1882| 2,135| +50.74%
1893| 4,857| +7.76%
1897| 6,615| +8.03%
1902| 9,656| +7.86%
1907| 13,752| +7.33%
1913| 20,102| +6.53%
1926| 36,610| +4.72%
1939| 92,783| +7.42%
1959| 223,831| +4.50%
| Year| Pop.| ±% p.a.

|
|

1970| 436,459| +6.26%
1979| 535,450| +2.30%
1989| 619,903| +1.48%
1999| 762,308| +2.09%
2009| 835,743| +0.92%
2010| 846,500| +1.29%
2011| 859,800| +1.57%
2012| 874,400| +1.70%
2021| 1,074,075| +2.31%
Source:[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][16]

## Ecology and environment

### Air quality

Emissions of air pollutants in Bishkek amounted to 14,400 tons in 2010.[28] Among all cities in Kyrgyzstan, the level of air pollution in Bishkek is the highest, occasionally exceeding maximum allowable concentrations by several times, especially in the city centre.[29] For example, concentrations of formaldehyde occasionally exceed maximum allowable limits by a factor of four. The hydrogeologist Zheenbek Kulbekov identifies coal-heating mainly in informal settlements (samozakhvat), the exhaust from private vehicles and the lack of air circulation as the three main factors for the grave air pollution in Kyrgyzstan's capital.[30] The latter is mainly due to the haphazard construction of private multi-story buildings - in contradiction to former city plans developed up until the end of the USSR - which prompted discussion on a moratorium on the further construction of high-rise buildings.[31]

Responsibility for ambient air quality monitoring in Bishkek lies with the Kyrgyz State Agency of Hydrometeorology. There are seven air-quality monitoring stations in Bishkek, measuring levels of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, and ammonia.[28]

## Economy

Dordoy Bazaar

Bishkek uses the Kyrgyzstan currency, the som. The som's value fluctuates regularly but averaged around 86 som per U.S. dollar as of November 2024. The economy in Bishkek is primarily agricultural, and agricultural products are sometimes bartered in the outlying regions. The streets of Bishkek are regularly lined with produce vendors in a market-style venue. In most of the downtown area there is a more urban cityscape with banks, stores, markets, and malls. Sought-after goods include hand-crafted artisan pieces, such as statues, carvings, paintings, and many nature-based sculptures.

### Housing

As with many cities in post-Soviet states, housing in Bishkek has undergone extensive changes since the collapse of the Soviet Union. While housing was formerly distributed to citizens in the Soviet era, housing in Bishkek has since become privatised.

Though single-family houses are slowly becoming more popular, the majority of the residents live in Soviet-era apartments. Despite the Kyrgyz economy experiencing growth, increases in available housing have been slow with very little new construction and a doubling of prices from 2001 to 2002.[32] This changed by the 2010s when an unprecedented housing boom has transformed the city. By 2021, over 246 construction firms were active in Kyrgyzstan, primarily focusing on upscale residences, often marketed as 'business class' or 'premium class' accommodations.[30] The southern part of the city, where a significant portion of new constructions is concentrated, faces a critical concern due to its proximity to the Issyk-Ata fault line.[30] Compounded by the inadequately seismic-proof architecture of most of these buildings, this situation poses a serious threat to the safety of residents and has sparked criticism.[31] Limited land availability propels private developers to encroach into socialist-era residential zones, resulting in the loss of green spaces and vital social infrastructure, including sports fields and playgrounds.[33]

Those unable to afford the high housing price within Bishkek, notably internal migrants from rural villages and small provincial towns, often have to resort to informal squatter settlements on the city's outskirts such as Ak Jar, Ak Jol, Ak Örgö, Altyn Kazyk, Archa Beshik, Kalys-Ordo, Kayndy-2, Kelechek, Muras-Ordo and TETS-2 Yntymak.[34] These urban settlements are estimated to house 400,000 people or about 30 percent of Bishkek's population. While many of the settlements have lacked basic necessities such as electricity and running water, recently, the local government has pushed to provide these services.[35]

## Government

Local government is administered by the Bishkek Mayor's Office. Askarbek Salymbekov was mayor until his resignation in August 2005, after which his deputy, Arstanbek Nogoev, took over the mayorship. Nogoev was in turn removed from his position in October 2007 through a decree of President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and replaced by businessman and former first deputy prime minister Daniar Usenov.[36][37][38] In July 2008 former head of the Kyrgyz Railways Nariman Tuleyev was appointed mayor, who was dismissed by the interim government after 7 April 2010. From April 2010 to February 2011 Isa Omurkulov, also a former head of the Kyrgyz Railways, was an interim mayor,[39] and from 4 February 2011 to 14 December 2013 he was re-elected the mayor of Bishkek.[40][41] Kubanychbek Kulmatov was nominated for election by parliamentary group of Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan in city kenesh, and he was elected as a new mayor on 15 January 2014,[42] and stepped down on 9 February 2016. The next mayor, Albek Sabirbekovich Ibraimov, was also nominated for election by parliamentary group of Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan in city kenesh, and Bishkek City Kenesh elected him on 27 February 2016.[43] The current mayor is Emil Abdykadyrov, who was elected on 24 February 2022.

* Former Central Committee Building

* Former Supreme Soviet Building

### Administrative divisions

Bishkek city covers 169.6 square kilometres (65.5 square miles)[27] and is administered separately and not part of any region. Besides the city proper, one urban-type settlement and one village are administered by the city: Chong-Aryk and Orto-Say.[44] The city is divided into 4 districts: Birinchi May, Lenin, Oktyabr and Sverdlov. Chong-Aryk and Orto-Say are part of Lenin District.[44] Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, there has been discussion of replacing the Soviet era district names with ones that reflect Kyrgyz identity and history. Other former Soviet republics have widely replaced Soviet era place names; despite renaming the capital in 1991, Kyrgyzstan is the only nation in Central Asia to retain Soviet era names for districts in its capital.[45]

## Culture

Bishkek is culturally the country's most important city. It is home to the National Library of the Kyrgyz Republic as well as a number of museums, e.g. the Kyrgyz State Historical Museum or the M. V. Frunze Museum. The national public broadcasting service KTRK or Kyrgyz Television is based in Bishkek. Newspapers in Bishkek include the English-language Bishkek Observer, the world's only dungan-language newspaper called Huimin bao and the Russian-language Vecherniy Bishkek newspaper.

### Religion

The largest religion is Sunni Islam, but since many Russians live in Kyrgyzstan, there is also a large Russian Orthodox community. The Bishkek Central Mosque is one of the largest in Central Asia. Bishkek is home to the Roman Catholic Apostolic Administration of Kyrgyzstan.

### Sports

Bishkek is home to Dolen Omurzakov Stadium, the largest football stadium in Kyrgyzstan and the only one eligible to host international matches.[46] Several Bishkek-based football teams play on this pitch, including six-time Kyrgyzstan League champions, Dordoi Bishkek. Others include Alga Bishkek, Ilbirs Bishkek, and RUOR-Guardia Bishkek.

Bishkek hosted the 2014 IIHF Challenge Cup of Asia – Division I.

## Education

Educational institutions in Bishkek include:

* Kyrgyz International University NRZ
* APAP KR
* American University of Central Asia
* Arabaev Kyrgyz State University[47]
* Bishkek Humanities University
* International Atatürk-Alatoo University[48]
* International University of Kyrgyzstan[49]
* Kyrgyz International University NRZ
* Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University[50]
* I.K. Akhunbaev Kyrgyz State Medical Academy
* Kyrgyz State National University[51]
* Kyrgyz Technical University
* Kyrgyz-Russian State University
* Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University[52]
* Kyrgyz Uzbek University
* Plato University of Management and Design[53]
* University of Central Asia[54]

In addition, the following international schools serve the expatriate community in Bishkek:

* European School in Central Asia[55]
* Oxford International School Bishkek[56]
* Hope Academy of Bishkek[57]
* QSI International School of Bishkek[58]
* Silk Road International School[59]

## Transportation

A typical Bishkek passenger van passes by the East Bus Terminal The electronic board in the main hall of Bishkek-2, the main train station, shows Bishkek and Moscow time. Bishkek-2 railway station

### Mass public transport

Public transportation includes buses, electric trolleybuses, and public vans (alternatively known as minibuses[60] or known in Russian as marshrutka). The first bus and trolley bus services in Bishkek were introduced in 1934 and 1951, respectively.[61]

Taxi cabs can be found throughout the city.

The city is considering designing and building a light rail system.

### Commuter and long-distance buses

There are two main bus stations in Bishkek. The smaller old Eastern Bus Station is primarily the terminal for minibusses to various destinations within or just beyond the eastern suburbs, such as Kant, Tokmok, Kemin, Issyk Ata, or the Korday border crossing.

Long-distance regular bus and minibus services to all parts of the country, as well as to Almaty (the largest city in neighbouring Kazakhstan) and Kashgar, China, run mostly from the newer grand Western Bus Station; only a smaller number run from the Eastern Station.

The Dordoy Bazaar on the north-eastern outskirts of the city also contains makeshift terminals for frequent minibusses to suburban towns in all directions (from Sokuluk in the west to Tokmak in the east) and to some buses taking traders to Kazakhstan and Siberia.

### Rail

As of 2007[update], the Bishkek-2 railway station sees only a few trains a day. It offers a popular three-day train service from Bishkek to Moscow.

There are also long-distance trains that leave for Siberia (Novosibirsk and Novokuznetsk), via Almaty, over the TurkSib route, and to Yekaterinburg (Sverdlovsk) in the Urals, via Astana. These services are remarkably slow (over 48 hours to Yekaterinburg), due to long stops at the border and the indirect route (the trains first have to go west for more than a 100 kilometres (62 mi) before they enter the main TurkSib line and can continue to the east or north). For example, as of the fall of 2008, train No. 305 Bishkek-Yekaterinburg was scheduled to take 11 hours to reach the Shu junction—a distance of some 269 kilometres (167 mi) by rail, and less than half of that by road.[62]

### Air

The city is served by Manas International Airport (IATA code BSZ), located approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) north-west of the city centre.

In 2001, the United States obtained the right to use Manas International Airport as an air base for its military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.[63] Russia subsequently (2003) established an airbase of its own (Kant Air Base) near Kant, some 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Bishkek. It is based at a facility that used to be home to a major Soviet military pilot training school; one of its students, Hosni Mubarak, later became president of Egypt.

## Notable people

* Chinghiz Aitmatov (1928–2008), writer
* Sopubek Begaliev (1931–2002), economist
* Altynai Botoyarova (born 2004), model
* Igor Chudinov (born 1961), politician
* Tugolbay Sydykbekov (1912–1997), writer
* Talant Dujshebaev (born 1968), handball coach and former handball player
* Mikhail Frunze (1885–1925), after whom the city was named from 1926 to 1991
* Nasirdin Isanov (1943–1991), first prime minister of Kyrgyzstan
* Kamchy Kolbayev (1974–2023), crime boss
* Sergei B. Korolev (born 1962), First Deputy Director of the Federal Security Service
* Felix Kulov (born 1948), politician
* Orzubek Nazarov (born 1966), former WBA lightweight boxing champion
* Roza Otunbayeva (born 1950), third president of Kyrgyzstan
* Vladimir Perlin (born 1942), cellist
* Denis Petrashov (born 2000), swimmer, Youth Games and Maccabiah Games medalist
* Salizhan Sharipov (born 1964), first cosmonaut of independent Kyrgyzstan
* Antonina Shevchenko (born 1984), kickboxer
* Valentina Shevchenko (born 1988), kickboxer and UFC champion
* Iasyr Shivaza (1906–1988), poet and activist
* Natalya Tsyganova (born 1971), 800m medallist at the World and European championships, representing Russia
* Daniar Usenov (born 1960), banker and politician

## Twin towns – sister cities

Bishkek is twinned with:[64]

* Almaty, Kazakhstan (1994)
* Ankara, Turkey (1992)[65]
* Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (2018)[66]
* Colorado Springs, United States (1994)[67]
* Doha, Qatar (2014)
* Gumi, South Korea (1991)
* İzmir, Turkey (1994)
* Kyiv, Ukraine (1997)[68]
* Lianyungang, China (2015)[69]
* Astana, Kazakhstan (2011)
* Qazvin, Iran (2003)
* Samsun, Turkey[70]
* Liège, Belgium (2012)[71]
* Shenzhen, China (2016)[72]
* Tashkent, Uzbekistan[73]
* Tehran, Iran (1994)
* Trabzon, Turkey (2014)[74]
* Ufa, Russia (2017)
* Ürümqi, China (1993)[75]
* Wuhan, China (2016)
* Yinchuan, China (2000)[76]

## See also

* List of monuments of Bishkek
* Outline of Kyrgyzstan

## Notes

1. ↑ Kyrgyz: Бишкек, romanised: Bişkek, ky; Russian: Бишкек, ru
2. ↑ Kyrgyz and Russian: Пишпек.
3. ↑ Kyrgyz and Russian: Фрунзе.
4. ↑ The region surrounds the city, although the city itself is not part of the region but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.

## References

1. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan". https://stat.gov.kg/media/publicationarchive/a4e6a7dc-4a37-4448-807f-2d0a67a17df8.pdf.
2. ↑ "Bishkek". https://trvlland.com/blog-kyrgyzstan/bishkek-the-capital-of-kyrgyzstan/.
3. ↑ "Bishkek Capital of Islamic Culture 2014" (in en-US). https://www.icesco.org/en/bishkek-capital-of-islamic-culture-2014/.
4. ↑ "In Kyrgyzstan, a taste of the 'purest milk imaginable'". Financial Times. 2022-03-26. https://www.ft.com/content/5efd328e-bcdd-41ec-96c1-1aec00f38d74.
5. ↑ "This Asian country is betting on fermented horse milk to attract tourists" (in en). 21 July 2022. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/kyrgyzstan-kumis-fermented-milk-intl-hnk/index.html.
6. ↑ "История города" (in ru). http://www.meria.kg/ru/history.
7. ↑ Woodward, Aylin (15 June 2022). "Black Death Mystery Solved Centuries After Plague Killed 50 Million in Europe". Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/black-death-plague-that-killed-50-million-in-europe-began-in-central-asia-study-shows-11655305200.
8. ↑ Belyakov, Yuri (2020). "Ормон-хан" (in ru). https://proza.ru/2020/05/02/745.
9. ↑ Residential Real Estate Market in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan: Current Conditions and Prospects
10. ↑ "Bishkek: The City of Lenin and the White House | .TR" (in en). https://www.tourism-review.com/travel-tourism-magazine-bishkek-the-city-of-lenin-and-the-white-house-article765.
11. ↑ Catholic Church in Kyrgyzstan . Catholic-kyrgyzstan.org. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
12. ↑ "Adam University School of Medicine". https://fm.adam.kg/kyrgyzstan/bishkek/.
13. ↑ "Koppen Map". Upload.wikimedia.org. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Asia_Köppen_Map.png.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Weather and Climate-The Climate of Bishkek" (in ru). Weather and Climate. http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/38353.htm.
15. ↑ "Frunze (Bishkek) Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/TABLES/REG_II/KY/38353.TXT.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Template:Cite Kyrgyzstan population 2021
17. ↑ "Дем. ежегодник 2015-2019гг.xlsx". National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic. https://stat.gov.kg/media/publicationarchive/b87b13d4-7bc2-43bf-b4cc-6d1f12619db8.rar.
18. ↑ Komlosi-Ferdinand, Flora; Ferdinand, Siarl (25 July 2016). "Ferdinand, S. & Komlósi, F. 2016. The vitality of the Kyrgyz Language in Bishkek". Ijors - International Journal of Russian Studies (IJORS 5–2, pp. 210–226). https://www.academia.edu/27246121. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
19. ↑ Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Наличное население в губерниях, уездах, городах Российской Империи (без Финляндии). Семиреченская область – First General Russian Empire Census of 1897. Population in provinces, districts, towns of Russian Empire (without Finland). Semirech'e Province (Demoscope.ru) Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist.
20. ↑ Petrov, Vladimir (2005). "Пишпек исчезающий 1825–1926 (Pishpek disappearing. 1825–1926)". Bishkek.
21. ↑ Pisarskoy, Evgeniy; Kurbatov, Valentin (1976). "Архитектура Советской Киргизии (Architecture of Soviet Kirghizia.)". Moscow: Stroyizdat.
22. ↑ Review of Semirech'e Oblast for 1907 (Обзор Семиреченской области за 1907 год). Verniy: Publishing House of Semirech'e Provincial Administration. 1908. http://rarebooks.net.kg/ru/view/56/. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
23. ↑ Review of Semirech'e Oblast for 1902 (Обзор Семиреченской области за 1902 год). Verniy: Publishing House of Semirech'e Provincial Administration. 1903. http://rarebooks.net.kg/ru/view/54/. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
24. ↑ Всесоюзная перепись населения 1926 года : Киргизская АССР. (All-Union Census of 1926: Kyrgyz ASSR). Moscow: CSU SSSR. 1928. http://rarebooks.net.kg/ru/view/30/. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
25. ↑ "1939 census USSR". http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_pop_39_2.php.
26. ↑ "1959 census USSR". http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/ussr59_reg2.php.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `stat09`
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Анализ загрязнения атмосферы". Nature.kg. http://www.nature.kg/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=18&Itemid=11&lang=ru.
29. ↑ Web-site of the State Agency on Environment Protection and Forestry: Assessment of Air Pollution . Meteo.ktnet.kg. Retrieved on 11 March 2012.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Leupold, David (2023-08-09). "Skyrise, Smog and Seismic Menace. In the El Dorado of Bishkek's Elite Housing" (in en). Europe-Asia Studies 75 (7): 1218. doi:10.1080/09668136.2023.2185203. ISSN 0966-8136.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Leupold, David (2023-08-09). "Skyrise, Smog and Seismic Menace. In the El Dorado of Bishkek's Elite Housing" (in en). Europe-Asia Studies 75 (7): 1194–1221. doi:10.1080/09668136.2023.2185203. ISSN 0966-8136.
32. ↑ Roseman, Gary. "The Residential Real Estate Market in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan". Real Estate Issues Summer 2004.
33. ↑ Leupold, David (2023-08-09). "Skyrise, Smog and Seismic Menace. In the El Dorado of Bishkek's Elite Housing" (in en). Europe-Asia Studies 75 (7): 1213–14. doi:10.1080/09668136.2023.2185203. ISSN 0966-8136.
34. ↑ Isabaeva, Eliza (2013). "Migration into the "Illegality" and Coping with Difficulties in a Squatter Settlement in Bishkek". Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 138 (2): 139–154. ISSN 0044-2666. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24364951.
35. ↑ Isabaeva, Eliza (2013). "Migration into the "Illegality" and Coping with Difficulties in a Squatter Settlement in Bishkek". Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 138.
36. ↑ "New mayor of Bishkek promises to solve capital's problems". The Times of Central Asia. 17 October 2007. http://www.timesca.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=182916&Itemid=7.
37. ↑ Marat, Erica (15 October 2007). "Upcoming referendum sinks Kyrgyzstan deeper into crisis". Eurasia Daily Monitor (The Jamestown Foundation) 4 (190). http://jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id=2372503. Retrieved 18 October 2007.
38. ↑ "Kyrgyz capital gets new mayor". Radio Free Europe. 22 August 2005. http://www.hri.org/news/balkans/rferl/2005/05-08-22.rferl.html#20.
39. ↑ "New Mayor for Bishkek". Lenta.Ru. 7 July 2008. http://www.lenta.ru/news/2008/07/07/bishkek/.
40. ↑ "Isa Omurkulov elected mayor of Bishkek". Radio Azattyk. 4 February 2011. http://rus.azattyk.org/a/3484359.html.
41. ↑ "Isa Omurkulov resigned". Vecherniy Bishkek. 4 December 2013. http://www.vb.kg/doc/253805_isa_omyrkylov_podal_v_otstavky.html.
42. ↑ "Kubanychbek Kulmatov elected mayor of Bishkek". Radio Azattyk. 27 February 2016. http://rus.azattyk.org/a/25230503.html.
43. ↑ "Albek Ibraimov elected mayor of Bishkek". Radio Azattyk. 27 February 2016. http://rus.azattyk.org/a/27577073.html.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `class`
45. ↑ Najibullah, Farangis (December 5, 2022). "Kyrgyz Politicians Annoyed Over Russian Anger At Possible Soviet-Era Name Changes". Radio Free Europe. https://www.rferl.org/a/kyrgyzstan-bishkek-name-changes-russian-anger/32162907.html.
46. ↑ Corporate Japanese companies to renovate Kyrgyzstan football stadium. The-afc.com (9 November 2007). Retrieved on 11 March 2012.
47. ↑ "October 2009+01:35:14". http://geocities.com/kyrgyzeducation/.
48. ↑ "International Ataturk Alatoo University". Iaau.edu.kg. http://www.iaau.edu.kg.
49. ↑ "Главная Международный университет Кыргызстана.|". Iuk.kg. http://www.iuk.kg.
50. ↑ "Кыргызско-Российский Славянский университет имени Б.Н. Ельцина – Главная". Krsu.edu.kg. http://www.krsu.edu.kg.
51. ↑ "Новости КНУ им. Ж.Баласагына". University.kg. 1 November 2012. http://www.university.kg.
52. ↑ "Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas Üniversitesi". Manas.kg. http://www.manas.edu.kg.
53. ↑ "Plato UMD – Home". Umd.edu.kg. http://umd.edu.kg.
54. ↑ "University of Central Asia – University of Central Asia". http://www.ucentralasia.org/.
55. ↑ "European School in Central Asia – Bishkek – Kyrgyzstan". esca.kg. 13 October 2014. http://www.esca.kg/.
56. ↑ "Oxford International School". oxford.kg. http://www.oxford.kg//.
57. ↑ "Hope Academy of Bishkek". Hopeacademykg.com. http://www.hopeacademykg.com/.
58. ↑ "Welcome | QSI". Bishkek.qsischool.org. http://bishkek.qsischool.org/.
59. ↑ "SRIS - Silk Road International School, Bishkek". sris.edu.kg. https://sris.edu.kg/.
60. ↑ "Transport-in-Kyrgyzstan". 20 September 2021. https://trvlland.com/blog-kyrgyzstan/transport-in-kyrgyzstan/.
61. ↑ "Frunze. City Encyclopedia.". http://yiv1999.narod.ru/ABC_0040.htm#6300.
62. ↑ "Маршрут поезда ????? – ????? на сайте". Poezda.net. http://www.poezda.net/ru/train_timetable?st_code=2708000&order=&forDate=3.
63. ↑ Dzyubenko, Olga (June 3, 2014). "U.S. vacates base in Central Asia as Russia's clout rises". https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0EE1LG/.
64. ↑ "Бишкек стал городом-побратимом Уфы" (in ru). Kaktus Media. 2017-07-14. https://kaktus.media/doc/360315_bishkek_stal_gorodom_pobratimom_yfy.html.
65. ↑ "Ankaranın Kardeş Şehirleri" (in tr). Ankara. https://www.ankara.bel.tr/genel-sekreter/genel-sekreter-yardimcisi-faruk-cinki/dis-liskiler-daire-baskanligi/ankaranin-kardes-sehirleri/.
66. ↑ "Kostroma is looking for a twin city in Turkmenistan". Orient. 2020-07-15. https://orient.tm/en/kostroma-is-looking-for-a-twin-city-in-turkmenistan/.
67. ↑ "Colorado Springs Sister Cities International". City of Colorado Springs. 30 April 2018. https://coloradosprings.gov/sistercities.
68. ↑ "Перелік міст, з якими Києвом підписані документи про поріднення, дружбу, співробітництво, партнерство" (in uk). Kyiv. 2018-02-15. https://old.kyivcity.gov.ua/files/2018/2/15/Mista-pobratymy.pdf.
69. ↑ "友好往来" (in zh). Lianyungang. http://www.lyg.gov.cn/zglygzfmhwz/yhwl/yhwl.htm.
70. ↑ "Bişkek, Kırgızistan" (in tr). Samsun. https://www.samsun.bel.tr/icerik/biskek-kirgizistan.
71. ↑ "International relations" (in ky). http://bishkek.gov.kg/ky/international_connections.
72. ↑ "Sister Cities" (in zh). Shenzhen. http://www.sz.gov.cn/en_szgov/govt/cities/sister/index.html.
73. ↑ "Ну, здравствуй, брат! Города-побратимы Ташкента" (in ru). The Voice of Tashkent. 2015-11-10. http://vot.uz/article/2015/11/10/neobratimiе-pobratimi.
74. ↑ "Kardeş Şehirler" (in tr). Trabzon. https://www.trabzon.bel.tr/fck-sayfalar.aspx?id=4485.
75. ↑ "新疆维吾尔自治区友城介绍" (in zh). Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. 2012-08-09. http://fao.xinjiang.gov.cn/xjwqb/ycyx/201208/21615331c0ea4225af1249aed04cb510.shtml.
76. ↑ "银川市友好城市及交流合作情况" (in zh). Yinchuan. http://www.yinchuan.gov.cn/sshc/ycgk/yhcs/.

## Bibliography

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