Georgia (country)

Short description: Country straddling Eastern Europe and West Asia in the Caucasus

Georgia

საქართველო (Georgian)
Sakartvelo

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:
ძალა ერთობაშია
Dzala ertobashia
"Strength is in Unity"

Anthem:
თავისუფლება
Tavisupleba
"Freedom"

File:Tavisupleba instrumental.ogg

Show globe

Show map of Europe
(claimed borders)

Georgia in dark green; uncontrolled
territory in light green

Capital

and largest city

| Tbilisi
[ ⚑ ] 41°43′N 44°47′E﻿ / ﻿41.717°N 44.783°E﻿ / 41.717; 44.783
Official languages| Georgian
Recognised regional languages| Abkhaz[lower-alpha 1]
Ethnic groups

(2014[a])

* 86.8% Georgians
* 6.2% Azerbaijanis
* 4.5% Armenians
* 0.7% Russians
* 2.1% other

Religion

(2014)

*     * 87.3% Christianity
* 83.4% Georgian Orthodoxy
* 3.9% other Christian

* 10.7% Islam
* 2% other / none[3]

Demonym(s)| Georgian
Government| Unitary parliamentary republic

• President

| Salome Zourabichvili

• Prime Minister

| Vacant

• Chairperson of
the Parliament

| Shalva Papuashvili
Legislature| Parliament
Establishment history

• Colchis and Iberia

| 13th c. BC – 580 AD

• Kingdom of Abkhazia and Kingdom of the Iberians

| 786–1008

• Unification of the Georgian realm

| 1008

• The Tripartite division

| 1463–1810

• Russian annexation

| 12 September 1801

• Independence from the Russian Empire

| 26 May 1918

• Red Army invasion

| 25 February 1921

• Independence from the Soviet Union

• Declared
• Finalized

9 April 1991
26 December 1991

• Current constitution

| 24 August 1995
Area

• Total

| 69,700 km2 (26,900 sq mi) (119th)
Population

• 2022 estimate

|  3,688,647[a][4]
4,012,104[b] ({{{population estimate rank}}})

• 2014 census

|  3,713,804[a][5]

• Density

| 57.6/km2 (149.2/sq mi) (137th)
GDP (PPP)| 2023 estimate

• Total

|  $82.210 billion[a][6] (101st)

• Per capita

|  $22,357[6] (75th)
GDP (nominal)| 2023 estimate

• Total

|  $30.023 billion[a][6] ({{{GDP nominal rank}}})

• Per capita

|  $8,165[6] (86th)
Gini (2021)|  34.2[a][7]
medium
HDI (2021)|  0.802[a][8]
very high · 63rd
Currency| Georgian lari (₾) ({{{currency code}}})
Time zone| UTC+4 (Georgia Time GET)
Date format| dd.mm.yyyy
Driving side| right
Calling code| +995
ISO 3166 code| GE
Internet TLD| .ge, .გე

1. ^ Not including occupied territories.
2. ^ Including occupied territories.[citation needed]

Georgia (Georgian: საქართველო, Template:IPA-ka) is a transcontinental country located in Eastern Europe[10][11][12] and West Asia. It is part of the Caucasus region, bounded by the Black Sea to the west, Russia to the north and northeast, Turkey to the southwest, Armenia to the south, and by Azerbaijan to the southeast. The country covers an area of 69,700 square kilometres (26,900 sq mi), and has a population of 3.7 million people.[lower-alpha 2][13] Tbilisi is its capital and largest city, home to roughly a third of the Georgian population.

Georgia has been a wine production site since 6,000 BC, being the earliest known location of winemaking in the world.[14][15] During the classical era, several kingdoms emerged in what is now Georgia, such as Colchis and Iberia. In the early 4th century, Georgians officially adopted Christianity, which contributed to the unification of early Georgian states. In the Middle Ages, the unified Kingdom of Georgia reached its Golden Age during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar. Thereafter, the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under the hegemony of various regional powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire, and various dynasties of Persia. In 1783, one of the Georgian kingdoms entered into an alliance with the Russian Empire but Russia reneged on its promises and instead proceeded to annex the territory of modern Georgia piece-by-piece against the wish of the local rulers.

After the Russian Revolution in 1917, Georgia emerged as an independent republic under German protection.[16] Following World War I, Georgia was invaded and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1922, becoming one of its constituent republics. In the 1980s, an independence movement grew quickly, leading to Georgia's secession from the Soviet Union in April 1991. For most of the subsequent decade, post-Soviet Georgia suffered from economic crisis, political instability and secessionist wars in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Following the peaceful Rose Revolution in 2003, Georgia strongly pursued a pro-Western foreign policy; it introduced a series of democratic and economic reforms aimed at integration into the European Union and NATO. The country's Western orientation soon led to worsening relations with Russia, which culminated in the Russo-Georgian War of 2008, and entrenched Russian occupation of a portion of Georgia.

Georgia is a representative democracy governed as a unitary parliamentary republic.[17][18] It is a developing country with a very high Human Development Index. Economic reforms since independence have led to higher levels of economic freedom, as well as reductions in corruption indicators, poverty, and unemployment. It was one of the first countries in the world to legalize cannabis, becoming the only former-socialist state to do so. The country is a member of international organizations, such as the Council of Europe, Eurocontrol, BSEC, GUAM, and the Energy Community. Georgia forms part of the Association Trio and is an EU candidate country.[19]

## Contents

* 1 Name of Georgia
* 1.1 Etymology
* 1.2 Name
* 2 History
* 2.1 Prehistory
* 2.2 Antiquity
* 2.3 Medieval unification of Georgia
* 2.4 Golden Age and Division
* 2.5 Tripartite division
* 2.6 Within the Russian Empire
* 2.7 Declaration of independence
* 2.8 Soviet Socialist Republic
* 2.9 After restoration of independence
* 2.10 Russo-Georgian War
* 2.11 Georgian Dream government (2012-present)
* 3 Government and politics
* 3.1 Foreign relations
* 3.2 Military
* 3.3 Law enforcement
* 3.4 Corruption
* 3.5 Human rights
* 4 Administrative divisions
* 5 Geography
* 5.1 Topography
* 5.2 Climate
* 5.3 Biodiversity
* 6 Economy
* 6.1 Tourism
* 7 Transport
* 8 Demographics
* 8.1 Religion
* 8.2 Education
* 9 Culture
* 9.1 Architecture and arts
* 9.2 Literature
* 9.3 Media
* 9.4 Music
* 9.5 Cuisine
* 9.6 Wine
* 9.7 Sports
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References
* 13 Sources
* 14 External links
* 14.1 Government
* 14.2 General information
* 14.3 News media

## Name of Georgia

### Etymology

"Georgia" on a medieval mappa mundi, AD 1320.

Ancient Greeks (Strabo, Herodotus, Plutarch, Homer, etc.) and Romans (Titus Livius, Tacitus, etc.) referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians (Iberoi, Ἰβηροι in some Greek sources).[20]

The first mention of the name Georgia is in Italian on the mappa mundi of Pietro Vesconte dated 1320.[21] At the early stage of its appearance in the Latin world, the name was often spelled Jorgia.[22] Lore-based theories were given by traveler Jacques de Vitry, who explained the name's origin by the popularity of St. George among Georgians,[23] while Jean Chardin thought that Georgia came from the Greek γεωργός ('tiller of the land'). These centuries-old explanations for the word Georgia/Georgians are now mostly rejected by the scholarly community, who point to the Persian word gurğ/gurğān (گرگ, 'wolf'[24]) as the likely root of the word.[25] Under this hypothesis, the same Persian root was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages.[25][26]

The native name is Sakartvelo (საქართველო; 'land of Kartvelians'), derived from the core central Georgian region of Kartli, recorded from the 9th century, and in extended usage referring to the entire medieval Kingdom of Georgia prior to the 13th century. The Georgian circumfix sa-X-o is a standard geographic construction designating 'the area where X dwell', where X is an ethnonym.[27] The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi (ქართველები, i.e. 'Kartvelians'), first attested in the Umm Leisun inscription found in the Old City of Jerusalem.

The medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth who medieval chroniclers believed to have been the root of the local name of their kingdom. However, scholars agree that the word Kartli is derived from the Karts, a proto-Kartvelian tribe that emerged as a dominant regional group in ancient times.[25] The name Sakartvelo (საქართველო) consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i (ქართველ-ი), specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, or Iberia as it is known in sources of the Eastern Roman Empire.[28]

### Name

The official name of the country is Georgia per Article 2 of the Georgian Constitution.[29] In Georgia's two official languages (Georgian and Abkhaz), the country is named საქართველო (Sak'art'velo) and Қырҭтәыла (Kərttʷʼəla) respectively. Prior to the adoption of the Constitution in 1995 and following the dissolution of the USSR, the country was commonly called the "Republic of Georgia" to distinguish it from the State of Georgia in the United States , although that name did not carry legal recognition.[30]

Several languages continue to use the Russian variant of the country's name, Gruzia, which the Georgian authorities have sought to replace through diplomatic campaigns. Since 2006, Israel,[31] Japan ,[32] and South Korea [33] legally changed their appellation of the country to variants of the English Georgia.[34] In 2020, Lithuania became the first country in the world to adopt Sakartvelas in all official communications.[35]

## History

For a chronological guide to this subject, see Timeline of Georgian (country) history.

### Prehistory

The oldest traces of archaic humans in what is now Georgia date from approximately 1.8 million years ago in the form of the Dmanisi hominins, a subspecies of Homo erectus representing the oldest-known fossils of hominins in Eurasia.[36] Buffered by the Caucasus and benefiting from the Black Sea ecosystem, the region seems to have served as a refugium throughout the Pleistocene,[37] while the first continuous primitive settlements date back to the Middle Paleolithic, close to 200,000 years ago.[38] During the Upper Paleolithic, settlements developed mostly in Western Georgia, in the valleys of the Rioni and Qvirila rivers.[39]

Signs of agriculture date back to at least the 6th millennium BC, especially in Western Georgia, while the Mtkvari basin became stably populated in the 5th millennium BC, as evidenced with the rise of various cultures closely associated with the Fertile Crescent, including the Trialetian Mesolithic, the Shulaveri–Shomu culture, and the Leyla-Tepe culture.[40] Archaeological findings show that settlements in modern-day Georgia were responsible for the first development of textile-based clothing (Eocene),[41] the first cases of viticulture (7th millennium BC),[42] and the first signs of gold mining (3rd millennium BC).[43]

The Kura-Araxes, Trialeti, and Colchian cultures coincided with the development of proto-Kartvelian tribes that may have come from Anatolia during the expansion of the Hittite Empire, including the Mushki, Laz, and Byzeres. Some historians have suggested that the collapse of the Hittite world in the Late Bronze Age led to an expansion of the influence of these tribes to the Mediterranean Sea, notably with the Kingdom of Tabal.[44]

### Antiquity

Claw foot of the royal throne and patera depicting emperor Marcus Aurelius uncovered near Mtskheta, 2nd century AD.

King Mirian III converted the nation to Christianity in the 4th century.

The classical period saw the rise of a number of Georgian states, including Colchis in western Georgia where Greek mythology located the Golden Fleece sought after by the Argonauts. Archaeological evidence points to a wealthy kingdom in Colchis as early as the 14th century BC[45] and an extensive trade network with Greek colonies on the eastern Black Sea shore (such as Dioscurias and Phasis),[46] though the entire region would be annexed first by Pontus and then by the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC.

Eastern Georgia remained a decentralized mosaic of various clans (ruled by individual mamasakhlisi) until the 4th century BC when it was conquered by Alexander the Great, eventually leading to the creation of the Kingdom of Iberia under the protectorate of the Seleucid Empire, an early example of advanced state organization under one king and an aristocratic hierarchy.[47] Various wars with the Roman Empire, Parthia, and Armenia made Iberia regularly change its allegiance, though it remained a Roman client state for most of its history.

In 337, King Mirian III adopted Christianity as the state religion of Iberia, beginning the christianization of the Western Caucasus region and solidly anchoring it in Rome's sphere of influence by abandoning the ancient Georgian polytheistic religion heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism.[48] However, the Peace of Acilisene in 384 formalized the Sasanian control over the entire Caucasus, though Christian rulers of Iberia sought to rebel at times, leading to devastating wars in the 5-6th centuries, most famously under the rule of King Vakhtang Gorgasali who expanded Iberia to its largest historical extent by capturing all of western Georgia and building a new capital in Tbilisi.

### Medieval unification of Georgia

Northwestern Georgia is home to the medieval defensive Svan towers of Ushguli and Mestia.

In 580, the Sasanian Empire abolished the Kingdom of Iberia, leading to the disintegration of its constituent territories into various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. The Roman–Persian Wars plunged the region into chaos, with both Persia and Constantinople supporting various warring factions in the Caucasus; however, the Byzantine Empire was able to establish control over Georgian territories by the end of the 6th century, ruling Iberia indirectly through a local Kouropalates.[49]

In 645, the Arabs invaded southeastern Georgia, starting an extended period of Muslim domination in the region and leading to the establishment of several feudal states seeking independence from each other, such as the Emirate of Tbilisi and the Principality of Kakheti.[50] Western Georgia remained mostly a Byzantine protectorate, especially following the Lazic War.[51]

Bedia Chalice, a medieval Georgian goldsmithery dated c. 999 AD.

The lack of a central government in Georgia allowed the rise of the Bagrationi dynasty in the early 9th century. Consolidating lands in the southwestern region of Tao-Klarjeti, Prince Ashot I (813-830) used infighting between Arab governors to expand his influence to Iberia and was recognized as Presiding Prince of Iberia by both the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. Though Ashot's descendants formed competing princely lines, Adarnase IV managed to unify most Georgian lands (except for Kakheti and Abkhazia) and was crowned King of the Iberians in 888, restoring the monarchy abolished three centuries prior.[52]

In Western Georgia, the Kingdom of Abkhazia benefited from the weakening of Byzantium in the region to unify various tribes and become one of the most powerful states of the Caucasus in the 8th century.[53] In the 9th-10th centuries, Abkhazia grew its influence through several military campaigns and came to control much of Iberia and competing with the Bagrationi. Dynastic conflicts eventually weakened Abkhazia in the second half of the 10th century while in Tao-Klarjeti, Prince David III used his influence within Byzantine Anatolia to empower the Bagrationi. Bagrat III, heir of the Bagrationi dynasty, successively became King of Abkhazia (978), Prince of Tao-Klarjeti (1000), and King of the Iberians (1008), allowing him to unify most Georgian feudal states and be crowned in 1010 as King of Georgia.

### Golden Age and Division

For much of the 11th century, the nascent Georgian kingdom experienced geopolitical and internal difficulties, with various noble factions opposed to the centralization of the Georgian state. They were often backed by the Byzantine Empire, which feared a dominion of the Caucasus region by the Bagrationi dynasty and in some instances fueled internal conflict through aristocratic families seeking more power. However, ties between Byzantium and Georgia were normalized when the two countries faced a new common enemy, the rising Seljuk Empire in the 1060s. Following the decisive Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Constantinople started to retreat from eastern Anatolia and entrusted Georgia with its administration, placing Georgia at the forefront of Turkish in the 1080s.

David the Builder, the original architect of the Golden Age. Fresco from Gelati monastery.

The Kingdom of Georgia reached its zenith in the 12th to early 13th centuries. This period during the reigns of David IV (r. 1089–1125) and his great-granddaughter Tamar (r. 1184–1213) has been widely termed as the Georgian Golden Age.[54] This early Georgian renaissance, which preceded its Western European analogue, was characterized by impressive military victories, territorial expansion, and a cultural renaissance in architecture, literature, philosophy and the sciences.[55] The Golden Age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and literature, and the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin, considered a national epic.[56][57]

David IV suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign threats. In 1121, he decisively defeated much larger Turkish armies during the Battle of Didgori and abolished the Emirate of Tbilisi.[58]

Queen Tamar, the first woman to rule medieval Georgia in her own right.[59]

The 29-year reign of Tamar, the first female ruler of Georgia, is considered the most successful in Georgian history.[60] Tamar was given the title "king of kings"[59] and succeeded in neutralizing her opposition, while embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzantium. Supported by a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated the Caucasus, and extended over large parts of present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northern Iran, and used the vacuum of power left by the Fourth Crusade to create the Empire of Trebizond as a Georgian vassal state.[61]

The revival of the Kingdom of Georgia was set back after Tbilisi was captured and destroyed by the Khwarezmian leader Jalal ad-Din in 1226,[62] followed by devastating invasions by Mongol ruler Genghis Khan. The Mongols were expelled by George V the Brilliant (r. 1299–1302), known for reuniting eastern and western Georgia and restoring the country's previous strength and Christian culture. After his death, local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule, until the total disintegration of the kingdom in the 15th century. Georgia was further weakened by several disastrous invasions by Timur. Invasions continued, giving the kingdom no time for restoration, with both Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu Turkomans constantly raiding its southern provinces.

### Tripartite division

King Alexander III stabilized western Georgia.

The Kingdom of Georgia collapsed into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent kingdoms and five semi-independent principalities. Neighboring large empires subsequently exploited the internal division of the weakened country, and beginning in the 16th century, various Ottoman and Iranian forces subjugated western and eastern regions of Georgia, respectively.[63] This pushed local Georgian rulers to seek closer ties with Russia. In 1649, the Kingdom of Imereti sent ambassadors to the Russian royal court, with Russia returning the favor in 1651. In the presence of these ambassadors, Alexander III of Imereti swore an oath of allegiance to Tsar Alexis of Russia on behalf of Imereti.[64] Subsequent rulers also sought assistance from Pope Innocent XII but without success.[65]

The rulers of regions that remained partly autonomous organized rebellions on various occasions. As a result of incessant Ottoman–Persian Wars and deportations, the population of Georgia dwindled to 784,700 inhabitants at the end of the 18th century.[66] Eastern Georgia, composed of the regions of Kartli and Kakheti, had been under Iranian suzerainty since the Peace of Amasya signed with neighbouring rivalling Ottoman Turkey (Safavid Georgia). With the death of Nader Shah in 1747, both kingdoms broke free and were reunified through a personal union under the energetic king Heraclius II, who succeeded in stabilizing Eastern Georgia to a degree.[67]

King Heraclius II was caught between rival regional powers.

In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, which made eastern Georgia protectorate of Russia, guaranteed its territorial integrity and the continuation of its reigning Bagrationi dynasty in return for prerogatives in the conduct of Georgian foreign affairs.[68]

Despite its commitment to defend Georgia, Russia rendered no assistance when the Iranians invaded in 1795, capturing and sacking Tbilisi and massacring its inhabitants.[69] Although Russia initiated a punitive campaign against Persia in 1796, the Russian Imperial authorities subsequently violated key promises of the Georgievsk Treaty and in 1801 proceeded to annex eastern Georgia, while abolishing the Georgian royal Bagrationi dynasty, as well as the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church. Pyotr Bagration, one of the descendants of the abolished house of Bagrationi, later joined the Russian army and became a prominent general in the Napoleonic wars.[70]

### Within the Russian Empire

The reign of George XII was marked by instability.

On 22 December 1800, Tsar Paul I of Russia, at the alleged request of the Georgian King George XII, signed the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was finalized by a decree on 8 January 1801,[71][72] and confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801.[73][74] The Bagrationi royal family was deported from the kingdom. The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor Prince Kurakin.[75]

In May 1801, under the oversight of General Carl Heinrich von Knorring, Imperial Russia transferred power in eastern Georgia to the government headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lazarev.[76] The Georgian nobility did not accept the decree until 12 April 1802, when Knorring assembled the nobility at the Sioni Cathedral and forced them to take an oath on the Imperial Crown of Russia. Those who disagreed were temporarily arrested.[77]

In the summer of 1805, Russian troops on the Askerani River near Zagam defeated the Iranian army during the 1804–13 Russo-Persian War and saved Tbilisi from reconquest now that it was officially part of the Imperial territories. Russian suzerainty over eastern Georgia was officially finalized with Iran in 1813 following the Treaty of Gulistan.[78] Following the annexation of eastern Georgia, the western Georgian kingdom of Imereti was annexed by Tsar Alexander I. The last Imeretian king and the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler, Solomon II, died in exile in 1815, after attempts to rally people against Russia and to enlist foreign support against the latter, had been in vain.[79]

From 1803 to 1878, as a result of numerous Russian wars now against Ottoman Turkey, several of Georgia's previously lost territories – such as Adjara – were recovered, and also incorporated into the empire. The principality of Guria was abolished and incorporated into the Empire in 1829, while Svaneti was gradually annexed in 1858. Mingrelia, although a Russian protectorate since 1803, was not absorbed until 1867.[80]

Russian rule offered the Georgians security from external threats, but it was also often heavy-handed and insensitive. By the late 19th century, discontent with the Russian authorities grew into a national revival movement led by Ilia Chavchavadze. This period also brought social and economic change to Georgia, with new social classes emerging: the emancipation of the serfs freed many peasants but did little to alleviate their poverty; the growth of capitalism created an urban working class in Georgia. Both peasants and workers found expression for their discontent through revolts and strikes, culminating in the Revolution of 1905. Their cause was championed by the socialist Mensheviks, who became the dominant political force in Georgia in the final years of Russian rule.

### Declaration of independence

Noe Zhordania

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic was established with Nikolay Chkheidze acting as its president. The federation consisted of three nations: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.[16] As the Ottomans advanced into the Caucasian territories of the crumbling Russian Empire, Georgia declared independence on 26 May 1918.[81] The Menshevik Social Democratic Party of Georgia won the parliamentary election and its leader, Noe Zhordania, became prime minister. Despite the Soviet takeover, Zhordania was recognized as the legitimate head of the Georgian Government by France, UK, Belgium, and Poland through the 1930s.[82]

The 1918 Georgian–Armenian War, which erupted over parts of disputed provinces between Armenia and Georgia populated mostly by Armenians, ended because of British intervention. In 1918–1919, Georgian general Giorgi Mazniashvili led an attack against the White Army led by Moiseev and Denikin in order to claim the Black Sea coastline from Tuapse to Sochi and Adler for the independent Georgia.[83] In 1920 Soviet Russia recognized Georgia's independence with the Treaty of Moscow. But the recognition proved to be of little value, as the Red Army invaded Georgia in 1921 and formally annexed it into the Soviet Union in 1922.[81]

### Soviet Socialist Republic

The Bolshevik Red Army in Tbilisi on 25 February 1921. Saint David's church on the Holy Mountain is visible in the distance.

In February 1921, during the Russian Civil War, the Red Army advanced into Georgia and brought the local Bolsheviks to power. The Georgian army was defeated and the Social Democratic government fled the country. On 25 February 1921, the Red Army entered Tbilisi and established a government of workers' and peasants' soviets with Filipp Makharadze as acting head of state. Georgia was incorporated into what would soon become the Soviet Union. Soviet rule was firmly established only after local insurrections were defeated.[84] Georgia would remain an unindustrialized periphery of the USSR until the first five-year plan when it became a major centre for textile goods.

Joseph Stalin , an ethnic Georgian, was prominent among the Bolsheviks.[85] Stalin was to rise to the highest position, leading the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death on 5 March 1953.

In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union on an immediate course towards Caucasian oil fields and munitions factories. They never reached Georgia, however, and almost 700,000 Georgians fought in the Red Army to repel the invaders and advance towards Berlin. Of them, an estimated 350,000 were killed.[86]

After Stalin's death, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader of the Soviet Union and implemented a policy of de-Stalinization. Khrushchev's purges were met with riots, which had to be dispersed by military force. This violent turn of events that compromised Georgian loyalty to the Soviet Union, contributing to the nation's consolidation.[87] 1978 Georgian demonstrations saw the return of mass anti-Soviet protests, but this time government backed down.

Throughout the remainder of the Soviet period, Georgia's economy continued to grow and experience significant improvement, though it increasingly exhibited blatant corruption and alienation of the government from the people. With the beginning of perestroika in 1986, the Georgian Soviet leadership proved so incapable of handling the changes that most Georgians, including rank and file communists, concluded that the only way forward was a break from the existing Soviet system.

### After restoration of independence

Georgian Civil War and the War in Abkhazia in August–October 1993

On 9 April 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Supreme Council of Georgia declared independence after a referendum held on 31 March.[88] Georgia was the first non-Baltic republic of the Soviet Union to officially declare independence.[89] In August 1991, Romania became the first country to recognize Georgia.[90]

On 26 May, Zviad Gamsakhurdia was elected as the first President of independent Georgia. Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian nationalism and vowed to assert Tbilisi's authority over regions such as Abkhazia and South Ossetia that had been classified as autonomous within the Georgian SSR.[91]

He was soon deposed in a bloody coup d'état, from 22 December 1991 to 6 January 1992. The coup was instigated by part of the National Guards and a paramilitary organization called "Mkhedrioni" ("horsemen"). The country then became embroiled in a bitter civil war, which lasted until 1994. Simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia; Abkhazia and South Ossetia, between local separatists and the majority Georgian populations, erupted into widespread inter-ethnic violence and wars.[91] Supported by Russia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia achieved de facto independence from Georgia, with Georgia retaining control only in small areas of the disputed territories.[91] Eduard Shevardnadze (Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1985 to 1991) returned to Georgia in 1992 and was elected as head of state in that year's elections, and as president in 1995.[92]

During the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993), roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians[93] were expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasian volunteers (including Chechens). Around 23,000 Georgians fled South Ossetia while 100,000 Ossetians fled Georgia.[94]

The Rose Revolution in 2003

In 2003, Shevardnadze (who won re-election in 2000) was deposed by the Rose Revolution, after Georgian opposition and international monitors asserted that 2 November parliamentary elections were marred by fraud.[95] The revolution was led by Mikheil Saakashvili, Zurab Zhvania and Nino Burjanadze, former members and leaders of Shevardnadze's ruling party. Mikheil Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004.[96]

Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms were launched to strengthen the country's military and economic capabilities, as well as to reorient its foreign policy westwards. The new government's efforts to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic of Adjara led to a major crisis in 2004.[97]

The country's newly pro-Western stance, along with accusations of Georgian involvement in the Second Chechen War,[98] resulted in a severe deterioration of relations with Russia, fuelled also by Russia's open assistance and support to the two secessionist areas. Despite these increasingly difficult relations, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral agreement[99] by which Russian military bases (dating back to the Soviet era) in Batumi and Akhalkalaki were withdrawn. Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment from these sites by December 2007[100] while failing to withdraw from the Gudauta base in Abkhazia, which it was required to vacate after the adoption of the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty during the 1999 Istanbul summit.[101]

### Russo-Georgian War

A Russian armoured column in South Ossetia.

There was a Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis in April 2008.[102][103] A bomb explosion on 1 August 2008 targeted a car transporting Georgian peacekeepers. South Ossetians were responsible for instigating this incident, which marked the opening of hostilities and injured five Georgian servicemen, then several South Ossetian militiamen were killed by snipers.[104][105] South Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages on 1 August. These artillery bombardments caused Georgian servicemen to return fire periodically.[102][105][106][107][108]

On 7 August 2008, the Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili announced a unilateral ceasefire and called for peace talks.[109] More attacks on Georgian villages (located in the South Ossetian conflict zone) were soon matched with gunfire from Georgian troops, who then proceeded to move in the direction of the capital of the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia (Tskhinvali) on the night of 8 August, reaching its centre in the morning of 8 August.[110][111][112] According to Russian military expert Pavel Felgenhauer, the Ossetian provocation was aimed at triggering Georgian retaliation, which was needed as a pretext for a Russian military invasion.[113] According to Georgian intelligence and several Russian media reports, parts of the regular (non-peacekeeping) Russian Army had already moved to South Ossetian territory through the Roki Tunnel before the Georgian military action.[114][115]

Russia accused Georgia of "aggression against South Ossetia" and began a big land, air and sea invasion of Georgia under the pretext of a "peace enforcement" operation on 8 August 2008.[116][107] Abkhaz forces opened a second front on 9 August with the Battle of the Kodori Valley, an attack on the Kodori Gorge, held by Georgia.[117] Tskhinvali was seized by the Russian military by 10 August.[118] Russian forces occupied Georgian cities beyond the disputed territories.[119]

During the conflict, there was a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Georgians in South Ossetia, including destruction of Georgian settlements after the war had ended.[120][121] The war displaced 192,000 people and while many were able to return to their homes after the war, a year later around 30,000 ethnic Georgians remained displaced.[122][123] In an interview published in Kommersant, South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity said he would not allow Georgians to return.[124][125]

The President of France, Nicolas Sarkozy, negotiated a ceasefire agreement on 12 August 2008.[126] Russia recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August.[127] The Georgian government severed diplomatic relations with Russia.[128] Russian forces left the buffer areas bordering Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 8 October and the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia was dispatched to the buffer areas.[129][130] Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and South Ossetia are occupied Georgian territories.[131][132]

### Georgian Dream government (2012-present)

Bidzina Ivanishvili, founder of Georgian Dream.

In preparation for the 2012 parliamentary elections, Georgia implemented constitutional reforms to switch to a parliamentary democracy, moving executive powers from the President to the Prime Minister.[133] The transition was set to start with the October 2012 parliamentary elections and to be completed with the 2013 presidential elections. Against the expectations of the ruling United National Movement (UNM) of president Mikheil Saakashvili, a 6-party coalition centred around the newly founded Georgian Dream party won the parliamentary elections in October 2012, bringing an end to nine years of UNM rule and marking the first peaceful electoral transfer of power in Georgia. President Saakashvili acknowledged the defeat of his party on the following day.[134] Georgian Dream was founded, led and financed by tycoon Bidzina Ivanishvili, the country's richest man, who was subsequently elected by parliament as new Prime Minister.[135] Due to the incomplete transition to parliamentary democracy, a year of uneasy cohabitation between Ivanishvili and Saakashvili followed until the presidential election in October 2013,[136][137] which was won by Giorgi Margvelashvili from the Georgian Dream party.[138] With the completed transfer of power, Prime Minister Ivanishvili stepped aside and named one of his close business associates, Irakli Garibashvili, as the next Prime Minister.[139] Ivanishvili has since been called the informal leader of Georgia, arranging political reappointments from behind the scenes.[140] Saakashvili left Georgia shortly after the election. In 2018 he was convicted in absentia on corruption charges and abuse of power, which he denied.[141]

Georgian Dream won the parliamentary elections with 48.61% of the vote while UNM received 27.04%.[142] As result of the mixed proportional-majoritarian voting system, this translated into a parliamentary supermajority of 115 out of 150 seats (77%). This electoral imbalance became a key issue of political and civil society strife in the following years.[143][144][145] In the 2018 presidential election, the Georgian Dream party backed Salome Zurabishvili, who won in the second round, becoming the first woman in Georgia to hold the office in full capacity.[146] This was the last direct election of a Georgian president, as additional constitutional reforms removed the popular vote.[147]

After international mediation to overcome the deep political crisis in the runup to the 2020 parliamentary elections, an amended electoral system was adopted, specifically for the 2020 elections.[148] Nine parties were elected to parliament. Georgian Dream secured over 48% of votes, which translated into 90 out of 150 seats. They were thus able to continue to govern alone. The opposition made accusations of fraud, which Georgian Dream denied. Thousands of people gathered outside the Central Election Commission to demand a new vote.[149] This led to a new political crisis that was (temporarily) resolved by an EU brokered agreement,[150] from which the Georgian Dream later withdrew.[151] In February 2021, Prime Minister Giorgi Gakharia resigned and Irakli Garibashvili became Prime Minister once more.[152]

Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Georgia has topped the list of countries which Russian exiles departed to after the war began; Russians are allowed to stay in Georgia for at least one year without a visa, though many Georgians view the presence of more Russian citizens in Georgia as a security risk.[153]

## Government and politics

|

Salome Zourabichvili
President | Irakli Garibashvili
Prime Minister

Georgia is a representative democratic parliamentary republic, with the President as the largely ceremonial[154] head of state, and Prime Minister as the head of government. The executive branch of power is made up of the Cabinet of Georgia. The Cabinet is composed of ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, and appointed by the Parliament. Salome Zurabishvili is the current President of Georgia after winning 59.52% of the vote in the 2018 Georgian presidential election. Since February 2021, Irakli Gharibashvili has been the prime minister of Georgia.

Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of Georgia. It is unicameral and has 150 members, known as deputies, of whom 30 are elected by plurality to represent single-member districts, and 120 are chosen to represent parties by proportional representation. Members of parliament are elected for four-year terms.

Different opinions exist regarding the degree of political freedom in Georgia. Saakashvili believed in 2008 that the country is "on the road to becoming a European democracy."[155] In their 2022 report[update] Freedom House lists Georgia as a partly free country, recognizing a trajectory of democratic improvement surrounding the 2012–13 transfer of power, yet observing a gradual backslide in later years.[156] In their Democracy Index 2021 report[update] the Economist Intelligence Unit classifies Georgia as a hybrid regime which is above the threshold for an authoritarian regime but below the threshold needed to be classified as a flawed democracy.[157]

### Foreign relations

Pro-NATO poster in Tbilisi

The explicit western orientation of Georgia, deepening political ties with the US and European Union, notably through its EU and NATO membership aspirations, the US Train and Equip military assistance programme, and the construction of the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, increasingly strained Tbilisi's relations with Moscow in the early 2000s. Georgia's decision to boost its presence in the coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative.[158] The European Union has identified Georgia as a prospective member,[159] and Georgia has sought membership.[160]

Georgia is currently working to become a full member of NATO. In August 2004, the Individual Partnership Action Plan of Georgia was submitted officially to NATO. On 29 October 2004, the North Atlantic Council of NATO approved the Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) of Georgia, and Georgia moved on to the second stage of Euro-Atlantic Integration. In 2005, the agreement on the appointment of Partnership for Peace (PfP) liaison officer between Georgia and NATO came into force, whereby a liaison officer for the South Caucasus was assigned to Georgia. On 2 March 2005, the agreement was signed on the provision of the host nation support to and transit of NATO forces and NATO personnel. On 6–9 March 2006, the IPAP implementation interim assessment team arrived in Tbilisi. On 13 April 2006, the discussion of the assessment report on implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan was held at NATO Headquarters, within 26+1 format.[161] In 2009 the Georgia-NATO Interparliamentary Council was created within the NATO Parliamentary Assembly to hold twice yearly meetings to discuss all aspects of Georgia-NATO cooperation. The majority of Georgians and politicians in Georgia support the push for NATO membership.[162]

President of Georgia Salome Zourabichvili, President of Moldova Maia Sandu, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelensky and President of the European Council Charles Michel during the 2021 Batumi International Conference. In 2014, the EU signed Association Agreements with all three states.

In 2011, the North Atlantic Council designated Georgia as an "aspirant country".[163] Since 2014, Georgia–NATO relations are guided by the Substantial NATO–Georgia Package (SNGP), which includes the NATO–Georgia Joint Training and Evaluation Centre and facilitation of multi-national and regional military drills.[164]

In September 2019, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said that "NATO approaching our borders is a threat to Russia."[165] He was quoted as saying that if NATO accepts Georgian membership with the article on collective defence covering only Tbilisi-administered territory (i.e., excluding the Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, both of which are currently Russian-supported unrecognized breakaway republics), "we will not start a war, but such conduct will undermine our relations with NATO and with countries who are eager to enter the alliance."[166]

George W. Bush became the first sitting US president to visit the country.[167] The street leading to Tbilisi International Airport has since been dubbed George W. Bush Avenue.[168] On 2 October 2006, Georgia and the European Union signed a joint statement on the agreed text of the Georgia–European Union Action Plan within the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). The Action Plan was formally approved at the EU–Georgia Cooperation Council session on 14 November 2006, in Brussels.[169] In June 2014, the EU and Georgia signed an Association Agreement, which entered into force on 1 July 2016.[170] On 13 December 2016, EU and Georgia reached the agreement on visa liberalization for Georgian citizens.[171] On 27 February 2017, the Council adopted a regulation on visa liberalization for Georgians travelling to the EU for a period of stay of 90 days in any 180-day period.[172]

Georgia applied for EU membership on 3 March 2022, soon after the beginning of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[173]

On 14 December 2023, Georgia was granted EU Candidate status by the European Council. Charles Michel said that "EUCO granted candidate status to Georgia and that the council decided to open accession negotiations to Ukraine and Moldova".[174][175][176][177] Georgia is currently an EU candiate.

### Military

Georgian-built Didgori Warrior.

Georgia's military is organized into land and Georgian Air Force forces. They are collectively known as the Georgian Defense Forces (GDF). The mission and functions of the GDF are based on the Constitution of Georgia, Georgia's Law on Defense and National Military Strategy, and international agreements to which Georgia is signatory.[citation needed] The military budget of Georgia for 2021 is 900₾ ($359) million. The biggest part, 72% of the military budget is allocated for maintaining defence forces readiness and potency development.[178] After its independence from the Soviet Union, Georgia began to develop its own military industry. The first exhibition of products made by STC Delta was in 1999.[179] STC Delta now produces a variety of military equipment, including armoured vehicles, artillery systems, aviation systems, personal protection equipment, and small arms.[180]

During later periods of the Iraq War Georgia had up to 2,000 soldiers serving in the Multi-National Force.[181] Georgia also participated in the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan; with 1,560 troops in 2013, it was at that time the largest contributor among non-NATO countries[182] and in per capita terms.[183][184] Over 11,000 Georgian soldiers have rotated through Afghanistan during the course of the war.[185] 32 Georgian servicemen have died in Afghanistan,[186] most of them during the Helmand campaign. In addition, 435 were wounded, including 35 amputees.[187][188]

### Law enforcement

In Georgia, law enforcement is conducted and provided for by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia. In recent years, the Patrol Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia has undergone a radical transformation, with the police having now absorbed a great many duties previously performed by dedicated independent government agencies. New duties performed by the police include border security and customs functions and contracted security provision; the latter function is performed by the dedicated 'security police'.[citation needed]

In 2005, President Mikheil Saakashvili fired the entire traffic police force (numbering around 30,000 police officers) of the Georgian National Police due to corruption.[189][190] A new force was then subsequently built around new recruits.[189] The US State Department's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law-Enforcement Affairs has provided assistance to the training efforts and continues to act in an advisory capacity.[191]

The new Patruli force was first introduced in the summer of 2005 to replace the traffic police, a force which was accused of widespread corruption.[192] The police introduced a 0-2-2 (currently, 1-1-2) emergency dispatch service in 2004.[193]

### Corruption

Prior to the Rose Revolution, Georgia was among the most corrupt countries in the world.[194] However, following the reforms brought by the peaceful revolution, corruption in the country abated dramatically. In 2010, Transparency International (TI) named Georgia "the best corruption-buster in the world."[195] In 2012, the World Bank called Georgia a "unique success" of the world in fighting corruption, noting "Georgia's experience shows that the vicious cycle of endemic corruption can be broken and, with appropriate and decisive reforms, can be turned into a virtuous cycle."[196]

Although Georgia has been very successful in reducing blatant forms of corruption, other more subtle corrupt practices have been noted. For example, in its 2017 report, Council of Europe observed that while most day-to-day corruption has been eliminated, there are some indications of a "clientelistic system" whereby the country's leadership may allocate resources in ways that generate the loyalty and support it needs to stay in power.[197] Since 2012 stagnation in corruption fighting efforts can be observed, according to Transparency International.[198] Since 2016 the Transparency International Corruption Perception Index hovers around 56 out of 100 points. In comparison, that places Georgia in the top 50 out of 180 countries, among Central European and Mediterranean EU member states.[199]

### Human rights

Human rights in Georgia are guaranteed by the country's constitution. There is an independent human rights public defender elected by the Parliament of Georgia to ensure such rights are enforced.[200] Georgia has ratified the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2005. NGO "Tolerance", in its alternative report about its implementation, speaks of a rapid decrease in the number of Azerbaijani schools and cases of appointing headmasters to Azerbaijani schools who do not speak the Azerbaijani language.[201]

The government came under criticism for its alleged use of excessive force on 26 May 2011 when it dispersed protesters led by Nino Burjanadze, among others, with tear gas and rubber bullets after they refused to clear Rustaveli Avenue for an independence day parade despite the expiration of their demonstration permit and despite being offered to choose an alternative venue.[202][203][204][205] While human rights activists maintained that the protests were peaceful, the government pointed out that many protesters were masked and armed with heavy sticks and molotov cocktails.[206] Georgian opposition leader Nino Burjanadze said the accusations of planning a coup were baseless, and that the protesters' actions were legitimate.[205][207]

Since independence, Georgia maintained harsh policies against drugs, handing out lengthy sentences even for marijuana use. This came under criticism from human rights activists[208] and led to protests.[209] In response to lawsuits from civil society organizations, in 2018 the Constitutional Court of Georgia ruled that "consumption of marijuana is an action protected by the right to free personality"[210] and that "[Marijuana] can only harm the user's health, making that user him/herself responsible for the outcome. The responsibility for such actions does not cause dangerous consequences for the public."[211] With this ruling, Georgia became one of the first countries in the world to legalize cannabis, although using the drug in the presence of children is still illegal and punishable by fines or imprisonment.[212]

## Administrative divisions

Map of Georgia highlighting the disputed territories of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region (South Ossetia), both of which are outside the control of the central government of Georgia

Georgia is administratively divided into 9 regions, 1 capital region, and 2 autonomous republics. These in turn are subdivided into 67 districts and 5 self-governing cities.[213]

Georgia contains two official autonomous regions, of which one has declared independence. Officially autonomous within Georgia,[214] the de facto independent region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999.[215] In addition, another territory not officially autonomous has also declared independence. South Ossetia is officially known by Georgia as the Tskinvali region, as it views "South Ossetia" as implying political bonds with Russian North Ossetia.[216] It was called South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast when Georgia was part of Soviet Union. Its autonomous status was revoked in 1990. De facto separate since Georgian independence, offers were made to give South Ossetia autonomy again, but in 2006 an unrecognized referendum in the area resulted in a vote for independence.[216]

In both Abkhazia and South Ossetia large numbers of people had been given Russian passports, some through a process of forced passportization by Russian authorities.[217] This was used as a justification for Russian invasion of Georgia during the 2008 South Ossetia war after which Russia recognized the region's independence.[218] Georgia considers the regions as occupied by Russia.[131][219] The two self-declared republics gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Most countries consider the regions to be Georgian territory under Russian occupation.[220]

Region | Centre | Area (km2) | Population[5] | Density

|
|
|
|

Abkhazia | Sukhumi | 8,660 | 242,862est | 28.04
Adjara | Batumi | 2,880 | 333,953 | 115.95
Guria | Ozurgeti | 2,033 | 113,350 | 55.75
Imereti | Kutaisi | 6,475 | 533,906 | 82.45
Kakheti | Telavi | 11,311 | 318,583 | 28.16
Kvemo Kartli | Rustavi | 6,072 | 423,986 | 69.82
Mtskheta-Mtianeti | Mtskheta | 6,786 | 94,573 | 13.93
Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti | Ambrolauri | 4,990 | 32,089 | 6.43
Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti | Zugdidi | 7,440 | 330,761 | 44.45
Samtskhe-Javakheti | Akhaltsikhe | 6,413 | 160,504 | 25.02
Shida Kartli | Gori | 5,729 | 300,382est | 52.43
Tbilisi | Tbilisi | 720 | 1,108,717 | 1,539.88

## Geography

Köppen climate classification map of Georgia

Georgia is a mountainous country situated almost entirely in the South Caucasus, while some slivers of the country are situated north of the Caucasus Watershed in the North Caucasus.[221][222] The country lies between latitudes 41° and 44° N, and longitudes 40° and 47° E, with an area of 67,900 km2 (26,216 sq mi). The Likhi Range divides the country into eastern and western halves.[223] Historically, the western portion of Georgia was known as Colchis while the eastern plateau was called Iberia.[224]

The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms the northern border of Georgia.[223] The main roads through the mountain range into Russian territory lead through the Roki Tunnel between Shida Kartli and North Ossetia and the Darial Gorge (in the Georgian region of Khevi). The southern portion of the country is bounded by the Lesser Caucasus Mountains.[223] The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range is much higher in elevation than the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, with the highest peaks rising more than 5,000 metres (16,404 ft) above sea level.

Mount Kazbek in northeastern Georgia

The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at 5,203 metres (17,070 ft), and the second highest is Mount Janga at 5,059 m (16,598 ft) above sea level. Other prominent peaks include Mount Kazbek at 5,047 m (16,558 ft), Shota Rustaveli Peak 4,960 m (16,273 ft), Tetnuldi 4,858 m (15,938 ft), Ushba 4,700 m (15,420 ft), and Ailama 4,547 m (14,918 ft).[223] Out of the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbek is of volcanic origin. The region between Kazbek and Shkhara (a distance of about 200 km (124 mi) along the Main Caucasus Range) is dominated by numerous glaciers.[224]

The term Lesser Caucasus Mountains is often used to describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern Georgia that are connected to the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range by the Likhi Range.[223] The overall region can be characterized as being made up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed 3,400 metres (11,155 ft) in elevation. Prominent features of the area include the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau, lakes, including Tabatskuri and Paravani, as well as mineral water and hot springs. Two major rivers in Georgia are the Rioni and the Mtkvari.[224]

### Topography

Svaneti region of Georgia Mountain lakes in the country's northwest

The landscape within the nation's boundaries is quite varied. Western Georgia's landscape ranges from low-land marsh-forests, swamps, and temperate rainforests to eternal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the country even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains.[224]

Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of western Georgia has disappeared during the past 100 years because of the agricultural development of the land and urbanization. The large majority of the forests that covered the Colchis plain are now virtually non-existent with the exception of the regions that are included in the national parks and reserves (e.g. Lake Paliastomi area). At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgia's forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below 600 metres (1,969 ft) above sea level and contain species such as oak, hornbeam, beech, elm, ash, and chestnut. Evergreen species such as box may also be found in many areas. Ca. 1000 of all 4000 higher plants of Georgia are endemic to this country.[225]

A chapel in the cave city of Vardzia, with the valley of the Kura River below.

The west-central slopes of the Meskheti Range in Ajaria as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia are covered by temperate rain forests. Between 600–1,000 metres (1,969–3,281 ft) above sea level, the deciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. The zone is made up mainly of beech, spruce, and fir forests. From 1,500–1,800 metres (4,921–5,906 ft), the forest becomes largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around 1,800 metres (5,906 ft) and the alpine zone takes over, which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) above sea level.[224] Eastern Georgia's landscape (referring to the territory east of the Likhi Range) is considerably different from that of the west, although, much like the Colchis plain in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern Georgia including the Mtkvari and Alazani River plains have been deforested for agricultural purposes.[citation needed] The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85 per cent of the forests of the region are deciduous. Coniferous forests only dominate in the Borjomi Gorge and in the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species of trees, beech, oak, and hornbeam dominate. Other deciduous species include several varieties of maple, aspen, ash, and hazelnut.[224]

At higher elevations above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) above sea level (particularly in the Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Khevi regions), pine and birch forests dominate. In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between 500–2,000 metres (1,640–6,562 ft) above sea level, with the alpine zone extending from 2,000–2,300 to 3,000–3,500 metres (6,562–7,546 to 9,843–11,483 ft). The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in the Alazani Valley of Kakheti.[224]

### Climate

Parts of Western Georgia have a subtropical climate, with frequent rain and plenty of green vegetation. A small alpine lake in northeastern Georgia.

The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the nation's small size. There are two main climatic zones, roughly corresponding to the eastern and western parts of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range plays an important role in moderating Georgia's climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the south.[226]

Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitation ranging from 1,000–2,500 mm (39–98 in), reaching a maximum during the Autumn months. The climate of the region varies significantly with elevation and while much of the lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas (including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters (snow cover often exceeds 2 metres or 6 feet 7 inches in many regions).[226]

Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid subtropical to continental. The region's weather patterns are influenced both by dry Caspian air masses from the east and humid Black Sea air masses from the west. The penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is often blocked by mountain ranges (Likhi and Meskheti) that separate the eastern and western parts of the nation.[224] The wettest periods generally occur during spring and autumn, while winter and summer months tend to be the driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot summers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas.[224]

### Biodiversity

See also: List of fauna of Georgia and List of fish of the Black Sea

Georgian Shepherd Dog East Caucasian tur on the cliffs of Lagodekhi Protected Areas.

Because of its high landscape diversity and low latitude, Georgia is home to about 5,601 species of animals, including 648 species of vertebrates (more than 1% of the species found worldwide) and many of these species are endemics.[227] A number of large carnivores live in the forests, namely Brown bears, wolves, lynxes and Caucasian Leopards. The common pheasant (also known as the Colchian Pheasant) is an endemic bird of Georgia which has been widely introduced throughout the rest of the world as an important game bird. The species number of invertebrates is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species.[228] The Rioni River may contain a breeding population of the critically endangered bastard sturgeon.[229]

Slightly more than 6,500 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species, have been recorded from Georgia,[230][231] but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Georgia, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about seven per cent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[232] Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Georgia, and 2,595 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.[233] 1,729 species of plants have been recorded from Georgia in association with fungi.[231] According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, there are 4,300 species of vascular plants in Georgia.[234]

Georgia is home to four ecoregions: Caucasus mixed forests, Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, Eastern Anatolian montane steppe, and Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe.[235] It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.79/10, ranking it 31st globally out of 172 countries.[236]

## Economy

Georgia

Countries with whom Georgia signed Free Trade Agreement (FTA)

Countries with whom Georgia has General Schemes of Preference (GSP)

Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has been involved in commerce with many lands and empires since ancient times, largely due its location on the Black Sea and later on the historical Silk Road. Gold, silver, copper and iron have been mined in the Caucasus Mountains. Georgian wine making is a very old tradition and a key branch of the country's economy. The country has sizeable hydropower resources.[237] Throughout Georgia's modern history agriculture and tourism have been principal economic sectors, because of the country's climate and topography.

For much of the 20th century, Georgia's economy was within the Soviet model of command economy. Since the fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major structural reform designed to transition to a free market economy. As with all other post-Soviet states, Georgia faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and military conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated the crisis. The agriculture and industry output diminished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989.[238]

Since the early 21st century visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007, Georgia's real GDP growth rate reached 12 per cent, making Georgia one of the fastest-growing economies in Eastern Europe. Georgia has become more integrated into the global trading network: its 2015 imports and exports account for 50% and 21% of GDP respectively.[239] Georgia's main imports are vehicles, ores, fossil fuels and pharmaceuticals. Main exports are ores, ferro-alloys, vehicles, wines, mineral waters and fertilizers.[240][241] The World Bank dubbed Georgia "the number one economic reformer in the world" because it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th in terms of ease of doing business,[242] and by 2020 further improved its position to 6th in the world.[243] As of 2021, it ranked 12th in the world for economic freedom. In 2019, Georgia ranked 61st on the Human Development Index (HDI). Between 2000 and 2019, Georgia's HDI score improved by 17.7%.[244] Of factors contributing to HDI, education had the most positive influence[245] as Georgia ranks in the top quintile in terms of education.

Georgia is developing into an international transport corridor through Batumi and Poti ports, Baku–Tbilisi–Kars Railway line, an oil pipeline from Baku through Tbilisi to Ceyhan, the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) and a parallel gas pipeline, the South Caucasus Pipeline.[246]

Since coming to power the Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. Among other things a flat income tax was introduced in 2004.[247] As a result, budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once large budget deficit has turned into a surplus.[248][249]

As of 2001, 54 per cent of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34 per cent and by 2015 to 10.1 per cent.[250] In 2015, the average monthly income of a household was 1,022.3₾ (about $426).[251] 2015 calculations place Georgia's nominal GDP at US$13.98 billion.[252] Georgia's economy is becoming more devoted to services (as of 2016[update], representing 59.4 per cent of GDP), moving away from the agricultural sector (6.1 per cent).[253] Since 2014, unemployment has been gradually decreasing each year but remained in double digits and worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic.[254] A perception of economic stagnation led to a 2019 survey of 1,500 residents finding unemployment was considered a significant problem by 73% of respondents, with 49% reporting their income had decreased over the prior year.[255]

Georgia's telecommunications infrastructure is ranked the last among its bordering neighbours in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Georgia ranked number 58 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking,[256] up from 60 in 2015.[257] Georgia was ranked 65th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 48th in 2019.[258][259][260]

### Tourism

Gudauri is the most visited ski resort of Georgia.

Tourism is an increasingly significant part of the Georgian economy. In 2016, 2,714,773 tourists brought approximately US$2.16 billion to the country.[261] In 2019, the number of international arrivals reached a record high of 9.3 million people[262] with foreign exchange income in the year's first three quarters amounting to over US$3 billion. The country plans to host 11 million visitors by 2025 with annual revenues reaching US$6.6 billion.[263] According to the government, there are 103 resorts in different climatic zones in Georgia. Tourist attractions include more than 2,000 mineral springs, over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi and Gelati Monastery, historical monuments of Mtskheta, and Upper Svaneti).[264] Other tourist attractions are Cave City, Ananuri Castle/Church, Sighnaghi and Mount Kazbek. In 2018, more than 1.4 million tourists from Russia visited Georgia.[265]

## Transport

The Georgian Railways represent a vital artery linking the Black Sea and Caspian Sea – the shortest route between Europe and Central Asia.

Today transport in Georgia is provided by rail, road, ferry, and air. Total length of roads in Georgia, excluding the occupied territories, is 21,110 kilometres (13,120 mi) and railways – 1,576 km (979 mi).[266] Positioned in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea, Georgia is a key country through which energy imports to the European Union from neighbouring Azerbaijan pass.[citation needed]

In recent years Georgia has invested large amounts of money in the modernization of its transport networks. The construction of new highways has been prioritized and, as such, major cities like Tbilisi have seen the quality of their roads improve dramatically; despite this however, the quality of inter-city routes remains poor and to date only one motorway-standard road has been constructed – the ს 1 (S1), the main east–west highway through the country.

The Georgian railways represent an important transport artery for the Caucasus, as they make up the largest proportion of a route linking the Black and Caspian Seas. In turn, this has allowed them to benefit in recent years from increased energy exports from neighbouring Azerbaijan to the European Union, Ukraine, and Turkey.[267] Passenger services are operated by the state-owned Georgian Railway whilst freight operations are carried out by a number of licensed operators. Since 2004 the Georgian Railways have been undergoing a rolling programme of fleet-renewal and managerial restructuring which is aimed at making the service provided more efficient and comfortable for passengers.[268] Infrastructural development has also been high on the agenda for the railways, with the key Tbilisi railway junction expected to undergo major reorganization in the near future.[269] Additional projects also include the construction of the economically important Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which was opened on 30 October 2017 and connects much of the Caucasus with Turkey by standard gauge railway.[270][271]

Batumi Seaport.

Air and maritime transport is developing in Georgia, with the former mainly used by passengers and the latter for transport of freight. Georgia currently has four international airports, the largest of which is by far Tbilisi International Airport, hub for Georgian Airways, which offers connections to many large European cities. Other airports in the country are largely underdeveloped or lack scheduled traffic, although, as of late, efforts have been made to solve both these problems.[272] There are a number of seaports along Georgia's Black Sea coast, the largest and most busy of which is the Port of Batumi; whilst the town is itself a seaside resort, the port is a major cargo terminal in the Caucasus and is often used by neighbouring Azerbaijan as a transit point for making energy deliveries to Europe. Scheduled and chartered passenger ferry services link Georgia with Bulgaria,[273] Romania, Turkey and Ukraine.[274]

## Demographics

Ethno-linguistic groups in the Caucasus region as of 1995[275]

Like most native Caucasian peoples, the Georgians do not fit into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe or Asia. The Georgian language, the most pervasive of the Kartvelian languages, is not Indo-European, Turkic, or Semitic. The present-day Georgian or Kartvelian nation is thought to have resulted from the fusion of aboriginal, autochthonous inhabitants with immigrants who moved into South Caucasus from the direction of Anatolia in remote antiquity.[276]

The population of Georgia totalled 3,688,647 as of 2022,[277][lower-alpha 3] a decrease from a figure of 3,713,804 of the previous census in October 2014.[278][lower-alpha 3] The population declined by 40,000 in 2021, a reversal of the trend towards stabilisation of the last decade and, for the first time since independence, the population was recorded to be below 3.7 million. According to the 2014 census, Ethnic Georgians form about 86.8 per cent of the population, while the remainder includes ethnic groups such as Abkhazians, Armenians, Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Greeks, Jews, Kists, Ossetians, Russians, Ukrainians, Yezidis and others.[278][lower-alpha 3] The Georgian Jews are one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. According to the 1926 census there were 27,728 Jews in Georgia.[279][lower-alpha 4] Georgia was also once home to significant ethnic German communities, numbering 11,394 according to the 1926 census.[279][lower-alpha 5] Most of them were deported during World War II.[282]

The 2014 census, carried out in collaboration with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), found a population gap of approximately 700,000 compared to the 2014 data from the National Statistical Office of Georgia, Geostat, which was cumulatively built on the 2002 census. Consecutive research estimated the 2002 census to be inflated by 8 to 9 percent,[283] which affected the annually updated population estimates in subsequent years. One explanation put forward by UNFPA is that families of emigrants continued to list them in 2002 as residents for fear of losing certain rights or benefits. Also, the population registration system from birth to death was non-functional. It was not until around 2010 that parts of the system became reliable again. With the support of the UNFPA, the demographic data for the period 1994–2014 has been retro-projected.[284] On the basis of that back-projection, Geostat has corrected its data for these years.

The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or 6.3 per cent of the population,[285] 52,000 Ukrainians and 100,000 Greeks in Georgia.[286] The population of Georgia, including the breakaway regions, has declined by more than 1 million due to net emigration in the period 1990–2010.[287][286] Other factors in the population decline include birth-death deficits for the period 1995–2010 and the exclusion of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from the statistics. Russia received by far the most migrants from Georgia. According to United Nations data, this totalled 625,000 by 2000, declining to 450,000 by 2019.[288] Initially the out-migration was driven by non-Georgian ethnicities but increasing numbers of Georgians emigrated as well,[289] due to the war, the crisis-ridden 1990s, and the subsequent bad economic outlook. The 2010 Russian census recorded about 158,000 ethnic Georgians living in Russia,[290] with approximately 40,000 living in Moscow by 2014.[291] There were 184 thousand immigrants in Georgia in 2014 with most of them hailing from Russia (51.6%), Greece (8.3%), Ukraine (8.11%), Germany (4.3%), and Armenia (3.8%).[292][lower-alpha 3]

In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, violent separatist conflicts broke out in the autonomous region of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region. Many Ossetians living in Georgia left the country, mainly to Russia's North Ossetia.[293] On the other hand, at least 160,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the break-out of hostilities in 1993.[294] Of the Meskhetian Turks who were forcibly relocated in 1944, only a tiny fraction returned to Georgia as of 2008[update].[295]

The most widespread language group is the Kartvelian family, which includes Georgian, Svan, Mingrelian and Laz.[296][297][298][299][300][301] The official language of Georgia is Georgian, with Abkhaz having official status within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian is the primary language of 87.7 per cent of the population, followed by 6.2 per cent speaking Azerbaijani, 3.9 per cent Armenian, 1.2 per cent Russian, and 1 per cent other languages.[302][lower-alpha 3] Azerbaijani once served as a lingua franca for communication among various nationalities inhabiting Eastern Caucasus.[281]

Largest cities or towns in Georgia (country)

2014 General Population Census Main Results

| Rank |  | Administrative divisions of Georgia |  Pop. |

Tbilisi

Batumi | 1 | Tbilisi | Tbilisi | 1 108 717  |
Kutaisi

Rustavi
2 | Batumi | Adjara | 152 839
3 | Kutaisi | Imereti | 147 635
4 | Rustavi | Kvemo Kartli | 125 103
5 | Gori | Shida Kartli | 48 143
6 | Zugdidi | Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti | 42 998
7 | Poti | Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti | 41,465
8 | Sokhumi | Abkhazia | 39,100[lower-alpha 6]
9 | Khashuri | Shida Kartli | 33 627
10 | Tskhinvali | Shida Kartli | 30,000[lower-alpha 6]

### Religion

Main religions (2014)[9][lower-alpha 3]

Orthodox Christian (83.4%)

Muslim (10.7%)

Armenian Apostolic (2.9%)

Roman Catholic (0.5%)

Others (2.5%)

Today 83.4 per cent of the population practices Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with the majority of these adhering to the national Georgian Orthodox Church.[303][lower-alpha 3] The Georgian Orthodox Church is one of the world's most ancient Christian Churches, and claims apostolic foundation by Saint Andrew.[304] In the first half of the 4th century, Christianity was adopted as the state religion of Iberia (present-day Kartli, or eastern Georgia), following the missionary work of Saint Nino of Cappadocia.[305][306] The Church gained autocephaly during the early Middle Ages; it was abolished during the Russian domination of the country, restored in 1917 and fully recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1989.[307]

The special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church is officially recognized in the Constitution of Georgia and the Concordat of 2002, although religious institutions are separate from the state.[citation needed]

Religious minorities of Georgia include Muslims (10.7 per cent), Armenian Christians (2.9 per cent) and Roman Catholics (0.5 per cent).[303][lower-alpha 3] 0.7 per cent of those recorded in the 2014 census declared themselves to be adherents of other religions, 1.2 per cent refused or did not state their religion and 0.5 per cent declared no religion at all.[303]

Islam is represented by both Azerbaijani Shia Muslims (in the south-east), ethnic Georgian Sunni Muslims in Adjara, and Laz-speaking Sunni Muslims as well as Sunni Meskhetian Turks along the border with Turkey. In Abkhazia, a minority of the Abkhaz population is also Sunni Muslim. There are also smaller communities of Greek Muslims (of Pontic Greek origin) and Armenian Muslims, both of whom are descended from Ottoman-era converts to Turkish Islam from Eastern Anatolia who settled in Georgia following the Lala Mustafa Pasha's Caucasian campaign that led to the Ottoman conquest of the country in 1578. Georgian Jews trace the history of their community to the 6th century BC;[citation needed] their numbers have dwindled in the last decades due to high levels of immigration to Israel.[308]

Despite the long history of religious harmony in Georgia,[309] there have been instances of religious discrimination and violence against "nontraditional faiths", such as Jehovah's Witnesses, by followers of the defrocked Orthodox priest Basil Mkalavishvili.[310]

In addition to traditional religious organizations, Georgia retains secular and irreligious segments of society (0.5 per cent),[311] as well as a significant portion of religiously affiliated individuals who do not actively practice their faith.[312]

### Education

Tbilisi State University is the oldest university in Georgia and the Caucasus region.

The education system of Georgia has undergone sweeping, though controversial, modernisation since 2004.[313][314] Education in Georgia is mandatory for all children aged 6–14.[315] The school system is divided into elementary (six years; ages 6–12), basic (three years; ages 12–15), and secondary (three years; ages 15–18), or alternatively vocational studies (two years). Access to higher education is given to students who have gained a secondary school certificate. Only those students who have passed the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state-accredited higher education institution, based on ranking of the scores received at the exams.[316]

Most of these institutions offer three levels of study: a bachelor's programme (three to four years); a master's programme (two years), and a doctoral programme (three years). There is also a certified specialist's programme that represents a single-level higher education programme lasting from three to six years.[315][317] As of 2016[update], 75 higher education institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia.[318] Gross primary enrolment ratio was 117 per cent for the period of 2012–2014, the 2nd highest in Europe after Sweden.[319]

Tbilisi has become the main artery of the Georgian educational system, particularly since the creation of the First Georgian Republic in 1918 permitted the establishment of modern, Georgian-language educational institutions. Tbilisi is home to several major institutions of higher education in Georgia, notably the Tbilisi State Medical University, which was founded as Tbilisi Medical Institute in 1918, and the Tbilisi State University (TSU), which was established in 1918 and remains the oldest university in the entire Caucasus region.[320] The number of faculty and staff (collaborators) at TSU is approximately 5,000, with over 35,000 students enrolled. The following four universities are also located in Tbilisi: Georgian Technical University,[321] which is Georgia's main and largest technical university, The University of Georgia (Tbilisi),[322] as well as Caucasus University[323] and Free University of Tbilisi.[324]

## Culture

Medieval Georgian illuminated manuscript of Mokvi Gospels, 13th century.

Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years from its foundations in the Iberian and Colchian civilizations.[325] Georgian culture enjoyed a renaissance and golden age of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century.[326] Georgian culture was influenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the various Iranian empires (notably the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanian, Safavid, and Qajar empires),[327][328][329][330] and later, since the 19th century, by the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union.[331]

This long history has provided a national narrative which encompasses the successful preservation of unique culture and identity in a consistent territory, despite external pressures. Christianity and the Georgian language are particularly important national identifiers.[332] These cultural, religious, and later political attributes are associated with a European and Western identity, based on a national perception of these attributes that contrasts with surrounding powers.[331][332][333][334] This self-identity is stronger among the dominant ethnic Georgian population than in the country's minority groups.[334]

Georgia is known for its folklore, traditional music, dances, theatre, cinema, and art. Notable painters from the 20th century include Niko Pirosmani, Lado Gudiashvili, Elene Akhvlediani; notable ballet choreographers include George Balanchine, Vakhtang Chabukiani, and Nino Ananiashvili; notable poets include Galaktion Tabidze, Lado Asatiani, and Mukhran Machavariani; and notable theatre and film directors include Robert Sturua, Tengiz Abuladze, Giorgi Danelia, and Otar Ioseliani.[335]

### Architecture and arts

Old Tbilisi is the historic part of the city of Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia.

Georgian architecture has been influenced by many civilizations. There are several architectural styles for castles, towers, fortifications and churches. The Upper Svaneti fortifications, and the castle town of Shatili in Khevsureti, are some of the finest examples of medieval Georgian castle architecture. Other architectural features of Georgia include Rustaveli Avenue in Tbilisi and the Old Town District.[citation needed]

Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most notable aspects of Georgian Christian architecture, which combines the classical dome style with the original basilica style, forming what is known as the Georgian cross-dome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before that, most Georgian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Georgian ecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Georgia: Bachkovo Monastery in Bulgaria (built in 1083 by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani), Iviron monastery in Greece (built by Georgians in the 10th century), and the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem (built by Georgians in the 9th century). One of the most famous late 19th/early 20th century Georgian artists was primitivist painter Niko Pirosmani.[336]

### Literature

The Georgian language, and the Classical Georgian literature of the poet Shota Rustaveli, were revived in the 19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the foundations of the romantics and novelists of the modern era such as Grigol Orbeliani, Nikoloz Baratashvili, Ilia Chavchavadze, Akaki Tsereteli, and Vazha-Pshavela.[335] The Georgian language is written in three unique scripts which, according to traditional accounts, were invented by King Pharnavaz I of Iberia in the 3rd century BC.[337][338]

### Media

Television, magazines, and newspapers in Georgia are all operated by both state-owned and for-profit corporations which depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Georgia guarantees freedom of speech.[citation needed] The media environment of Georgia remains the freest and most diverse in the South Caucasus,[339] despite the long-term politicization and polarisation affecting the sector. The political struggle for control over the public broadcaster have left it without a direction in 2014 too.[340]

### Music

Georgia has an ancient musical tradition, which is primarily known for its early development of polyphony. Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths, and a harmonic structure rich in parallel fifths and dissonances.[citation needed] Three types of polyphony have developed in Georgia: a complex version in Svaneti, a dialogue over a bass background in the Kakheti region, and a three-part partially-improvised version in western Georgia.[341] The Georgian folk song "Chakrulo" was one of 27 musical compositions included on the Voyager Golden Records that were sent into space on Voyager 2 on 20 August 1977.[342]

### Cuisine

Rather than serving food in courses, traditional supras often present all that a host has to offer

Georgian cuisine and wine have evolved through the centuries, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most unusual traditions of dining is supra, or Georgian table, which is also a way of socializing with friends and family. The head of supra is known as tamada. He also conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular dishes: for example, khinkali (meat dumplings), from eastern mountainous Georgia, and khachapuri, mainly from Imereti, Samegrelo and Adjara.[343]

### Wine

Rkatsiteli kvevri wine in a glass. Wine-making is a traditional component of the Georgian economy.

Georgia is one of the oldest wine-producing countries in the world. Archaeology indicates that fertile valleys and slopes in and around Georgia have been home to grapevine cultivation and neolithic wine production (Georgian: ღვინო, ɣvino) for millennia.[344][345][346][347] Local traditions associated with wine are entwined with its national identity.[344] In 2013, UNESCO added the ancient traditional Georgian winemaking method using the Kvevri clay jars to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.[344][348]

Georgia's moderate climate and moist air, influenced by the Black Sea, provide the best conditions for vine cultivation. The soil in vineyards is so intensively cultivated that the grapevines grow up the trunks of fruit trees eventually hanging down along the fruit when they ripen. This method of cultivation is called maglari.[349] Among the best-known Georgian wine regions are Kakheti (further divided into the micro-regions of Telavi and Kvareli), Kartli, Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, Adjara and Abkhazia.

Georgian wine has been a contentious issue in recent relationships with Russia. Political tensions with Russia have contributed to the 2006 Russian embargo of Georgian wine, Russia claimed Georgia produced counterfeit wine. It was an "official" reason, but instability of economic relations with Russia is well known, as they use the economic ties for political purposes.[350] Counterfeiting problems stem from mislabelling by foreign producers and falsified "Georgian Wine" labels on wines produced outside of Georgia and imported into Russia under the auspices of being Georgian produced.[350] The shipment of counterfeit wine has been primarily channelled through Russian managed customs checkpoints in Russian occupied Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, where no inspection and regulation occurs.[350]

### Sports

Georgia playing Italy at rugby in the Adjarabet Arena in Batumi.

The most popular sports in Georgia are football, basketball, rugby union, wrestling, judo, and weightlifting. Rugby is considered Georgia's national sport.[351] Historically, Georgia has been famous for its physical education; the Romans were fascinated with Georgians' physical qualities after seeing the training techniques of ancient Iberia.[352] Wrestling remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and some historians think that the Greco-Roman style of wrestling incorporates many Georgian elements.[353]

Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of wrestling is the Kakhetian style. There were a number of other styles in the past that are not as widely used today. For example, the Khevsureti region of Georgia has three styles of wrestling. Other popular sports in 19th century Georgia were polo, and Lelo, a traditional Georgian game very similar to rugby.[354]

The first and only race circuit in the Caucasian region is located in Georgia. Rustavi International Motorpark originally built in 1978 was re-opened in 2012 after total reconstruction[355] costing $20 million. The track satisfies the FIA Grade 2 requirements and currently hosts the Legends car racing series and Formula Alfa competitions.[356]

Basketball was always one of the notable sports in Georgia, and Georgia had a few very famous Soviet Union national team members, such as Otar Korkia, Mikheil Korkia, Zurab Sakandelidze and Levan Moseshvili. Dinamo Tbilisi won the prestigious Euroleague competition in 1962. Georgia had five players in the NBA: Vladimir Stepania, Jake Tsakalidis, Nikoloz Tskitishvili, Tornike Shengelia and current Golden State Warriors centre Zaza Pachulia. Other notable basketball players are two times Euroleague champion Giorgi Shermadini and Euroleague players Manuchar Markoishvili and Viktor Sanikidze. Sport is regaining its popularity in the country in recent years. Georgia national basketball team qualified to EuroBasket during the last three tournaments since 2011.[citation needed]

There are a number of world-class Georgian MMA fighters. For example Ilia Topuria, Merab Dvalishvili, Giga Chikadze and Roman Dolidze.

Georgian athletes have won a total of 40 olympic medals, mostly in wrestling, judo and weightlifting.[357] Competitive bodybuilding sanctioned by the European IFBB is popular in the country.[358]

## See also

* Index of Georgia (country)-related articles
* Outline of Georgia (country)

## Notes

1. ↑ In the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia.[1][2]
2. ↑ Excluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia, the two partially recognized states under Russian occupation. The government of Georgia considers the two republics as integral parts of the country, with international support.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Data not including Abkhazia and South Ossetia
4. ↑ Combined population of urban (23,433 in 1922) and rural (2,326 in 1917) communities.[280]
5. ↑ Estimated 14,000 in 1922.[281]
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Occupied city, estimated data

## References

1. ↑ "Article 8", Constitution of Georgia . In Abkhazian AR, also Abkhazian.
2. ↑ "Constitution of Georgia". http://parliament.ge/uploads/other/28/28803.pdf.
3. ↑ "საქართველოს მოსახლეობის საყოველთაო აღწერის საბოლოო შედეგები". National Statistics Office of Georgia. 28 April 2016. http://geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/english/population/Census_release_ENG_2016.pdf.
4. ↑ "Demographic Portal". https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/41/population.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "2014 General Population Census Main Results General Information — National Statistics Office of Georgia". http://census.ge/files/results/Census_release_ENG.pdf.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Georgia)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=915,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1.
7. ↑ "GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Georgia". World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=GE.
8. ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (in en). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "2014 General Population Census – Main Results". National Statistics Office of Georgia (Geostat). 28 April 2016. http://geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/english/population/Census_release_ENG_2016.pdf.
10. ↑ Encyclopedic World Atlas, George Philip & Son, Oxford University Press: 2002, p.104
11. ↑ Histories 4.38. C.f. James Rennell, The geographical system of Herodotus examined and explained, Volume 1, Rivington 1830, p. 244
12. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica”, Caucasus, June 2021: "One widely accepted scheme draws the dividing line along the crest of the Greater Caucasus range, putting the portion of the region north of the line in Europe and the portion south of it in Asia. Another puts the western portion of the Caucasus region in Europe and the eastern part (the bulk of Azerbaijan and small portions of Armenia, Georgia, and Russia's Caspian Sea coast) in Asia..."
13. ↑ "Population and Demography". National Statistics Office of Georgia, Geostat. https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/316/population-and-demography.
14. ↑ 'World's oldest wine' found in 8,000-year-old jars in Georgia. BBC News: 13 November 2017
15. ↑ Doce, Elisa Guerra (2004). "The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence of the Consumption of Fermented Beverages and Drugs in Prehistoric Eurasia". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 22 (3): 751–782. doi:10.1007/s10816-014-9205-z.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Jones, Stephen (27 October 2020). "The establishment of Soviet power in Transcaucasia: The case of Georgia 1921–1928". Soviet Studies 40 (4): 627. doi:10.1080/09668138808411783.
17. ↑ "Constitution of Georgia". The Legislative Herald of Georgia. 2020-06-29. Article 1.1, 7.2, 45, 52 and 54. https://matsne.gov.ge/en/document/view/30346?publication=36.
18. ↑ "Consolidating Parliamentary Democracy in Georgia". UNDP Georgia. https://www.ge.undp.org/content/georgia/en/home/projects/PARLIAMENT.html.
19. ↑ European Council, 14-15 December 2023
20. ↑ David Braund (1994). A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-19-814473-1. https://archive.org/details/georgiainantiqui0000brau.
21. ↑ Rouben Galichian (2007) Countries South of the Caucasus in Medieval Maps: Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. pp. 188–189
22. ↑ Boeder; et al. (2002). Philology, typology and language structure. Peter Lang. p. 65. ISBN 978-0820459912
23. ↑ Peradze, Gregory. "The Pilgrims' derivation of the name Georgia". Georgica, Autumn, 1937, nos. 4 & 5, 208–209
24. ↑ Hock, Hans Henrich; Zgusta, Ladislav (1997). Historical, Indo-European, and Lexicographical Studies. Walter de Gruyter. p. 211. ISBN 978-3-11-012884-0.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Mikaberidze (2015), p. 3.
26. ↑ Rapp (2014), p. 21.
27. ↑ Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, pp. 419–423. Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1318-5
28. ↑ Constantine Porphyrogenitus (1967). De Administrando Imperio. translated by R.J.H Jenkins. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies.
29. ↑ "Article 2.1", Constitution of Georgia, Legislative Herald of Georgia, https://matsne.gov.ge/en/document/view/30346?publication=36, "‘Georgia’ is the name of the state of Georgia."
30. ↑ "Tbilisi". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 July 2023. https://www.britannica.com/place/Tbilisi. "Tbilisi, formerly Tiflis, capital of the republic of Georgia"
31. ↑ Horovitz, David (2006-05-17). "'By Georgia! Don't call us Gruzia'". https://www.jpost.com/international/by-georgia-dont-call-us-gruzia.
32. ↑ "Japan intends to officially use 'Georgia' instead of 'Gruzia'". 2014-10-21. https://en.trend.az/scaucasus/georgia/2324328.html.
33. ↑ Lomsadze, Giorgi (2011-06-28). "Georgia: Stop Calling Me "Gruzia"". https://eurasianet.org/georgia-stop-calling-me-gruzia.
34. ↑ Rekhviashvili, Jimsher (2011-07-13). "Georgia Asks Friends To Stop Calling It 'Gruzia'". https://rferl.org/a/georgia_asks_friends_to_stop_calling_it_gruzia/24264848.html.
35. ↑ "Lithuania approves Sakartvelo as official name for Georgia". 2021-01-11. https://www.lrt.lt/en/news-in-english/19/1317371/lithuania-approves-sakartvelo-as-official-name-for-georgia.
36. ↑ "Georgian archaeologists find 1.8-million-year-old human tooth". 2022-09-09. https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/oddly-enough/georgian-archaeologists-find-18-million-year-old-human-tooth-2022-09-09/.
37. ↑ Roebroeks, Wil (1993). The Earliest Occupation of Europe. Leiden: Modderman Stichting / Faculty of Archaeology - Leiden University. pp. 207–209. ISBN 9789073368071.
38. ↑ Tsotskolauri, Avtandil (2017). საქართველოს ისტორია. Tbilisi: Saunje. pp. 12–17. ISBN 978-9941-451-79-9.
39. ↑ Kot, Małgorzata (2021-06-20). "Filling the gaps: Late Upper Palaeolithic settlement in Gvardjilas Klde, Georgia". https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1040618220304328.
40. ↑ Baudouin, Emmanuel. "Rethinking architectural techniques of the Southern Caucasus in the 6th millennium BC: A re-examination of former data and new insights". https://journals.openedition.org/paleorient/602.
41. ↑ Lavole, Amy (2009-09-10). "Oldest-known fibers to be used by humans discovered". https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2009/09/oldest-known-fibers-discovered/.
42. ↑ "Discover the Secret Birthplace of Wine". 2018-05-21. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/sponsor-content-secret-birthplace-of-wine.
43. ↑ Hauotmann, Andreas. "Bronze Age gold in Southern Georgia". https://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/2037?lang=en.
44. ↑ Javakhishvili, Ivane (1950). Historical-Ethnological problems of Georgia, the Caucasus and the Near East. Tbilisi: Tbilisi State University. pp. 130–135.
45. ↑ "Archaeologists discover 14th-12th centuries BCE Colchis artefacts in western Georgia". 2022-05-13. https://agenda.ge/en/news/2022/1715.
46. ↑ Lichell, Vakhtang. "Geoarchaeology of Phasis (Georgia)". https://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/8317.
47. ↑ David Marshall Lang (1997). Lives and Legends of the Georgian Saints (2nd ed.). St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-913836-29-3.
48. ↑ Cyril Toumanoff (1967). Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Georgetown University Press.. pp. 83–84, 377.
49. ↑ Asatiani 2009, pp. 48–50
50. ↑ Asatiani 2009, pp. 54–61
51. ↑ Asatiani 2009, pp. 47–48
52. ↑ Asatiani 2009, pp. 67–70
53. ↑ Smith, Graham; Vivien Law (1998). Nation-building in the post-Soviet borderlands. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-521-59968-9. https://archive.org/details/nationbuildingin0000unse/page/56.
54. ↑ David Marshall Lang (1976). Modern History of Soviet Georgia. London: Greenwood Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-8371-8183-7.
55. ↑ Trust and Conflict: Representation, Culture and Dialogue. Cultural Dynamics of Social Representation. 2011. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-415-59346-5.
56. ↑ Howard Aronson; Dodona Kiziria (1999). Georgian Literature and Culture. Slavica. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-89357-278-5.
57. ↑ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1996). Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. DIANE Publishing. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-7881-2813-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=B2W1YOG3N10C. Retrieved 1 December 2017. "The Knight in the Panther Skin occupies a unique position as the Georgian national epic."
58. ↑ Javakhishvili, Ivane (1982) (in ka). k'art'veli eris istoria. 2. Tbilisi State University Press. pp. 184–187.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Eastmond (2010), p. 109.
60. ↑ Eastmond (2010), p. 93.
61. ↑ Imagining history at the crossroads: Persia, Byzantium, and the architects of the written Georgian past, Volume 2 p 652. University of Michigan 1997. 1997. ISBN 978-0-591-30828-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=PeEeAQAAMAAJ. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
62. ↑ René Grousset, Rene (1991). 'The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. p. 260.
63. ↑ Mikaberidze (2015), p. xxxi.
64. ↑ " ნ. ტოლჩანოვის იმერეთში ელჩობის მუხლობრივი აღწერილობა, 1650-1652", გამოსცა ი. ცინცაძემ, თბ., 1970, გვ. 37-38
65. ↑ გურამ შარაძე, ბედნიერებისა და სათნოების საუნჯე, თბილისი, გამომცემლობა საბჭოთა საქართველო, 1984: pp. 436-437.
66. ↑ ჯაოშვილი, ვახტანგ (1984). საქართველოს მოსახლეობა XVIII-XX საუკუნეებში: დემოგრაფიულ-გეოგრაფიული გამოკვლევა (1st ed.). მეცნიერება. p. 72.
67. ↑ Fisher et al. (1991), p. 328.
68. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru). Moscow State University. 24 July 1783. http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/georgia.htm.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=24+July+1783&rft.pub=Moscow+State+University&rft_id=http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/georgia.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Place:Georgia_(country)">
69. ↑ Relations between Tehran and Moscow, 1797–2014. https://www.academia.edu/9137125. Retrieved 17 May 2015.
70. ↑ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2009), Burnham, Robert, ed., Peter Bagration: The Best Georgian General of the Napoleonic Wars, The Napoleon Series, http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/biographies/bagration/c_bagration1.html, retrieved 19 February 2019
71. ↑ Gvosdev (2000), p. 85.
72. ↑ Avalov (1906), p. 186.
73. ↑ Gvosdev (2000), p. 86.
74. ↑ Lang (1957), p. 249.
75. ↑ Lang (1957), p. 251.
76. ↑ Lang (1957), p. 247.
77. ↑ Lang (1957), p. 252.
78. ↑ Timothy C. Dowling Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond pp 728 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014 ISBN 1598849484
79. ↑ Suny (1994), p. 64.
80. ↑ Allen F. Chew: An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders. Yale University Press, 1970, p. 74.
81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 "Georgia Celebrates Independence Day". http://georgiatoday.ge/news/21292/Georgia-Celebrates-Independence-Day-.
82. ↑ Stefan Talmon (1998), Recognition of Governments in International Law, p. 289–290. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-826573-5.
83. ↑ Широков, И. В.; Тарасов, А. А. (2010) (in ru). Наша маленькая Хоста – Исторический очерк. Sochi. http://www.sss-tmas.org/index.php/component/docman/doc_download/14-our-little-khosta?Itemid=. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
84. ↑ Knight, Amy. Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, p. 237, ISBN 978-0-691-01093-9.
85. ↑ "Ethnic tensions: War in the Caucasus is Stalin's legacy ". The Independent. 17 August 2008.
86. ↑ "Georgian World War II hero's remains return home". Agenda.ge. 30 September 2015. https://agenda.ge/en/news/2015/2165.
87. ↑ Cornell, Svante E. (2002), Autonomy and Conflict: Ethnoterritoriality and Separatism in the South Caucasus: Cases in Georgia, pp. 146–149. Uppsala University, Department of Peace and Conflict Research, ISBN 91-506-1600-5
88. ↑ "Government of Georgia:About Georgia". gov.ge. http://gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=193.
89. ↑ Hughey, Michael W. (29 March 2016). New Tribalisms: The Resurgence of Race and Ethnicity. Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-26403-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=alTeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA333. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
90. ↑ MacFarlane, S. Neil; Relations, Queen's University (Kingston, Ont ) Centre for International (28 August 1997). Coming Together Or Falling Apart?: Regionalism in the Former Soviet Union. Centre for International Relations, Queen's University. ISBN 978-0-88911-745-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=G4LiAAAAMAAJ&q="was+Romania". Retrieved 28 August 2023.
91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 "Georgia: Abkhazia and South Ossetia". Encyclopedia Princetoniensis. https://pesd.princeton.edu/?q=node/274.
92. ↑ "Obituary: Eduard Shevardnadze" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2014-07-07. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26327394.
93. ↑ "Georgia/Abchasia: Violations of the laws of war and Russia's role in the conflict". Hrw.org. March 1995. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Georgia2.htm.
94. ↑ "Russia – The Ingush–Ossetian conflict in the Prigorodnyi region". Human Rights Watch/Helsinki. May 1996. http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Russia.htm.
95. ↑ "EurasiaNet Eurasia Insight – Georgia's Rose Revolution: Momentum and Consolidation". Eurasianet.org. http://eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav112204a.shtml.
96. ↑ "არჩევნების ისტორია" (in ka). Tabula. 17 August 2016. http://www.tabula.ge/ge/elections-2016/history.
97. ↑ "Georgia moves to rein in Ajaria". BBC News. 5 May 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3685117.stm.
98. ↑ Gorshkov, Nikolai (19 September 2002). "Duma prepares for Georgia strike". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/europe/2269057.stm.
99. ↑ "Russia, Georgia strike deal on bases". Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. 30 May 2005. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=10007.
100. ↑ "Russia Hands Over Batumi Military Base to Georgia". Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. 13 November 2007. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=16321.
101. ↑ Russia's retention of Gudauta base – An unfulfilled CFE treaty commitment Socor, Vladirmir. The Jamestown Foundation. 22 May 2006
102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 Whitmore, Brian (12 September 2008). "Is The Clock Ticking For Saakashvili?'". http://www.rferl.org/content/Is_The_Clock_Ticking_For_Saakashvili/1199512.html.
103. ↑ "Russia criticised over Abkhazia". BBC News. 24 April 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7364544.stm.
104. ↑ "Countdown in the Caucasus: Seven days that brought Russia and Georgia to war". Financial Times. 26 August 2008. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/af25400a-739d-11dd-8a66-0000779fd18c,dwp_uuid=f2b40164-cfea-11dc-9309-0000779fd2ac.html.
105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 Marc Champion; Andrew Osborn (16 August 2008). "Smoldering Feud, Then War". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB121884450978145997.
106. ↑ Luke Harding (19 November 2008). "Georgia calls on EU for independent inquiry into war". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/19/georgia-russia-eu-media-inquiry.
107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 Roy Allison (2008). "Russia resurgent? Moscow's campaign to 'coerce Georgia to peace'". International Affairs 84 (6): 1145–1171. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00762.x. http://commonweb.unifr.ch/artsdean/pub/gestens/f/as/files/4760/39349_201918.pdf. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
108. ↑ Jean-Rodrigue Paré (13 February 2009). "The Conflict Between Russia and Georgia". Parliament of Canada. http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/prb0836-e.htm.
109. ↑ "Saakashvili Appeals for Peace in Televised Address". Civil.Ge. 7 August 2008. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=18931.
110. ↑ "The Goals Behind Moscow's Proxy Offensive in South Ossetia". The Jamestown Foundation. 8 August 2008. http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[swords]=8fd5893941d69d0be3f378576261ae3e&tx_ttnews[all_the_words]=Georgia Moscow proxy&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=33872&tx_ttnews[backPid]=7&cHash=56f9d06976.
111. ↑ "Georgian conflict puts U.S. in middle". 9 August 2008. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2008-08-09/news/0808080649_1_south-ossetia-russian-peacekeeping-troops-russian-president-dmitry-medvedev/2.
112. ↑ Peter Finn (17 August 2008). "A Two-Sided Descent into Full-Scale War". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/16/AR2008081600502_pf.html.
113. ↑ Pavel Felgenhauer (14 August 2008). "The Russian-Georgian War was Preplanned in Moscow". http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=33888.
114. ↑ Chivers, C.J. (15 September 2008). "Georgia Offers Fresh Evidence on War's Start". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/16/world/europe/16georgia.html.
115. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru). NEWSru.com. 11 September 2008. http://www.newsru.com/russia/11sep2008/voshli.html.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=11+September+2008&rft.pub=NEWSru.com&rft_id=http://www.newsru.com/russia/11sep2008/voshli.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Place:Georgia_(country)">
116. ↑ "Russian Federation: Legal Aspects of War in Georgia". Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/russian-georgia-war.php.
117. ↑ "Abkhaz separatists strike disputed Georgia gorge". Reuters. 9 August 2008. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-georgia-abkhazia-kodori-idUSL932653720080809.
118. ↑ Harding, Luke (11 August 2008). "I got my children out minutes before the bombs fell". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/aug/11/georgia.russia11.
119. ↑ "Russia opens new front, drives deeper into Georgia". Associated Press. 11 August 2008. http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5hV2N6fVKS5slf10A13Dj_uIdaZ4QD92GE8780.
120. ↑ "Report. Volume I". Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia. September 2009. p. 27. http://www.ceiig.ch/pdf/IIFFMCG_Volume_I.pdf.
121. ↑ "Amnesty International Satellite Images Reveal Damage to South Ossetian Villages After...". Reuters. 9 October 2008. https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/10/09/idUS200979+09-Oct-2008+PRN20081009.
122. ↑ "Civilians in the line of fire". Amnesty International. November 2008. http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4922c0b22.pdf.
123. ↑ "Georgia Marks Anniversary of War". BBC News. 7 August 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8188904.stm.
124. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru). Kommersant. 15 August 2008. http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1011783.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=15+August+2008&rft.pub=Kommersant&rft_id=http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1011783&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Place:Georgia_(country)">
125. ↑ "Rights Groups Say South Ossetian Militias Burning Georgian Villages". RFE/RL. 30 September 2008. http://www.rferl.org/content/Ossetian_Militias_Burn_Georgian_Villages/1292746.html.
126. ↑ "Russia Endorses Six-Point Plan". Civil.Ge. 12 August 2008. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19069.
127. ↑ "Statement by President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev". The Kremlin. 26 August 2008. http://kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2008/08/26/1543_type82912_205752.shtml.
128. ↑ "Georgia breaks ties with Russia". BBC News. 29 August 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7588428.stm.
129. ↑ "Russia Completes 'Most of Withdrawal' – EU Monitors". Civil Georgia. 2008-10-08. https://civil.ge/archives/117657.
130. ↑ "Moscow Says EU Monitors Fully Control 'Buffer Zones'". Civil Georgia. 2008-10-09. https://civil.ge/archives/117667.
131. ↑ 131.0 131.1 "Resolution of the Parliament of Georgia on the Occupation of the Georgian Territories by the Russian Federation". 29 August 2008. http://www.parliament.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=98&info_id=20047.
132. ↑ "Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory". Civil.Ge. 28 August 2008. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19330.
133. ↑ "Georgia's Constitutional Changes". International Crisis Group. 1 March 2012. https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/georgia/georgia-s-constitutional-changes.
134. ↑ "Saakashvili Concedes Defeat in Parliamentary Election", Civil.ge, 2 October 2012, https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=25299, retrieved 29 December 2021
135. ↑ "Georgian tycoon Ivanishvili confirmed as prime minister". Reuters. 25 October 2012. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-georgia-parliament-idUSBRE89O0Z820121025.
136. ↑ "Georgia: Conflict Rather than Cohabitation". Eurasianet. 8 February 2013. https://eurasianet.org/georgia-conflict-rather-than-cohabitation.
137. ↑ "Georgia's Historic Transition Faces Crucial Tests In 2013". RFE/RL. 16 December 2012. https://www.rferl.org/a/georgias-historic-transition-faces-crucial-tests-in-2013/24799963.html.
138. ↑ "Georgia PM ally Giorgi Margvelashvili 'wins presidency'". BBC News. 27 October 2013. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-24696261.
139. ↑ "Irakli Garibashvili Named as Georgia's Next Prime Minister". Jamestown Foundation. 4 November 2013. https://jamestown.org/program/irakli-garibashvili-named-as-georgias-next-prime-minister/.
140. ↑ "Did Georgia's 'Informal Leader' Pressure Prime Minister To Resign?". RFE/RL. 24 December 2015. https://www.rferl.org/a/caucasus-report-georgia-garibashvili-resigns/27447558.html.
141. ↑ "Mikheil Saakashvili: Georgian ex-president arrested returning from exile". BBC News. 1 October 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-58767420.
142. ↑ "Ruling party in Georgia decisively wins parliament vote" (in en). Reuters. 7 October 2016. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-georgia-election-idUSKCN1272AT.
143. ↑ "Constitutional Amendments Initiated". Civil.ge. 3 May 2017. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=30072.
144. ↑ "Georgian government offers concessions to end crisis". Eurasianet. 24 June 2019. https://eurasianet.org/georgian-government-offers-concessions-to-end-crisis.
145. ↑ "Transparency International urges dialogue with civil society during political crisis in Georgia". Transparency International. 30 November 2019. https://www.transparency.org/en/press/georgia-political-crisis-dialogue-with-civil-society.
146. ↑ Speaker Nino Burjanadze held the office as female interim President twice, in 2003 and 2007
147. ↑ "Georgia elects Salome Zurabishvili as first woman president". BBC News. 29 November 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46376344.
148. ↑ "Georgian Dream, Opposition Reach Consensus over Electoral Reform". Civil.ge. 8 March 2020. https://civil.ge/archives/341385.
149. ↑ "Georgia protests: Tbilisi police fire water cannon at demonstrators". BBC News. 8 November 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54868053.
150. ↑ "New EU Proposal: Amnesty for Rurua, Melia, 2022 Snap Polls if GD Gets Less than 43% in Locals". Civil.ge. 18 April 2021. https://civil.ge/archives/413785.
151. ↑ "President Michel to Start Consultations after GD's EU-Brokered Deal Withdrawal". Civil.ge. 29 July 2021. https://civil.ge/archives/434558.
152. ↑ "Georgia country profile". BBC News. 22 February 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17301647.
153. ↑ Shota Kincha (2022-05-22). "Russian exiles get a chilly reception in Georgia – VoxEurop" (in en-US). Voxeurope. https://voxeurop.eu/en/russian-exiles-get-a-chilly-reception-in-georgia/.
154. ↑ BBC Georgia elects Salome Zurabishvili as first woman president, 29 November 2018
155. ↑ Berry, Lynn (7 January 2008). "Georgia Leader: Country on Right Track". Fox News. http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Jan07/0,4670,GeorgiaPresidentialElection,00.html. "In an interview with The Associated Press, Saakashvili acknowledged Georgia's path had not been smooth but said the election demonstrated that the former Soviet republic was on the road to becoming a European democracy."
156. ↑ "Georgia: Freedom in the World 2022 Country Report". Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/country/georgia/freedom-world/2022. "Georgia holds regular and competitive elections. Its democratic trajectory showed signs of improvement during the period surrounding a change in government in 2012–13, but recent years have featured backsliding. Oligarchic influence affects the country's political affairs, policy decisions, and media environment, and the rule of law is undermined by politicization. Civil liberties are inconsistently protected."
157. ↑ "Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge" (in en-GB). pp. 44–47. https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGDWhBlxfqM9cMZEewC0HoBG0xhm9PFkxb-_IqDsjlxRZgDssKgB0pHGt7yS48UFv94hU4ZW0C_jXaFfmK_5TbL23wtQarQv22nFbg8ZTnHQrrcPg.
158. ↑ "U.S. Announces New Military Assistance Program for Georgia". Civil.Ge. 5 November 2004. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=8271.
159. ↑ European Parliament, Resolution 2014/2717(RSP), 17 July 2014: "...pursuant to Article 49 of the Treaty on European Union, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine – like any other European state – have a European perspective and may apply to become members of the Union…"
160. ↑ Jorge Liboreiro (24 June 2022). "Why was Georgia not granted EU candidate status?". Euronews. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/06/24/why-was-georgia-not-granted-eu-candidate-status.
161. ↑ "Georgia's way to NATO". Mfa.gov.ge. 27 May 2010. http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=89&lang_id=ENG.
162. ↑ "NDI Poll: Economy Still Top Concern for Georgians; Support for NATO and EU Stable". National Democratic Institute. 16 January 2017. https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/NDI_November 2016 poll_press release_ENG.pdf.
163. ↑ Press Release (2011) 145. NATO. 7 December 2011. Accessed 3 January 2011.
164. ↑ "Substantial NATO-Georgia Package (SNGP)". NATO. https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2016_06/20160614_1606-georgia-sngp-factsheet-en.pdf.
165. ↑ "Lavrov: If Georgia Joins NATO, Relations Will Be Spoiled". Georgia Today. 26 September 2019. http://georgiatoday.ge/news/17482/Lavrov:-If-Georgia-Joins-NATO,-Relations-Will-Be-Spoiled.
166. ↑ "Russian FM Lavrov supports resumption of flights to Georgia as Georgians 'realised consequences' of June 20". Agenda.ge. 26 September 2019. https://agenda.ge/en/news/2019/2582.
167. ↑ "Europe | Bush praises Georgian democracy". BBC News. 10 May 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4531273.stm.
168. ↑ Bush Heads to Europe for G – 8 Summit, The New York Times
169. ↑ "EU, Georgia Sign ENP Action Plan". Civil.Ge. 3 October 2006. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=13747.
170. ↑ "EU/Georgia Association Agreement". EEAS. 13 September 2016. https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/9740/EU/Georgia Association Agreement.
171. ↑ "Visas: Council confirms agreement on visa liberalisation for Georgia". European Council – Council of the European Union. 20 December 2016. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2016/12/20-visa-liberalisation-georgia/.
172. ↑ "Visas: Council adopts regulation on visa liberalisation for Georgians". European Council – Council of the European Union. 27 February 2017. http://dsms.consilium.europa.eu/952/Actions/Newsletter.aspx?messageid=10910&customerid=8798&password=enc_4343363430443232_enc.
173. ↑ Civil.ge (3 March 2022). "Georgia's PM Signs Application to Join the EU". Civil.ge. https://civil.ge/archives/477258.
174. ↑ "Civil Georgia | BREAKING: Georgia Granted EU Candidate Status" (in en-US). https://civil.ge/archives/574502.
175. ↑ "European Council grants EU candidate status to Georgia - Council President". https://agenda.ge/en/news/2023/4908.
176. ↑ Bayer, Lili (2023-12-14). "Deal reached to open EU accession talks with Ukraine and Moldova – Europe live" (in en-GB). the Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/dec/14/eu-summit-viktor-orban-aid-ukraine-live-latest-updates.
177. ↑ "EU to open membership talks with Ukraine and Moldova" (in en-GB). 2023-12-14. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67722252.
178. ↑ "Budget". Ministry of Defence of Georgia. https://mod.gov.ge/uploads/public/ბიუჯეტი/dazust.biujeti.pdf.
179. ↑ "Delta History". STC Delta. http://delta.gov.ge/en/history/.
180. ↑ "Delta Products". STC Delta. http://delta.gov.ge/en/product/.
181. ↑ Collin, Matthew (9 March 2007). "Georgia to double troops in Iraq". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6433289.stm.
182. ↑ "MoD Releases Details on Georgian Troops Wounded in May 13 Helmand Attack". Civil Georgia. 14 May 2013. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=26057.
183. ↑ "Georgia deploying 750 soldiers to Afghanistan". Hurriyet Daily News. Agence France-Presse. 4 August 2010. http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=georgia-deploying-750-soldiers-to-afghanistan-2010-04-08.
184. ↑ Mikheil Saakashvili (14 December 2009). "Why Georgia sends troops to Afghanistan". The Daily Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/georgia/6809222/Why-Georgia-sends-troops-to-Afghanistan.html.
185. ↑ Ostroska, Jessica (16 July 2014). "Georgian Army ends mission in Helmand". http://www.isaf.nato.int/article/news/georgian-army-ends-mission-in-helmand.html.
186. ↑ Georgian Soldier Killed in Afghanistan : "bringing the total number of Georgia’s Afghanistan death toll to 32", 4 August 2017
187. ↑ "Georgian Troops End Mission in Helmand". Civil Georgia. 17 July 2014. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=27498.
188. ↑ "Georgian Soldier Succumbs to Injuries Suffered in Afghanistan". Civil Georgia. 8 June 2015. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=28333.
189. ↑ 189.0 189.1 Mark McDonald, Knight Ridder Newspapers. "Firing of traffic police force stands as a symbol of hope in Georgia | McClatchy". Mcclatchydc.com. http://www.mcclatchydc.com/190/story/11216.html.
190. ↑ "Georgia's National Police Corruption Project". NPR. 15 September 2005. https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4849472.
191. ↑ Building security in the Republic of Georgia Andrew Stamer Retrieved 1 June 2007
192. ↑ "Remarks by President Saakashvili at the CIS Summit in Tbilisi". President of Georgia. 3 June 2005. http://www.president.gov.ge/?l=E&m=0&sm=3&st=120&id=211.
193. ↑ "Security Notice". American Embassy Tbilisi. http://georgia.usembassy.gov/wardenmessage20041019.html.
194. ↑ Berglund, Christopher; Engvall, Johan (Sep 3, 2015). "How Georgia Stamped Out Corruption on Campus". Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/09/03/how-georgia-stamped-out-corruption-on-campus/.
195. ↑ "Lessons from Georgia's fight against graft". The Economist. Feb 7, 2012. https://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2012/02/tbilisi’s-corruption-busters.
196. ↑ "Georgia's Fight Against Corruption in Public Services Wins Praise". The World Bank. Jan 31, 2012. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2012/01/31/georgias-fight-against-corruption-in-public-services-wins-praise.
197. ↑ "Fourth Evaluation Round on Georgia". https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016806dc116. Council of Europe, 17 January 2017
198. ↑ "Georgia's anti-corruption reforms stall amid political crisis and allegations of state capture". Transparency International. 28 January 2021. https://www.transparency.org/en/blog/cpi-2020-georgia-anti-corruption-reforms-stall-political-crisis-state-capture.
199. ↑ "Corruption Perception Index 2020". Transparency International. 28 January 2021. https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/geo.
200. ↑ "Georgia's public defender". Ombudsman.ge. http://www.ombudsman.ge.
201. ↑ "Alternative report on the implementation by Georgia of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in the region of Kvemo Kartli – Tbilisi, 2008 – p. 58–59". http://www.minelres.lv/reports/georgia/Shadow_Report_Georgia_2008.pdf.
202. ↑ "US, Britain, call for probe into May 26 events in Georgia". News.Az. 28 May 2011. http://www.news.az/articles/Georgia/37341.
203. ↑ Rachel Denber, Europe and Central Asia deputy director (26 May 2011). "Georgia: Police Used Excessive Force on Peaceful Protests | Human Rights Watch". Hrw.org. https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/05/26/georgia-police-used-excessive-force-peaceful-protests.
204. ↑ "Tbilisi Mayor's Offers Protesters Alternative Venues for Rally". Civil.ge. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=23518.
205. ↑ 205.0 205.1 Misha, Dzhindzhikhashvili (26 May 2011). "Georgian Police Say 2 Killed in Protest Dispersal". ABC News. Associated Press. https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=13688230.
206. ↑ "Audio, Video Recordings Implicate Protest Leaders to 'Plotting Violence'". Civil.ge. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=23537.
207. ↑ Luke Harding in Moscow and agencies (9 April 2009). "Thousands gather for street protests against Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili". The Guardian (UK). https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/apr/09/georgia-protests-mikheil-saakashvili.
208. ↑ "PM Strongly Against of Marijuana Decriminalization". Civil Georgia. 4 June 2015. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=28323.
209. ↑ "Fighting back against Georgia's war on drugs". openDemocracy. 2016-12-15. https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/tamar-papalashvili/fighting-back-against-georgia-s-war-on-drugs.
210. ↑ Berlin is Out, Tbilisi is In, Forbes , September 2018
211. ↑ "Georgian Court Abolishes Fines For Marijuana Consumption". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 30 July 2018. https://www.rferl.org/a/georgian-constitutional-court-abolishes-fines-for-marijuana-consumption/29399496.html.
212. ↑ Wayne, Shawn (30 July 2018). "Smoking Marijuana Legalized in Georgia". Georgia Today. http://georgiatoday.ge/news/11592/Smoking-Marijuana-Legalized-in-Georgia.
213. ↑ "Registry of Municipalities". National Agency of Public Registry. http://mreg.reestri.gov.ge/.
214. ↑ "Government of Georgia – Abkhazia". Government.gov.ge. http://www.government.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=221.
215. ↑ "Regions and territories: Abkhazia". BBC News. 8 February 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3261059.stm.
216. ↑ 216.0 216.1 "Regions and territories: South Ossetia". BBC News. 8 February 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3797729.stm.
217. ↑ "Human Rights in the Occupied Territories of Georgia". Osce.org. http://www.osce.org/home/73289.
218. ↑ "Russian Passportization". The New York Times. http://topics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/09/09/russian-passportization/.
219. ↑ "Abkhazia, S. Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory". Civil Georgia. 28 August 2008. https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19330.
220. ↑ "The Law of Georgia on Occupied Territories (431-IIs)". State Ministry for Reintegration. 23 October 2008. http://www.smr.gov.ge/docs/doc216.pdf.
221. ↑ 'Caucasus (region and mountains, Eurasia)' . Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010: "Occupying roughly 170,000 sq mi (440,000 km2), it is divided among Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia and forms part of the traditional dividing line between Europe and Asia. It is bisected by the Caucasus Mountains; the area north of the Greater Caucasus range is called Ciscaucasia and the region to the south Transcaucasia. Inhabited from ancient times, it was under nominal Persian and Turkish suzerainty until conquered by Russia in the 18th–19th centuries."
222. ↑ "CESWW – Definition of Central Eurasia". Cesww.fas.harvard.edu. http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_definition.html.
223. ↑ 223.0 223.1 223.2 223.3 223.4 "Georgia:Geography". Cac-biodiversity.org. http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/geo/geo_geography.htm.
224. ↑ 224.0 224.1 224.2 224.3 224.4 224.5 224.6 224.7 224.8 Nana Bolashvili, Andreas Dittmann, Lorenz King, Vazha Neidze (eds.): National Atlas of Georgia – Nationalatlas von Georgien, 138 pages, Steiner Verlag, 2018ISBN 978-3-515-12057-9
225. ↑ "Endemic Species of the Caucasus". Endemic-species-caucasus.info. 7 January 2009. http://www.endemic-species-caucasus.info/.
226. ↑ 226.0 226.1 Howe, G. Melvyn; Lang, David Marshall. "Georgia". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia.
227. ↑ "Eucariota, Animalia, Chordata". Institute of Ecology. 2015. http://www.biodiversity-georgia.net/index.php?taxon=Chordata.
228. ↑ "Caucasian Spiders " Checklists & Maps". Caucasus-spiders.info. http://caucasus-spiders.info/introduction/checklists/.
229. ↑ "Dramatic Double Sturgeon Discovery in Georgia". WWF. 15 June 2020. https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?364051/ship-sturgeon-georgia.
230. ↑ Nakhutsrishvili, I.G. ["Flora of Spore Producing Plants of Georgia (Summary)"]. 888 pp., Tbilisi, Academy of Science of the Georgian SSR, 1986
231. ↑ 231.0 231.1 "Cybertruffle's Robigalia – Observations of fungi and their associated organisms". cybertruffle.org.uk. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/robigalia/eng/index.htm.
232. ↑ Kirk, P.M., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.W. and Stalpers, J. "Dictionary of the Fungi". Edn 10. CABI, 2008
233. ↑ "Fungi of Georgia – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/gruzfung/eng/endelist.htm.
234. ↑ "Georgia – a haven for biodiversity". 7 December 2012. https://www.iucn.org/content/georgia-–-haven-biodiversity. [|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
235. ↑ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; Vynne, Carly; Burgess, Neil D.; Wikramanayake, Eric; Hahn, Nathan; Palminteri, Suzanne et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMID 28608869.
236. ↑ Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C. et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications 11 (1): 5978. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 33293507. Bibcode: 2020NatCo..11.5978G.
237. ↑ "U.S. Energy Informationa Administration "World Hydroelectricity Installed Capacity"". Eia.doe.gov. http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table64h.xls.
238. ↑ "The World Bank in Georgia 1993–2007". World Bank. 2009. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTCOUASSEVAL/Resources/GeorgiaCAE.pdf.
239. ↑ "World Integrates Trade Solution – Country Snapshot Georgia". World Bank. 2015. https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/GEO/Year/2015/Summarytext.
240. ↑ "Georgia Imports". World Bank. https://wits.worldbank.org/CountrySnapshot/en/GEO.
241. ↑ "External Merchandise Trade". National Statistics Office of Georgia Geostat. https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/765/external-merchandise-trade.
242. ↑ World Bank Economy Rankings .
243. ↑ World Bank (2018). Doing Business 2019. World Bank Publications. pp. 5, 11, 13. ISBN 978-1-4648-1326-9. http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/media/Annual-Reports/English/DB2019-report_web-version.pdf. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
244. ↑ "Briefing note for countries on the 2020 Human Development Report" , United Nations Development Program, 2020
245. ↑ "Briefing note for countries on the 2020 Human Development Report": Figure 1: Trends in Georgia's HDI component indices 2000–2019 , United Nations Development Program, 2020
246. ↑ "South Caucasus Pipleline". http://www.bp.com/en_az/caspian/operationsprojects/pipelines/SCP.html.
247. ↑ The Financial Times – Flat taxes could be a flash in the pan, IMF research says[|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
248. ↑ World Bank, World Development Indicators 2008
249. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions: I. Macroeconomic Environment". http://www.investingeorgia.org/about_us/faq/.
250. ↑ "Living conditions". GeoStat. http://www.geostat.ge/index.php?action=page&p_id=188&lang=eng.
251. ↑ "Households Income". GeoStat. http://www.geostat.ge/index.php?action=page&p_id=182&lang=eng.
252. ↑ "Gross Domestic Product (GDP)". GeoStat. http://www.geostat.ge/index.php?action=page&p_id=119&lang=eng.
253. ↑ "Services, value added (% of GDP) – Georgia". World Bank. 2015. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.SRV.TOTL.ZS?locations=GE.
254. ↑ "Employment and Unemployment". https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment. , National Statistics Office of Georgia.
255. ↑ "Georgia Poll Reflects Widespread Concern over Economic Issues". International Republican Institute. 18 July 2019. https://www.iri.org/resource/georgia-poll-reflects-widespread-concern-over-economic-issues.
256. ↑ "Networked Readiness Index 2016". World Economic Forum. http://reports.weforum.org/global-information-technology-report-2016/networked-readiness-index/.
257. ↑ "Networked Readiness Index 2015". World Economic Forum. http://reports.weforum.org/global-information-technology-report-2015/network-readiness-index/.
258. ↑ Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (12 December 2023) (in en). Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition. World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 9789280534320. https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html. Retrieved 2023-10-28.
259. ↑ "Global Innovation Index 2019" (in en). https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html.
260. ↑ "Global Innovation Index" (in en). 2013-10-28. https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930.
261. ↑ "Georgian National Tourism Administration – Researches". Georgian National Tourism Administration. http://gnta.ge/statistics/.
262. ↑ "Statistics". MIA. February 2018. https://gnta.ge/statistics/.
263. ↑ "Georgia Tourism Strategy". http://www.economy.ge/uploads/ecopolitic/turizmi-/sakartvelos turizmis strategia 2025.pdf.
264. ↑ Invest in Georgia: Tourism
265. ↑ "Russian Flight Ban Could Cost Georgia $300M, Experts Say". The Moscow Times. 24 June 2019. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/06/24/russian-flight-ban-could-cost-georgia-300m-experts-say-a66132.
266. ↑ "Statistical Yearbook of Georgia 2021". National Statistics Office of Georgia. 28 December 2021. p. 200. http://www.geostat.ge/media/42476/Yearbook_2021.pdf.
267. ↑ "Georgian Railway". Railway.ge. http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=407&lang=eng.
268. ↑ "Georgian Railway". Railway.ge. http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=245&lang=eng.
269. ↑ "Georgian Railway". Railway.ge. http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=242&lang=eng.
270. ↑ "Georgian Railway". Railway.ge. http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=290&lang=eng.
271. ↑ "Baku-Tbilisi-Kars Railway Line Officially Launched". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 30 October 2017. https://www.rferl.org/a/baku-tbilisi-kars-railway-line-officially-launched-azerbaijan-georgia-turkey/28824764.html.
272. ↑ "Kutaisi's airport: Georgia's opportunity". Evolutsia.Net. 18 January 2012. http://www.evolutsia.net/kutaisis-airport-georgias-opportunity/.
273. ↑ "Varna – Batumi". Ukrferry. http://www.ukrferry.com/eng/schedules/varna-batumi.
274. ↑ "Schedules". Ukrferry. http://www.ukrferry.com/eng/schedules.
275. ↑ "ECMI – European Centre For Minority Issues Georgia". http://www.ecmicaucasus.org/menu/info_maps.html.
276. ↑ History of Modern Georgia, David Marshal Lang, p 18.[full citation needed]
277. ↑ "Population and Demography – Population by cities and boroughs (daba), as of 1 January". National Statistics Office of Georgia, Geostat. 2021-01-01. https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/41/population.
278. ↑ 278.0 278.1 "Main Results of the 2014 Census (Publication)" (in en). Census.ge, National Statistics Office of Georgia (Geostat). 2016-04-28. pp. 2–8. http://census.ge/files/results/Census_release_ENG.pdf.
279. ↑ 279.0 279.1 "1926 ethnic composition" (in ru). Ethno Kavkaz. http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/rngeorgia.html.
280. ↑ Russian Review (1925), p. 499.
281. ↑ 281.0 281.1 Russian Review (1925), p. 498.
282. ↑ "Deutsche Kolonisten in Georgien". Einung. http://einung.org.ge/deutsche-kolonisten-in-georgien/.
283. ↑ Hakkert (2017), pp. 1–4.
284. ↑ "Retro-projection of main demographic indicators for the period 1994–2014". National Statistics Office of Georgia (Geostat). 2018-05-18. https://www.geostat.ge/en/single-archive/3199.
285. ↑ Georgia: Ethnic Russians Say, "There's No Place Like Home" . EurasiaNet.org. 30 April 2009.
286. ↑ 286.0 286.1 Ethnic minorities in Georgia . Federation Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme.
287. ↑ Hakkert (2017), p. 14.
288. ↑ "International migrant stock 2019, 'by destination and origin'". United Nations. 2019. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates19.asp.
289. ↑ Jones (2013), p. 204.
290. ↑ "Results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census" (in ru). Russian Census. 2014-06-18. http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/results2.html.
291. ↑ "Georgians in Russia". Russia Beyond the Headlines. 2014-06-18. https://www.rbth.com/longreads/tbilisi_on_moskva/index.html.
292. ↑ "Immigrants by previous country of residence and usual place of residence". http://census.ge/files/results/english/29-2_Immigrants by previous country of residence and usual place of residence.xls.
293. ↑ Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, Russia: The Ingush–Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region , May 1996.
294. ↑ Hakkert (2017), p. 43.
295. ↑ World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Uzbekistan: Meskhetian Turks . Minority Rights Group International.
296. ↑ Boeder (2002), p. 3.
297. ↑ Boeder (2005), p. 6.
298. ↑ Gamkrelidze (1966), p. 69.
299. ↑ Fähnrich & Sardzhveladze (2000), p. [page needed].
300. ↑ Kajaia (2001), p. [page needed].
301. ↑ Klimov (1998), p. 14.
302. ↑ "Population by region, by native languages and fluently speak Georgian language". http://census.ge/files/results/english/20_Population by region, by native languages and fluently speak Georgian language.xls.
303. ↑ 303.0 303.1 303.2 "Immigrants by previous country of residence and usual place of residence". http://census.ge/files/results/english/22_Population by regions and religion.xls.
304. ↑ "The History of Georgian Orthodox Church". http://www.patriarchate.ge/_en/?action=istoria.
305. ↑ Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). "Iberia between Chosroid and Bagratid Rule". Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Georgetown. pp. 374–377. http://rbedrosian.com/Ref/Toumicb/toumicb.html. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
306. ↑ Rapp, Stephen H. Jr (2007). "7 – Georgian Christianity". The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC&pg=PA137. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
307. ↑ "მართლმადიდებელი ავტოკეფალური ეკლესიები". საქართველოს საპატრიარქო. http://patriarchate.ge/geo/martlmadidebluri-eklesiebi/avtokefaluri-eklesiebi.
308. ↑ Jacobs, Dan Norman. Paul, Ellen Frankel. Studies of the Third Wave: Recent Migration of Soviet Jews to the United States VNR AG, 1 January 1981 ISBN 978-0-86531-143-5 pp. 13–14
309. ↑ Spilling & Wong (2008), p. [page needed].
310. ↑ "Memorandum to the U.S. Government on Religious Violence in the Republic of Georgia (Human Rights Watch August 2001)". Hrw.org. https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/georgia/georgia_memo_full.htm.
311. ↑ "საქართველოს მოსახლეობის საყოველთაო აღწერის საბოლოო შედეგები". Netgazeti. 28 April 2016. http://netgazeti.ge/news/110839/.
312. ↑ Caucasus Analytical Digest No.20 , Heinrich Böll Stiftung, 11 October 2010
313. ↑ "Georgia purges education system". 29 July 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4724213.stm.
314. ↑ Molly Corso (13 May 2005) Education reform rocks Georgia . Eurasianet. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved on 2 September 2008.
315. ↑ 315.0 315.1 Education system in Georgia[yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]. National Tempus Office Georgia. Retrieved on 2 September 2008. [|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
316. ↑ "Centralized university entrance examinations". National assessment and examinations center. http://naec.ge/#/en/post/55.
317. ↑ Education institutions . Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia. Retrieved on 2 September 2008.
318. ↑ "Authorized institutions". Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia. http://mes.gov.ge/content.php?id=1855&lang=eng.
319. ↑ "Gross enrollment ratio, primary, both sexes". The World Bank. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRR?end=2014&locations=GE&start=1981&view=chart.
320. ↑ "New Tbilisi.Gov.Ge – თბილისის მერიის ოფიციალური ვებ გვერდი". Tbilisi.gov.ge. http://www.tbilisi.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=1297&info_id=6933.
321. ↑ "Contact". gtu.ge. http://gtu.ge/Contact/.
322. ↑ "Contact". ug.edu.ge. https://ug.edu.ge/en.
323. ↑ "Contact". cu.edu.ge. http://cu.edu.ge/en/contact.
324. ↑ "Contact". freeuni.edu.ge. http://freeuni.edu.ge/en/contact.
325. ↑ Georgia : in the mountains of poetry 3rd rev. ed., Nasmyth, Peter
326. ↑ Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts. Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1318-5
327. ↑ I. Gagoshidze "The Achaemenid influence in Iberia" Boreas 19. (1996)
328. ↑ Yarshater, Ehsan. "Encyclopædia Iranica" Routledge & Keagan Paul, 2001. ISBN 978-0-933273-56-6 pp 464–479
329. ↑ Kennan, Hans Dieter (2013). Vagabond Life: The Caucasus Journals of George Kennan. University of Washington Press. p. 32. "(...) Iranian power and cultural influence dominated eastern Georgia until the coming of the Russians"
330. ↑ Willem Floor, Edmund Herzig. Iran and the World in the Safavid Age I.B.Tauris, 15 September 2012 ISBN 1850439303 p 494
331. ↑ 331.0 331.1 Jones, Stephen (1 September 2003). "The role of cultural paradigms in Georgian foreign policy". Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 19 (3): 83–110. doi:10.1080/13523270300660019. ISSN 1352-3279.
332. ↑ 332.0 332.1 Batiashvili, Nutsa (2012). "The 'Myth' of the Self: The Georgian National Narrative and Quest for 'Georgianness'". in Assmann, Aleida; Shortt, Linda. Memory and Political Change. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 186–200. doi:10.1057/9780230354241_11. ISBN 978-0-230-35424-1. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230354241_11.
333. ↑ Beacháin, Donnacha Ó; Coene, Frederik (November 2014). "Go West: Georgia's European identity and its role in domestic politics and foreign policy objectives". Nationalities Papers 42 (6): 923–941. doi:10.1080/00905992.2014.953466. ISSN 0090-5992. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/go-west-georgias-european-identity-and-its-role-in-domestic-politics-and-foreign-policy-objectives/AB309EDA6F4E1E4D25C97F00DCFF7973.
334. ↑ 334.0 334.1 "Georgia's Unfinished Search for Its Place in Europe". Carnegie Europe. 2021-04-06. https://carnegieeurope.eu/2021/04/06/georgia-s-unfinished-search-for-its-place-in-europe-pub-84253.
335. ↑ 335.0 335.1 Lang David, Georgians.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
336. ↑ "Niko Pirosmani – Short Biographical Information". Steele Communications. http://www.pirosmani.org/pirosmani/.
337. ↑ Lang, David Marshall. Georgia. p. 515.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
338. ↑ "Georgian Alphabet". 101languages.net. http://www.101languages.net/georgian/writing_system.html.
339. ↑ "Media freedom in Eastern Partnership countries: Georgia tops list, Ukraine improves position". 2014-09-29. http://www.enpi-info.eu/eastportal/news/latest/38565/Media-freedom-in-Eastern-Partnership-countries:-Georgia-tops-list,-Ukraine-improves-position.
340. ↑ Freedom House, Georgia 2015 Press Freedom report
341. ↑ "Georgian Polyphonic Singing, "Chakrulo"". UNESCO. 2008. http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/?s=films_details&pg=33&id=1737.
342. ↑ "The Untold Story of How "Chakrulo" Ended Up in Space". Georgian Journal. 25 September 2014. http://www.georgianjournal.ge/discover-georgia/28321-the-untold-story-of-how-chakrulo-ended-up-in-space.html.
343. ↑ Tiko Tuskadze (13 July 2017). Supra: A feast of Georgian cooking. Pavilion. ISBN 978-1-911595-45-8. OCLC 992463647. https://books.google.com/books?id=8FAmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10.
344. ↑ 344.0 344.1 344.2 Miquel Hudin; Daria Kholodolina (2017), Georgia: A guide to the cradle of wine, Vinologue, p. 300, ISBN 978-1-941598-05-4, http://www.vinologue.com/books/georgia/
345. ↑ "Traditional winemaking in Georgia – the oldest wine in the world". 2014-02-03. http://cycloscope.weebly.com/blog/traditional-winemaking-in-georgia-the-oldest-wine-in-the-world.
346. ↑ Watson, Ivan. "Unearthing Georgia's wine heritage". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/04/20/georgia.wine.heritage/.
347. ↑ Spilling & Wong (2008), p. 128.
348. ↑ "UNESCO – Ancient Georgian traditional Qvevri wine-making method". https://ich.unesco.org/en/lists.
349. ↑ Goldstein, Darra (1958). The Georgian feast: the vibrant culture and savory food of the Republic of Georgia. US: University of California Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-520-21929-5.
350. ↑ 350.0 350.1 350.2 "Position Unchanged On Russian WTO Negotiations". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 2 February 2012. https://www.rferl.org/a/1076202.html.
351. ↑ Claude Saurel: "Georgia's rugby revolution is only just starting", Rugby World Cup, 30 August 2019
352. ↑ Romans erected the statue of the Iberian King Pharsman after he demonstrated Georgian training methods during his visit to Rome; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXIX, 15.3
353. ↑ Williams, Douglas. Georgia in my Heart, 1999.
354. ↑ Bath, Richard (ed.) The Complete Book of Rugby (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) p67
355. ↑ "Rustavi 2 Broadcasting Company". Rustavi2.com. 29 April 2012. http://rustavi2.com/news/news_text.php?id_news=45318&pg=1&im=main&ct=0&wth=0.
356. ↑ "Georgian National Broadcaster". 1tv.ge. 30 April 2012. http://www.1tv.ge/news-view/37425/en. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
357. ↑ "Olympedia – Georgia (GEO)". http://www.olympedia.org/countries/GEO.
358. ↑ Grech, Kevin (18 June 2022). "Photos & Results: 2022 IFBB Georgia Grand Prix". https://www.evolutionofbodybuilding.net/photos-results-2022-ifbb-georgia-grand-prix/.

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

## Sources

* Asatiani, Nodar (2009). History of Georgia. Tbilisi: Publishing House Petite. ISBN 978-9941-9063-6-7.
* Asmus, Ronald (2010). A Little War that Shook the World: Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West. NYU. ISBN 978-0-230-61773-5.
* Avalov, Zurab (1906). Prisoedinenie Gruzii k Rossii. S.-Peterburg: Montvid.
* Boeder, W. (2002). "Speech and thought representation in the Kartvelian (South Caucasian) languages". in Güldemann, T.. Reported Discourse. A Meeting-Ground of Different Linguistic Domains. Typological Studies in Language. 52. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. pp. 3–48.
* Boeder, W. (Jan–Feb 2005). "The South Caucasian languages". Lingua 115 (1–2): 5–89. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2003.06.002.
* Eastmond, Antony (2010). Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01628-3.
* Fähnrich, H.; Sardzhveladze, Z. (2000) (in ka). Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages. Tbilisi.
* Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G. R. G.; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20095-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC.
* Gamkrelidze, Th. (Jan–Mar 1966). "A Typology of Common Kartvelian". Language 42 (1): 69–83. doi:10.2307/411601.
* Goltz, Thomas (2003). Georgia Diary: A Chronicle of War and Political Chaos in the Post-Soviet Caucasus. Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-7656-1710-2.
* Gvosdev, Nikolas K. (2000). Imperial policies and perspectives towards Georgia: 1760–1819. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-22990-9.
* Hakkert, Ralph (2017-11-29). ﻿Population Dynamics in Georgia – An Overview Based on the 2014 General Population Census Data﻿ (Report). United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) Office in Georgia, National Statistics Office of Georgia (Geostat). ISBN 978-9941-27-278-3. https://geostat.ge/media/20624/3.-Population-Dynamics_ENGL-_print_F.pdf. Retrieved 2022-02-02.
* Jones, Stephen (2013). Georgia: A Political History Since Independence. I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-84511-338-4.
* Kajaia, O. (2001) (in ka). Megrelian-Georgian dictionary. 1. Tbilisi.
* Klimov, G. (1998) (in ru). Languages of the World: Caucasian languages. Moscow: Academia.
* Lang, David M. (1957). The last years of the Georgian Monarchy: 1658–1832. New York: Columbia University Press.
* Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
* Rapp, Stephen H. Jr. (2014). The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4724-2552-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=T8VIBQAAQBAJ.
* Rayfield, Donald (2012). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-030-6.
* Spilling, Michael; Wong, Winnie (2008). Georgia. Cultures of The World (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-0-7614-3033-9.
* Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation (2nd ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20915-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=riW0kKzat2sC.
* "The Transcaucasian Soviet Federation". Russian Review (Washington, D.C.: The Russian Information Bureau) 3 (24): 496–499. 1925-12-15. https://books.google.com/books?id=fkHjAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA499. Retrieved 2022-04-20. </ref>

## External links

### Government

* Government of Georgia official website (in Georgian)
* Government of Georgia official website (in English)
* Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia
* Official website of the Georgian National Tourism Administration
* Official website of the American Chamber of Commerce in Georgia

### General information

* Georgia at UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Georgia (country) at Curlie
* Georgia profile from the BBC News
* Association of Modern Scientific Investigation – (AMSI)

### News media

* Civil Georgia, daily news about Georgia

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

[ ⚑ ]  42°00′N 43°30′E﻿ / ﻿42°N 43.5°E﻿ / 42; 43.5

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Place:Georgia_(country)&oldid=3821296"
*[c.]: circa