Ghazni

Ghazni,[lower-alpha 1] historically known as Ghaznayn or Ghazna, also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana,[lower-alpha 2] is a city in southeastern Afghanistan, serving as the capital of Ghazni Province. It is within the jurisdiction of Ghazni District and has an estimated population of 205,965 people.[2] Mawlawi Muhammad Nabi Hamzah is the current mayor of the city.[3]

Ghazni is a thriving city with a number of factories, bazaars, business centers, banks, historical sites, public parks, hotels, restaurants, mosques, hospitals, universities, and places to play sports or just walk around.[4] In 2015 there were 15,931 dwelling units in the city.[5][6] Many tourists visit the city for leisure and pleasure purposes.[7][8]

Ghazni is strategically located along the Kabul–Kandahar Highway, which follows the paths that have served as the main roads between Kabul, Kandahar and Gardez for thousands of years. Situated on a plateau at around 2,219 m (7,280 ft) above sea level, the city has a land area of 57 km2 (22 sq mi).[5] It is about 150 km (93 mi) to the southwest of Kabul. The name Ghazni derives from the Persian word ganj, meaning "treasure."[9]

Ghazni Citadel, the Minarets of Ghazni, the Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III, and several other cultural heritage sites have brought travelers and archeologists to the city for centuries. During the pre-Islamic period, the area was inhabited by various tribes who practiced different religions including Buddhism, Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.[10][11] Arab Muslims introduced Islam to Ghazni in the 7th century. The Saffarids made it the official religion in the 9th century. Sabuktigin turned Ghazni into the capital of the Ghaznavid Empire in the 10th century. The city was destroyed by one of the Ghurid rulers but later rebuilt. It fell to several regional powers, including the Timurids and the Delhi Sultanate until it became part of the Hotak dynasty, which was followed by the Durrani Empire or modern Afghanistan. During the First Anglo-Afghan War in the 19th century, the fortifications of Ghazni were partially demolished by British Indian forces.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Geography
* 2.1 Climate
* 3 Demography
* 4 Economy
* 4.1 Education
* 5 Sports
* 6 Notable people
* 6.1 Rulers and emperors
* 6.2 Politicians and military leaders
* 6.3 Poets and scientists
* 6.4 Religious leaders
* 6.5 Others
* 7 Points of interest
* 8 Twin towns – sister cities
* 9 See also
* 10 Notes
* 11 References
* 12 Further reading
* 13 External links

## History

A 19th-century artwork by James Atkinson showing Ghazni's citadel and the Ghazni Minarets, which were built by Mas'ud III and Bahram-Shah during the Ghaznavid era (963–1187)

Template:History of Afghanistan The city was founded some time in antiquity as a small market town. In the 6th century BCE, it was conquered by Cyrus II and incorporated into the Achaemenid Empire. The city was subsequently incorporated into the empire of Alexander the Great in 329 BCE, and called Alexandria in Opiana. Ghazni may be the Gazaca (Gázaca or Gāzaca) mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century.[12] Following the fall of the Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, the region emerged as the heart of Zabulistan, a prosperous kingdom that controlled the trade routes between India, Iran, and Central Asia. From the 5th to the 7th centuries, Zabulistan was ruled by the Nezak Huns, whose rulers are famous for their distinctive gold coins depicting them with a bull's head crown. Under their rule, the area became a major center of Buddhism, as well as Zoroastrianism and Hinduism.[citation needed] It was this wealthy kingdom that the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited in 644, describing a city named Jaguda—which was almost certainly the contemporary name of the later Ghazni.[13][14]

> "The country of Jāguda is more than seven thousand li in circuit, and its capital city, named Hexina (Ghazni), is over thirty li in circuit; but the capital is sometimes located in the city of Hesaluo (Guzar), which is also over thirty li in circuit, both cities being strongly fortified in invulnerable positions. The mountains and valleys are rich in natural resources, and the cultivated farmlands, divided by ridges, are high and dry. Crops are sown in proper seasons. Winter wheat is abundant, and vegetation is luxuriant with profuse flowers and fruits. The soil is good for growing aromatic turmeric, and it produces the hingu herb (Ferula asafoetida), which grows in the Rama-Indu Valley. In the city of Hesaluo there are gushing springs, the water of which flows to all sides, and the people make use of it for irrigation. The climate is severely cold with much frost and snow." \- Xuanzang, 644 CE[15]

In 683, Arab armies brought Islam to the region. From 680 to 870, the Zunbils were present in the area, and at times had their capital in Ghazni. Yaqub Saffari from Zaranj conquered the Zunbils in the late 9th century. The Saffarids reduced the formerly Lawik dynasty to tributary status. In 962, the Turkic slave commander of the Samanid Empire, Alp-Tegin, attacked the city and besieged the Citadel of Ghazni for four months, wresting the city from Abu Bakr Lawik.[16] Around 965, Abu Bakr Lawik recaptured Ghazni from Alp-Tegin's son, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, forcing him to flee to Bukhara. However, this was not to last long because Abu Ishaq Ibrahim shortly returned to the town with Samanid aid, and took control of the town once again. For nearly two hundred years (977–1163), the city was the dazzling capital of the Ghaznavid Empire, which encompassed much of what is today Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Pakistan, Eastern Iran and Rajasthan. The Ghaznavids took Islam to Hindustan and returned with fabulous riches looted from Hindu temples. Although the city was sacked in 1151 by the Ghorid Ala'uddin, it became their secondary capital in 1173, and subsequently flourished once again. Between 1215 and 1221, Ghazni was ruled by the Khwarezmid Empire, during which time it was destroyed by Genghis Khan's son Ögedei Khan.[17]

Timurid conqueror Babur at Ghazni

In the first decades of the 11th century, Ghazni was the most important center of Persian literature. This was the result of the cultural policy of Sultan Mahmud (reigned 998–1030), who assembled a circle of scholars, philosophers, and poets around his throne in support of his claim to royal status in Iran.[18]

The noted Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, visiting Ghazni in 1333, wrote:

“  | We travelled thence to Parwan, where I met the amir Buruntayh. He treated me well and wrote to his representatives at Ghazna enjoining them to show me honour. We went on to the village of Charkh [Charikar], it being now summer, and from there to the town of Ghazna. This is the town of the famous warrior-sultan Mahmud ibn Sabuktagin, one of the greatest of rulers, who made frequent raids into India and captured cities and fortresses there. His grave is in this city and is surmounted by a hospice. The greater part of the town is in ruins and nothing but a fraction of it remains, though it was once a large city. It has an exceedingly cold climate, and the inhabitants move from it in the cold season to Qandahar, a large and prosperous town three nights journey from Ghazna, but I did not visit it.[19] | ”

|
|

Tamerlanes's grandson, Pir Muhammad bin Djinhangir, became the governor of Ghazni (along with Kabul and Kandahar) in 1401. Babur conquered the region in 1504 and personally thought that Ghazni was "a mean place" and pondered why any of the princes of the region would make it their seat of government. Ghazni stayed under Mughal control until 1738 when Persian ruler Nader Shah invaded the area. After Nader Shah's death, Ghazni became part of the Durrani Empire.[20]

Artwork by James Rattray showing the Citadel of Ghazni and other historical sites, during the First Anglo-Afghan War

Ghazni is famous for its Ghazni Minarets built on a stellar plan. They date from the middle of the twelfth century and are the surviving elements of the mosque of Bahramshah. Their sides are decorated with intricate geometric patterns. Some of the upper sections of the minarets have been damaged or destroyed. The most important mausoleum located in Ghazni is that of Sultan Mahmud. Others include the tombs of poets and scientists, such as the tomb of Al Biruni. The only ruins in Old Ghazni retaining a semblance of architectural form are two towers, about 43 m (141 ft) high and 365 m (1,198 ft) apart. According to inscriptions, the towers were constructed by Sultan Mahmud and his son. For more than eight centuries the “Towers of Victory” monuments to Afghanistan's greatest empire have survived wars and invasions, the two toffee-colored minarets, adorned with terra-cotta tiles were raised in the early 12th century as monuments to the victories of the Afghan armies that built the empire. By the time the Ghurids had finalized the Ghaznavid removal from Ghazni, the city was a cultural center of the eastern Islamic world.[21]

People by the city gate, 1939

The Buddhist site at Ghazni is known as Tapa-e Sardar and consists of a stupa on a hilltop, surrounded by a row of smaller stupas.[20] Nearby, an 18 m (59 ft) long Parinirvana (reclining) Buddha was excavated between the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is believed to have been built in the 8th century CE as part of a monastery complex.[22] In the 1980s, a mud brick shelter was created to protect the sculpture, but the wood supports were stolen for firewood and the shelter partially collapsed. In 2001, the Taliban blew the Buddha up, believing it to be idolatrous.[23]

Benjamin of Tudela reported that Ghazni had 80,000 Jews in 1170.[24]

View of Ghazni Citadel, 1939

During the First Anglo-Afghan War, the fortified city was partially destroyed by British forces on 23 July 1839 in the Battle of Ghazni. The Civil war in Afghanistan and the continued conflict between the Taliban and the Northern Alliance during the 1990s put the relics of Ghazni in jeopardy. Ghazni's strategic position, both economically and militarily, assured its revival, albeit without its dazzling former grandeur. Through the centuries the city has figured prominently as the all-important key to the possession of Kabul.

After the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, the United States armed forces built a base in Ghazni. They were involved in rebuilding projects and protecting the local population against Taliban insurgents. In the meantime, they also trained the Afghan Local Police Afghan National Police and Afghan National Army. In 2010, the United States established the Lincoln Learning Center in Ghazni.[25] The Lincoln learning centers in Afghanistan served as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, Internet connectivity, educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program was to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location.[26]

Street scene in Ghazni, 2013

In 2013, ISESCO declared Ghazni the year's Islamic capital of culture.[27][28] In 2018, the city was attacked by Taliban forces during the August 10 Ghazni offensive. Dozens of airstrikes were carried out in support of Afghan police and government forces and hundreds of Afghan soldiers, police, and Taliban insurgents were killed as well as dozens of civilians. In addition to the destruction and human suffering caused by the fighting, the Taliban also set fire to many buildings in the city.

On 18 May 2020, a suicide Humvee bomber affiliated with the Taliban killed nine Afghan intelligence personnel and injured 40 others at the National Directorate of Security unit in Ghazni.[29][30][31] On 12 August 2021, the city was invaded by Taliban forces as part of their 2021 offensive. It became the tenth provincial capital to be captured by them.[32][33][34]

## Geography

Ghazni is a strategic city in the southeastern part of Afghanistan. It is connected by a road network with Kabul to the northeast, Gardez to the east, Sharan to the southeast, Qalat to the southwest, and Hazarajat to the northwest. It sits on a plateau at approximately 2,219 m (7,280 ft) above sea level and has a land area of 57 km2 (22 sq mi).[5]

Ghazni is a major trading and transit hub. Agriculture is the dominant land use at 28%. The city has four districts (nahias) and covers a land area of 3,330 ha (8,200 acres).[5] In terms of built-up land area, vacant plots (33%) slightly outweigh residential area (31%). Districts 3 and 4 also have large institutional areas.[6]

### Climate

Ghazni's climate is transitional between a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk) and a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dsa). It has cold, snowy winters and warm, dry summers. Precipitation is low and mostly falls in winter (as snow) and spring (as rain). Winters are very cold, with a subzero January daily average temperature of −5.9 °C (21.4 °F), mainly due to the high elevation of the city.

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## Demography

Young boys in Ghazni

The city of Ghazni has an estimated population of 205,965 people.[2] In 2015 there were 15,931 dwelling units in the city.[5]

The population of Ghazni is multi-ethnic,[36] which was estimated decades ago at around 70% being Pashtuns, 25% Hazara, and 5% Other.[37][38]

## Economy

Ghazni's economy is based on agriculture, trade, transport, and tourism. The city is in an area of low rainfall but it does receive snow in the winter.[39] The Sultan Dam which is to the north of the city and the Sarda Dam to its southeast both provide irrigation water to the area. There are also around 39 check dams in and around the city.[40]

In April 2012, the governor of Ghazni laid the foundation stone of the Ghazni Airport. The work began later that year and was supervised by the managing director of the Ghazni province Engineer Ahmad Wali Tawakuli.[41]

The city is next to Afghanistan's main highway that runs between Kabul and Kandahar in the south. Other roads from Ghazni lead east to Gardez in neighboring Paktia Province and northwest to Hazarajat. Many tourists visit the city for leisure and pleasure purposes.[8][7]

### Education

Jahan Maleeka School is an all-girls school which has over 5,000 students and 150 teachers

Ghazni has a number of public and private schools. Jahan Maleeka School is an all-girls school with over 5,000 students and 150 teachers. Naswan Shaher Kohna School, another all-girls school, has over 3,000 students.

The city is also home to Ghazni University. There are a number of other universities in the city.[42]

## Sports

Cricket and football are the most popular sports in Afghanistan. Other sports that people of Ghazni enjoy are futsal, volleyball, and mixed martial arts.[43][44][45]

Professional sports teams from Ghazni
Club  | League  | Sport  | Venue  | Established

|
|
|
|

Band-e-Amir Dragons  | Shpageeza Cricket League  | Cricket  | Ghazni Cricket Ground  | 2013
Oqaban Hindukush F.C.  | Afghan Premier League  | Football  | Ghazni Ground  | 2012

* Stadiums
* Ghazni Cricket Ground
* Ghazni Ground

## Notable people

### Rulers and emperors

* Abu Bakr Lawik, ruler of Ghazni from the Lawik dynasty
* Abu Ali Lawik, son of Abu Bakr Lawik and ruler of the Lawik dynasty
* Sabuktigin, founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty
* Mahmud of Ghazni, son of Sabuktigin, first independent ruler of the dynasty of Ghaznavids in the 11th-century
* Muhammad of Ghazni, son of Mahmud of Ghazni and Sultan of the Ghaznavid empire
* Masʽud I, twin brother of Muhammad of Ghazni and Sultan of the Ghaznavid empire
* Mawdud of Ghazni, nephew of Muhammad of Ghazni and Sultan of the Ghaznavid empire
* Ibrahim of Ghazna, Sultan of the Ghaznavid empire
* Khusrau Malik, Sultan of the Ghaznavid empire
* Bahram-Shah of Ghazna, Sultan of the Ghaznavids empire
* Muhammad Shah, thirteenth Mughal emperor in the 18th-century

### Politicians and military leaders

* Alp-Tegin Turkic slave commander of the Samanid Empire, became later the semi-independent governor of Ghazni til his death in Ghazni
* Abu Ishaq Ibrahim of Ghazna, son of Alp-Tegin, Turkic officer and the Samanid governor of Ghazni
* Böritigin of Ghazni, Turkic officer and the Samanid governor of Ghazni
* Ismail of Ghazni, son of Sabuktigin and brother of Mahmud, emir of Ghazna
* Ali ibn Ishak, financial minister of the Ghaznavids
* Abd al-Razzaq Maymandi, vizier of the Ghaznavid Sultan Mawdud Ghaznavi and Abd al-Rashid
* Toghrul of Ghazna, Turkish slave general and usurper of the Ghaznavid throne
* Azad Khan Afghan, Pashtun military commander from the 18th-century
* Nur Muhammad Taraki, former president of Afghanistan
* Abdul Hakim Dalili, Ambassador of Afghanistan to Doha Qatar.

### Poets and scientists

* Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni, famous 10/11th-century Iranian scholar and polymath, worked and died in Ghazni
* Abu Nasr Mansur, 10/11th-century mathematician and astronomer of the Ghaznavid era, known for his work in geometry and trigonometry and his close collaboration with Al-Biruni
* Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi, 10/11th-century Persian secretary, historian and author at the court of the Ghazanvids, also died in Ghazni
* Asjadi, Persian royal poet at the court of the Ghaznavids in Ghazni
* Farrukhi Sistani, Persian royal poet at the court of the Ghaznavids, spent most of his life in Ghazni and also died there
* Manuchehri Dāmghānī, Persian royal poet at the court of the Ghaznavids in Ghazni, most probably died in Ghazni, too
* Unsuri Balkhi, Persian royal poet at the court of the Ghaznavids in Ghazni
* Hakim Sanai Ghaznavi, 11/12th-century Persian Sufi poet and mystic
* Hassan Ghaznavi, 12th-century Persian poet
* Faiz Mohammad Katib Hazara, 19/20th-century historian, writer and intellectual
* Abdul Rahman Pazhwak, Afghan poet and diplomat
* Bhai Nand Lal Goya, court poet of the 10th Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh

### Religious leaders

* Shaykh Syed ʿAlī al-Hujwīrī, 11th-century Persian Sunni Muslim mystic, theologian, and preacher
* Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi, 12th-century Sunni Hanafi jurist, theologian, and Kalam scholar of the Maturidi school
* Abdullah Ghaznavi, 19th-century, Muslim scholar and pietist
* Pir Ghulam Mohiudin Ghaznavi (1902–1975), was an Islamic Sufi scholar. He was born in Ghazni and later went to Pakistan for business. He became a disciple of Pir Qasim Sadiq Mohrvi from Mohra Sharif and converted to Sufism and settled at Nerian Sharif Azad Kashmir Pakistan.
* Gholam Mohammad Niazi, Political Islamic movement thinker, Dean of the faculty of theology at Kabul University

### Others

* Abdul Ahad Mohmand, first Afghan citizen and fourth Muslim to journey to outer space
* Babrak Wassa [de; de] (born June 21, 1947), Afghan-German choir director and composer, wrote the music for the National anthem of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

## Points of interest

* Citadel of Ghazni
* Minarets of Ghazni
* Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III
* Tomb of Sebuktigin
* Mausoleum of Sultan Mahmud
* Mausoleum of Sanai
* Museum of Islamic Art
* Tapa Sardar Excavations
* Tomb of Al Biruni

## Twin towns – sister cities

* Hayward, California, US[46]
* Giżycko, Poland[47]

## See also

* List of cities in Afghanistan
* List of cities founded by Alexander the Great

## Notes

1. ↑

* Pashto: غزني, romanized: Ğazni ps
* Dari: غزنی, romanized: Ğaznī prs

2. ↑ Greek: Αλεξάνδρεια Ωπιανή, romanized: Aleksándreia Opianí[1] el

## References

1. ↑ "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, ALEXANDRIAN FOUNDATIONS Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Soviet Central Asia, India". Perseus Digital Library. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=alexandrian-foundations.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26". National Statistics and Information Authority. September 2025. p. 45. https://nsia.gov.af:8443/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/براورد-نفوس-کشور-سال-1404.pdf#page=68.
3. ↑ "Reconstruction of a Road Kicks off in Ghazni". October 24, 2024. https://www.alemarahenglish.af/reconstruction-of-road-kicks-off-in-ghazni/.
4. ↑ اولین روز برفی در غزنی جان on YouTube
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 "State of Afghan Cities report 2015 (Volume-I English)". UN-Habitat. pp. 8, 130. https://unhabitat.org/soac2015.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "State of Afghan Cities report 2015 (Volume-II)". UN-Habitat. p. 38. https://unhabitat.org/soac2015_volume2.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Foreign tourists visit Ghazni province". Ariana News. November 10, 2023. https://www.ariananews.af/foreign-tourists-visit-ghazni-province/.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Ghazni Sees Rise in Foreign Tourists". TOLOnews. 1 April 2025. https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/provincial-193701.
9. ↑ Everett-Heath, John (2019-10-24) (in en-US). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191882913.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-188291-3. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191882913.001.0001/acref-9780191882913;jsessionid=12BDC6A4DA8F397E6A91CA2E9BE3752D.
10. ↑ Richards, J.F. (1974). "The Islamic frontier in the east: Expansion into South Asia". Journal of South Asian Studies 4 (1): 91–109. doi:10.1080/00856407408730690.
11. ↑ Gnoli, Zoroaster's Time and Homeland, pp. 26–39
12. ↑ De Planhol, Xavier (December 15, 2000). "ḠAZNĪ i. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY". ḠAZNĪ i. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ḡazni-i-historical-geography/. Retrieved 2021-02-22.
13. ↑ BA Litvinsky, Zhang Guang-Da, R. Shabani Samghabadi, History of civilizations of Central Asia, pg. 385
14. ↑ Hui-li, 1959, p. 188
15. ↑ Li 1995. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLi1995 (help)
16. ↑ John Andrew Boyle (1968). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 165. ISBN 9780521069366. https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA6.
17. ↑ "Ghazni". Columbia University Press. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0820705.html.
18. ↑ "Persian literature: Classic poetry". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/Persian-literature/Classical-poetry. Retrieved 2026-01-14.
19. ↑ Ibn Battuta (2004). Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354 (reprint, illustrated ed.). London: Routledge. p. 179. ISBN 9780415344739. https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA179. Retrieved 2010-09-10.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda (1996) International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania v.5, P. 279-282. Taylor & Francis, ISBN 1-884964-04-4
21. ↑ C.E. Bosworth, The Later Ghaznavids, (Columbia University Press, 1977), 115.
22. ↑ A note on the Parinirvana Buddha at Tapa-e Sardar M. Taddei (1974) South Asian archaeology 1973: papers from the second International Conference of the Association for the Promotion of South Asian Archaeology in Western Europe, Brill Archive, ISBN 90-04-04189-3
23. ↑ "Afghan Buddha destruction revealed". BBC News. 15 March 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1222776.stm.
24. ↑ Eckstein, Zvi; Botticini, Maristella (2012). The Chosen Few: How Education Shaped Jewish History, 70-1492. Princeton University Press. p. 284. ISBN 9781400842483. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/30677/.
25. ↑ "Ghazni governor signs memorandum for Lincoln Learning Center - War On Terror News". http://waronterrornews.typepad.com/home/2010/09/ghazni-gov-lincoln-learning-center.html.
26. ↑ "Archived copy". https://photos.state.gov/libraries/afghanistan/231771/PDFs/RFP-Lincoln-Learning-Centers.pdf.
27. ↑ "Ghazni declared as capital of Islamic civilisation". Pajhwok Afghan News. 13 April 2013. https://pajhwok.com/2013/04/13/ghazni-declared-capital-islamic-civilisation/.
28. ↑ "World Heritage Day is stepping stone for 2013 Center for Islamic Culture celebration in Ghazni". Defense Visual Information Distribution Service. https://www.dvidshub.net/news/48605/world-heritage-day-stepping-stone-2013-center-islamic-culture-celebration-ghazni.
29. ↑ "Taliban suicide bomber kills 9 troops in eastern Afghanistan". The Washington Post. May 18, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/official-suicide-bomber-in-eastern-afghanistan-kills-5/2020/05/18/a7a9d542-98c1-11ea-ad79-eef7cd734641_story.html.
30. ↑ "At least 7 killed in Taliban attack in Afghanistan's Ghazni". Xinhuanet. May 18, 2020. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-05/18/c_139066055.htm.
31. ↑ "Official: Suicide Bomber in Eastern Afghanistan Kills 5". The New York Times. May 18, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/05/18/world/asia/ap-as-afghanistan.html.
32. ↑ "Taliban take strategic Ghazni city as Afghan army chief is replaced". 12 August 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/12/afghanistan-taliban-lashkar-gah--army-chief-is-replaced.
33. ↑ Varshalomidze, Tamila (12 August 2021). "Taliban captures Ghazni city, all government officials flee: Live". Al Jazeera English. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/12/afghanistan-taliban-kandahar-prison-police-ghazni-live-updates.
34. ↑ "Taliban move closer to capital after taking Ghazni city". France24. 12 August 2021. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210812-taliban-move-closer-to-capital-after-taking-ghazni-city.
35. ↑ "Ghazni Climate Normals 1958-1983". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/RA-II/AH/40968.TXT.
36. ↑ Griffin, Kayla (February 14, 2024). "State of Families CSSF Report: Ghazni, Afghanistan (2024)". https://profajames.com/state-of-families-cssf-report-ghazni-afghanistan-2024/.
37. ↑ "UNHCR Sub-Office Central Region, District Profile". http://www.aims.org.af/afg/dist_profiles/unhcr_district_profiles/centra/ghazni/ghazni_city.pdf.
38. ↑ "2003 National Geographic Population Map". Thomas Gouttierre, Center For Afghanistan Studies, University of Nebraska Omaha; Matthew S. Baker, Stratfor. National Geographic Society. 2003. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0311/feature2/images/mp_download.2.pdf.
39. ↑ برف در غزنی سفیدی که شهر را آرام کرد on YouTube
40. ↑ "Ghazni farmers thrive as 39 check dams revive agriculture, ease drought". Pajhwok Afghan News. September 14, 2025. https://pajhwok.com/2025/09/14/ghazni-farmers-thrive-as-39-check-dams-revive-agriculture-ease-drought/.
41. ↑ "Ghazni to have first-ever international airport". Pajhwok Afghan News. April 11, 2012. https://pajhwok.com/2012/04/11/ghazni-have-first-ever-international-airport/.
42. ↑ غزني تخنیکي پوهنتون کې د ۲۰ میلیون افغانیو په لګښت پنځه پروژې پلې شوې on YouTube
43. ↑ "Martial arts ‘Hosharafu’ contest concludes in Ghazni". Pajhwok Afghan News. 23 September 2025. https://pajhwok.com/2025/09/23/martial-arts-hosharafu-contest-concludes-in-ghazni/.
44. ↑ "Ghazni hosts ‘A League’ volleyball tournament". Pajhwok Afghan News. 6 January 2026. https://pajhwok.com/2026/01/06/ghazni-hosts-a-league-volleyball-tournament/.
45. ↑ "Winter cup futsal premier league kicks off in Ghazni". Pajhwok Afghan News. 13 January 2026. https://pajhwok.com/2026/01/13/winter-cup-futsal-premier-league-kicks-off-in-ghazni/.
46. ↑ Sister Cities International
47. ↑ Co Giżycko łączy z Ghazni?

## Further reading

Published in the 19th century

* G. T. Vigne (1843). "Ghuzni". A Personal Narrative of a Visit to Ghuzni, Kabul and Afghanistan (2nd ed.). London: G. Routledge. OCLC 6388460. https://archive.org/stream/personalnarrativ00vign#page/124/mode/2up.
* Edward Balfour (1885). "Ghazni". Cyclopaedia of India (3rd ed.). London: B. Quaritch. https://archive.org/stream/cyclopaediaofind01balfuoft#page/1196/mode/2up.

Published in the 20th century

Published in the 21st century

* C. Edmund Bosworth, ed (2007). "Ghazna". Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill.
* "Ghazna". Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture. Oxford University Press. 2009.
* Col James Tod's "Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan" Vol. II, Annals of Jaisalmer, page 200,

## External links

* Ghazni, Afghanistan, Afghan Geographic Cinematic Drone on YouTube
* Map of Ghazni district
* 1911 encyclopedia entry
* "Ghazni". Islamic Cultural Heritage Database. Istanbul: Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture. http://www.islamicarchitecturedatabase.org/ircica/index2.php?page=Country&id=1.
* ArchNet.org. "Ghazni". Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: MIT School of Architecture and Planning. http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=6888.

Preceded by
Samarkand |  Capital of Khwarazmian Empire (Persia)
1220–1221  | Succeeded by
Tabriz

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