Greater Somalia

Short description: Areas in East Africa in which ethnic Somalis live and have historically inhabited

Greater Somalia, also known as Greater Somaliland[1] (Somali: Soomaaliweyn; Arabic: الصومال الكبرى, romanized: al-Sūmāl al-Kubrā), is the geographic location comprising the regions in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis live and have historically inhabited.[2][3]

Historically ethnic Somali inhabited territory roughly corresponding to Greater Somalia

During the Scramble for Africa at the end of the 19th century, Somali-inhabited territories were partitioned between imperial powers. The unification of these territories became a focal objective of an independent Somalia. Referred to as "Greater Somalia," these regions, at the outset of Somali independence, encompassed the State of Somaliland (formerly British Somaliland) and the Trust Territory of Somaliland (formerly Italian Somaliland), which had successfully merged into a single nation in 1960. French Somaliland, the Northern Frontier District (NFD) in Kenya, and the Ogaden region in Ethiopia were placed under the control of neighboring states despite the pre-independence unification efforts of Somali nationalists.

The post-independence governments of the Somali Republic (1960–1969) and the Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991) expended significant effort towards the unification of the NFD and French Somaliland with Somalia; however, their primary focus was the Ogaden region, which had been occupied by Ethiopia since Menelik's invasions in the 1890s.[4] From 1960 onwards, Somalis in Ethiopia and Kenya seeking self-determination have waged several insurgencies with the support of neighbouring Somalia, such as the Shifta War, escalating into several major interstate conflicts including the 1964 Ethio-Somali War and 1977 Ogaden War in Ethiopia.[1][5]

However, following the breakout of the Somali Civil War and the splintering of Somalia into various autonomous polities, the concept of Greater Somalia has seen a sharp decline in support, with some Somali diaspora communities advocating for autonomy or secession rather than a fully-fledged union.[6][7][8]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Colonialism
* 1.2 Post-WWII
* 1.3 Independence
* 1.4 Somali Civil War
* 2 See also
* 3 References
* 4 Bibliography

## History

Template:History of Somalia

CIA map of the greater Somali territory across the Horn

Since the early 20th century, the vision of Greater Somalia has taken shape, aiming to unite all Somali-inhabited regions in the Horn of Africa into a single nation. This concept, known as Pan-Somalism, seeks to consolidate these territories into one cohesive Somali state. The pursuit of this ideal has fueled conflicts, notably Somalia’s role in the Ogaden War with Ethiopia over the Somali Region and its support for Somali insurgents against Kenya. In 1946, the Somali Youth League proposed Harar as the future capital of Greater Somalia, dispatching delegates to the United Nations office in Mogadishu to advocate for this vision.[9]

### Colonialism

The colonisation of Somali territories during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries involved multiple European powers and the Ethiopian Empire, driven by strategic and economic interests. The United Kingdom, France, and the Kingdom of Italy were the primary colonial powers vying for control of Somali-inhabited regions, motivated mainly by the need for trade routes and geopolitical dominance.[10][11] Emperor Menelik's expansion into Somali inhabited territory coincided with the European colonial advances in the Horn of Africa, during which the Ethiopian Empire imported a significant amount of arms from European powers.[12] The large scale importation of European arms completely upset the balance of power between the Somalis and the Ethiopian Empire, as the colonial powers blocked Somalis from receiving firearms.[13]

Britain established a protectorate in northern Somalia (modern-day Somaliland) by signing treaties with the local Isaaq clans in the 1880s, guaranteeing nominal independence but controlling trade and order at ports like Berbera.[14] Many of these clans had signed the protection treaties with the British in response to Ethiopian Emperor Menelik's Invasions. The agreements dictated the protection of Somali rights and the maintenance of independence.[15]

France developed Djibouti as a coaling station, formalising French Somaliland in 1884, which remained a colony until 1977 when it later became the Republic of Djibouti. Italy also acquired southern Somali territories, establishing Italian Somaliland by 1889.[16]

The Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 granted Ethiopian Empire rights over the Ogaden and Haud regions,[17] an effectively illegal move on the part of the British Empire, as the 1897 treaty directly violated the protection agreements it had already signed with several Somali clans.[18] The Dervish Movement however, led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, was a significant anti-colonial movement that united various Somali clans, repelled British and Ethiopian forces multiple times, and created a proto-state.[19][20] The Dervish movement was defeated in 1920 by the British launched a combined air and ground campaign—the first major aerial bombardment in Africa.[21] The anti-colonial resistance of the Dervish movement and other groups fostered early Somali nationalism and resentment against the borders imposed by colonial powers, laying ideological groundwork for Greater Somalia.[22]

Statue of Somali anti-colonial hero Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, who fought for the liberation and unification of the Somali territories

During World War I, the British entered into an agreement with Italy, promising to transfer control of a significant part of the Jubaland protectorate, a region located in southwestern Somalia. Italy, in return for joining the Allied powers, was to be granted this substantial portion of land. In 1924, Trans-Juba was transferred to Italian Somaliland as stipulated in the wartime pact.[23][24] Britain retained control of the southern half of the partitioned Jubaland territory, which was later merged into the Northern Frontier District (NFD) of Kenya.[23]

Over the next few years, Britain and Italy solidified control over their respective Somalilands, while France governed Djibouti. Somali-inhabited areas in the Northern Frontier District and the Ogaden region remained under foreign rule.[25] During this time, Somali clans faced considerable economic marginalisation and restricted movement due to colonial boundaries, fueling discontent.[26] They were largely excluded from administrative roles, with the colonial authorities favoring European settlers or imported labor, which limited political influence and economic opportunities for them. Additionally, colonial education and economic systems were designed to serve the colonisers’ needs, offering minimal benefits to Somalis and eroding their cultural practices.[27]

In the 1920s and 1930s, there were no permanent Ethiopian settlements or administration in any Somali inhabited land, only military encampments.[28] Due to native hostility, the region was barely occupied by Ethiopian authorities, who exerted little to no presence east of Jijiga, until the Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission in 1934 and the Wal Wal incident in 1935.[29] The incident at Wal Wal ignited the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and paved the way for Italy’s occupation of Ethiopia. It arose from a dispute over the poorly defined border between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. Britain and Ethiopia had established a joint boundary commission to clarify the Somali-Ethiopia border. However, the commission’s work was incomplete, and disagreements persisted, which left the region’s status ambiguous.[30]

In 1936, Italian forces had captured Addis Ababa, leading to the military occupation of Ethiopia Empire and the proclamation of Italian East Africa, which incorporated Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland.[31] In a bid to gain support among the Somali population, the Italians pushed forth their own vision of the Greater Somalia's realization within Italian East Africa.[32][33] During World War II, Italian forces invaded and occupied British Somaliland.[34] In 1940, Mussolini boasted to a group of Somalis in Rome that with the conquest of British Somaliland, nearly all Somali lands were united, fulfilling their dream of a union of all Somalis.[35]

> “The fires of nationalism among the Somalis were constantly stoked throughout the colonial period, not only by Somali nationalists but also by various colonial powers who through words and deeds seemed to legitimize the concept of "Greater Somalia." Mussolini, for example, saw "La Grande Somalia" as the "jewel" of Italian East Africa, thus justifying Italy's invasion of Ethiopia and the liberation of the Somalis.”[36]

However the British regained control of British Somaliland, liberated Ethiopia from Fascist Italy and conquered Italian Somaliland by 1941.[37]

### Post-WWII

Following World War II, Somali leaders in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia repeatedly put forward demands for self-determination, only to be ignored by both Ethiopia and the United Nations.[38] After WWII had ended, the Potsdam Conference was held in 1945, where the Allied powers decided to not return Italian Somaliland to Italy.[37] The UN opted instead in 1949 to grant Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland for a period of ten years, after which the region would become independent.[39]

Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from World War II allies and to the dismay of Somalis,[37] the British "returned" the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably "protected" by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden Region to Ethiopia, based on the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty in which the British ceded Somali territory to Menelik II in exchange for his help fighting against the Somali clans.[40] Britain included the proviso that the Somali residents would retain their autonomy. Regardless, Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over the Haud region.[39] This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands that it had turned over.[39]

In the mid-1950s, Ethiopia for the first time controlled the Ogaden and began incorporating it into the empire. In the 25 years following the commencement of Ethiopian rule in this era, hardly a single paved road, electrical line, school or hospital was built. The Ethiopian presence in the region was always colonial in nature, primarily consisting of soldiers and tax collectors. The Somalis were never treated as equals by the Amhara invaders and were scarcely integrated into the Ethiopian Empire.[41] In 1958, the UN Trusteeship Council established an arbitration tribunal to resolve the territorial dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia but the effort proved ineffective. The Somalis consistently rejected the 1897 Anglo-Ethiopian delimitation and refused to recognise its legal validity. Growing discontent fuelled demands to liberate the whole country and unify Greater Somalia, which further challenged the legitimacy of the 1897 Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement.[42][43]

### Independence

A socialist poster from the Somali Democratic Republic showing Somali Region and the rest of Greater Somalia unified as one country

After Somalia’s independence in 1960, successive governments launched a campaign to reclaim what they termed "lost territories," raising the issue with regional and international bodies such as the United Nations.[44] The newly formed Somali government and army had felt pressured and obliged to respond to what Somali citizens widely perceived as oppression of their brethren by an Ethiopian military occupation. In a bid to control the population of the region during the 1963 Ogaden revolt, an Ethiopian Imperial Army division based out of Harar torched Somali villages and carried out mass killings of livestock. Watering holes were machine gunned by aircraft in order to control the pastoral Somalis by denying them access to water.[45] In 1964, the Ethiopian-Somali Border War erupted along their shared border, ending in an armistice after a two months of interstate fighting.[46]

Britain also granted administration of the Northern Frontier District to Kenyan nationalists. This was despite a 1962 commission report showing 86% of the Somalis in Kenya favouring secession and joining the newly formed Somali Republic.[47] It was an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.[48][49]

After Kenya’s independence in 1963, the ethnic Somalis who were natives of the NFD, supported by the Somali Republic, launched the Shifta War to secede from Kenya and join Somalia. The term “shifta” (Swahili for “bandit”) was used by the Kenyans to delegitimise the insurgency.[50] The war ended with a ceasefire in 1967, facilitated by the Organisation of African Unity at the Arusha Conference, where Somalia’s Prime Minister Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal agreed to suspend hostilities.[51] However, the conflict left lasting grievances, with Somalis in Kenya still feeling targeted, marginalised and subjected to state suspicion.[52]

In 1966, the Ethiopian imperial government under Haile Salassie imposed martial law in the Ogaden and neighbouring Oromo regions,[53] followed by a number of harsh reprisals against local herders aiming to compel them to abandon their support for insurgents.[54][55] These measures included confiscation of property, arbitrary arrests, control of water points, and destruction of livestock.[56] In 1973, the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) was formed to mobilise local populations in the region.[57] Somalia backed the WSLF, the Somali Abo Liberation Front (SALF), and the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) to undermine Ethiopian forces and destabilize the country.[57]

Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) militants in the Ogaden War

Between 1977 and 1978, Somalia and Ethiopia waged a war over control of the Ogaden region and its people. The Soviet Union, Cuba, and South Yemen supported Ethiopia’s Derg regime, led by Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, deploying nearly 100,000 troops equipped with modern weaponry. This combined force repelled Somali troops back to the border, ultimately leading to the weakening of the Mogadishu based government. In March 1978, President Siad Barre ordered the withdrawal of Somali forces from Ethiopia.[58][59]

After the war, an estimated 800,000 "Ethiopian Somalis" crossed the border into Somalia where they would be displaced as refugees. The defeat of the WSLF and Somali National Army did not result in the pacification of the Ogaden region.[60] The first major outflow of refugees numbering in the hundreds of thousands were also bombed during their exodus out of the country by the Ethiopian military.[61]

Djibouti gained its independence in 1977, but a referendum was held in 1958 on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960 to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favor of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined "yes" vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. However, the majority of those who voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favor of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, wound up as Djibouti's first president post-independence (1977–1991).[62]

In 1981, President Siad Barre visited Nairobi and during a meeting with Kenya’s president Daniel arap Moi, asserted that Somalia was suspending its claim to the Northern Frontier District.[63][64] Following renewed hostilities in the Ogaden region and the 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War,[65][66] the two heads of state, Mengistu Haile Mariam and Siad Barre would meet in 1986 in Djibouti at the founding summit of the Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD), leading to a peace treaty signed in 1988. Both parties agreed to respect each other’s territorial integrity.[67][68][69]

By the late 1980s, opposition groups, including the Somali National Movement (SNM) in the north, the United Somali Congress (USC) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), mobilised against the Siad Barre regime, fuelled by grievances over human rights abuses and economic collapse.[70] While Ethiopia, under President Mengistu, publicly maintained a stance of non-interference in the internal affairs of Somalia, evidence suggests it provided significant support to these groups, albeit covertly or indirectly.[71]

The SNM, primarily representing the Isaaq clan operated bases in Ethiopia’s border regions, particularly in Dire Dawa, from the early 1980s. Ethiopia allowed the SNM to establish military bases and conduct guerrilla raids into Somalia, providing logistical support and safe havens until the 1988 agreement, which scaled back overt assistance.[72][73]

For the USC, led by figures like Mohamed Farrah Aidid, Ethiopia’s support was direct, particularly in the late 1980s. Aidid, a former ambassador, defected and was invited by Mengistu to establish a USC military wing in Ethiopia.[74] From bases near the Ethiopia–Somalia border, Aidid directed operations to topple Barre’s regime.[75] Ethiopian security services also aided Aidid’s rise within the USC by detaining his rival, the interim chairman, at his request, allowing Mohamed Farrah Aidid to further consolidate power.[76][77]

The rebellions coupled with defections from Barre’s military, and dwindling foreign support, eroded Barre’s control, and while Ethiopia publicly was claiming neutrality, particularly after 1988, its actions proved otherwise—allowing rebel bases, providing logistical support, as well as aiding key figures.[78] By January 1991, USC rebel forces stormed Mogadishu, forcing Barre to flee, ending his 22-year rule, subsequently plunging Somalia into a protracted civil war as rival factions vied for power in the resulting vacuum.[79][80][81]

### Somali Civil War

Current military situation in Somalia as of December 2024

With the start of the Somali Civil War in 1991, the vision of uniting the various historically and predominantly Somali-inhabited areas of the Horn of Africa into a Greater Somalia was temporarily sidelined.[82] Talk of pan-Somali unification movements for the moment took a backseat, as the Republic splintered into a few autonomous smaller regional or clan-based governing zones. The northern regions of the Somali Republic, which previously was a British protectorate, declared independence as the Republic of Somaliland in 1991, shattering the dream of a greater Somalia now that the two regions that previously united split apart.[83]

In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) rose to power as the de facto national government following its conquest of the capital and large swathes of Somalia. The Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), an insurgent group fighting for the independence of the Ogaden, maintained a covert relationship with the ICU and regarded it as an ally.[84][85] The region was at the heart of the dispute between the ICU and Ethiopian governments. Following their ascent to power, senior ICU officials accused Ethiopia of mistreating the Somalis under its rule and declared that the region could not be forgotten.[86] A strong state not dependent on Addis Ababa was perceived as a security threat, given that the unification of the Somalis had been a core aim of most governments in Mogadishu,[87][88] and consequently the Ethiopian government heavily backed the formation of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) on the grounds that it would give up claims to the Ogaden.[89]

After the ICU was toppled during the Ethiopian invasion of Somalia, the Al-Shabaab soon rose to power and became a powerful insurgent entity. The group has voiced support for a Greater Somalia, describing the Ethiopian-Somali border as "artificial".[90]

## See also

* North Eastern Province
* Pan-nationalism
* Irredentism
* Ethnic nationalism
* Somali nationalism

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Mohamed, Jama (Nov 2002). "Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954–1960". The English Historical Review 117 (474): 1177–1203. doi:10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177. https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article-abstract/117/474/1177/425743.
2. ↑ Barnes, Cedric (2007). "The Somali Youth League, Ethiopian Somalis and the Greater Somalia Idea, c. 1946–48" (in en). Journal of Eastern African Studies 1 (2): 277–291. doi:10.1080/17531050701452564. ISSN 1753-1055. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17531050701452564.
3. ↑ Laitin, David D. (1976). "Somali Territorial Claims in International Perspective". Africa Today 23 (2): 29–38. ISSN 0001-9887. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4185590.
4. ↑ Abdi 2021, p. 69-74.
5. ↑ Lewis, I. M. (1989). "The Ogaden and the Fragility of Somali Segmentary Nationalism". African Affairs 88 (353): 573–579. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098217. ISSN 0001-9909. https://www.jstor.org/stable/723037.
6. ↑ Weitzberg 2017, Section: The Multiple Visions of Greater Somalia.
7. ↑ Weitzberg 2017, Section: The Creation of Homeland.
8. ↑ Bryden, Matt (2003). "The "Banana Test" : is Somaliland ready for recognition ?". Annales d'Éthiopie 19 (1): 341–364. doi:10.3406/ethio.2003.1052. https://www.persee.fr/doc/ethio_0066-2127_2003_num_19_1_1052.
9. ↑ Islamic Reform in Twentieth-Century Africa. Edinburgh University Press. 8 September 2016. ISBN 978-1-4744-1491-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=IDZYDwAAQBAJ&q=kulub+harar+somali&pg=PT248.
10. ↑ Garibo-Peyró, Ana-Paz (2012), Ballesteros, Jesús; Fernández Ruiz-Gálvez, Encarnación; Talavera, Pedro, eds., "Somalia: From the Errors of Colonialism to the Horrors of War" (in en), Globalization and Human Rights: Challenges and Answers from a European Perspective, Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands) 13: pp. 113–140, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4020-4_5, ISBN 978-94-007-4020-4, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4020-4_5
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13. ↑ Irons, Roy (2013-11-04) (in en). Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Pen and Sword. pp. 16. ISBN 978-1-78346-380-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=t9MVBAAAQBAJ.
14. ↑ Mohamed, Jama (2002-11-01). "Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954–1960". The English Historical Review 117 (474): 1177–1203. doi:10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177. ISSN 0013-8266. https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177.
15. ↑ Gorman, Robert F. (1981). Political Conflict on the Horn of Africa. Praeger. pp. 29. ISBN 978-0-03-059471-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=YKlyAAAAMAAJ. "Facing the Ethiopian threat, many Somali clans accepted British protection."
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20. ↑ Hess, Robert L. (1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia" (in en). The Journal of African History 5 (3): 415–433. doi:10.1017/S0021853700005107. ISSN 1469-5138. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/abs/mad-mullah-and-northern-somalia/64A47DB9294A878A7FC8A0AA00589029.
21. ↑ Hallion, Richard P. (2010-03-14) (in en). Strike From the Sky: The History of Battlefield Air Attack, 1910-1945. University of Alabama Press. pp. 61. ISBN 978-0-8173-5657-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAdtAIMTReEC&q=Destroy+Mullah+Hassan+bombers.
22. ↑ Uhlig, Siegbert (2006) (in en). Proceedings of the XVth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Hamburg, July 20-25, 2003. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04799-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=jRMWPSfPBysC&dq=info:HaUFEI92RiQJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PA210.
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24. ↑ Alex Thomson, "An Introduction to African Politics", 2 edition, (Routledge: 2000), p.23
25. ↑ Garibo-Peyró, Ana-Paz (2012), Ballesteros, Jesús; Fernández Ruiz-Gálvez, Encarnación; Talavera, Pedro, eds., "Somalia: From the Errors of Colonialism to the Horrors of War" (in en), Globalization and Human Rights: Challenges and Answers from a European Perspective, Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands) 13: pp. 113–140, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4020-4_5, ISBN 978-94-007-4020-4, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4020-4_5
26. ↑ Lossi, Marcel (2011-11-21) (in en). The Failure System - The role of external actors in the Somali state collapse. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-656-06211-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=V2RHOEzHFEYC.
27. ↑ Spring, Úrsula Oswald; Brauch, Hans Günter (2021-01-25) (in en). Decolonising Conflicts, Security, Peace, Gender, Environment and Development in the Anthropocene. Springer Nature. pp. 335. ISBN 978-3-030-62316-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=qioXEAAAQBAJ.
28. ↑ Greenfield, Richard (1979). "An Historical Introduction to Refugee Problems in the Horn" (in en). Horn of Africa 2 (4): 14–26. https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=184654769.
29. ↑ Drysdale 1964, p. 56.
30. ↑ "HISTORY OF SOMALIA". http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad20.
31. ↑ Nicolle, David (2012-07-20) (in en). The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935–36. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-161-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=G9gbDAAAQBAJ.
32. ↑ Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia p. 104 (New York, 1999)
33. ↑ Lewis, I. M. (1963). "Pan-Africanism and Pan-Somalism". The Journal of Modern African Studies 1 (2): 147–161. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00001038. ISSN 0022-278X. https://www.jstor.org/stable/159026.
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35. ↑ Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945. p. 47
36. ↑ Keller, Edmond J. (1988) (in en). Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic. Indiana University Press. pp. 156. ISBN 978-0-253-20646-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=2ts7ErVABO0C&q=Greater+mussolini#v=snippet&q=Greater mussolini&f=false.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Federal Research Division, Somalia: A Country Study, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2004), p.38
38. ↑ Davids, Jules (1965). The United States in world affairs, 1964. New York : Published for the Council on Foreign Relations by Harper & Row. pp. 284–286. http://archive.org/details/unitedstatesinwo0000unse_n1j4.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Aristide R. Zolberg et al., Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World, (Oxford University Press: 1992), p.106
40. ↑ David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.73
41. ↑ Geshekter, Charles L. (1979). "Socio-Economic Developments in Somalia" (in en). Horn of Africa 2 (2): 24–36. https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=190107421.
42. ↑ Farrell, Michael (2012-12-22). "Manufacturing territorial integrity with the International Court of Justice: the Somaliland-Puntland dispute and uti possidetis" (in en). Washington University Global Studies Law Review 11 (4): 817–844. https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=15466981&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE|A325495877&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs.
43. ↑ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003-02-25) (in en). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. 34. ISBN 979-8-216-22519-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=OwR4EQAAQBAJ&q=Trusteeship+Council+&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=In 1958, the UN Trusteeship Council Ethiopia and Somalia Unresolved &f=false.
44. ↑ Mohamed, J. (2002-11-01). "Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954-1960" (in en). The English Historical Review 117 (474): 1177–1203. doi:10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177. ISSN 0013-8266. https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article-abstract/117/474/1177/425743.
45. ↑ Richard, Greenfield (1979). "An Historical Introduction to Refugee Problems in the Horn" (in en). Horn of Africa 2 (4). https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=184654769.
46. ↑ Yagya, V. S. (1990). "Ethiopia and Its Neighbors: An Evolution of Relations, 1974-1989". Northeast African Studies 12 (2/3): 107–116. ISSN 0740-9133. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43660317.
47. ↑ Otunnu, Ogenga (1992). "Factors Affecting the Treatment of Kenyan-Somalis and Somali Refugees in Kenya: A Historical Overview". Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees / Refuge: Revue canadienne sur les réfugiés 12 (5): 21–26. doi:10.25071/1920-7336.21678. ISSN 0229-5113. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45412094.
48. ↑ https://core.ac.uk/reader/145055100 Colonial Policies and the Failure of Somali Secessionism in the Northern Frontier Dustrict of the Kenya Colony]
49. ↑ David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.75
50. ↑ Scharrer, Tabea (2018-07-03). ""Ambiguous citizens": Kenyan Somalis and the question of belonging". Journal of Eastern African Studies 12 (3): 494–513. doi:10.1080/17531055.2018.1483864. ISSN 1753-1055. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2018.1483864.
51. ↑ Khalif, Zeinabu Kabale; Oba, Gufu (2013-06-28). "'Gaafa dhaabaa - the period of stop': Narrating impacts of shifta insurgency on pastoral economy in northern Kenya, c. 1963 to 2007" (in en). Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice 3 (1): 14. doi:10.1186/2041-7136-3-14. ISSN 2041-7136. Bibcode: 2013Pasto...3...14K.
52. ↑ Carrier, Neil; Scharrer, Tabea (2019-07-11) (in en). Mobile Urbanity: Somali Presence in Urban East Africa. Berghahn Books. pp. 73–79. ISBN 978-1-78920-297-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=NZyFDwAAQBAJ&dq=info:9s9WJcqq5dMJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PA26.
53. ↑ (in en) Collective Punishment. Human Rights Watch. pp. 16. https://books.google.com/books?id=DnbhJwRtFwUC&q=+martial+law+1966#v=snippet&q=martial law 1966&f=false.
54. ↑ NA, NA (2016) (in en). Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. Springer. pp. 263. ISBN 978-1-137-11786-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=3VYBDgAAQBAJ&q=+martial+law+1966#v=snippet&q=martial law 1966&f=false.
55. ↑ Markakis, John (2011) (in en). Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. pp. 151-152. ISBN 978-1-84701-033-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&q=oromo+ogaden+1966#v=snippet&q=oromo ogaden 1966&f=false.
56. ↑ Lefkow, Leslie (2008-06-12). "Collective Punishment: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity in the Ogaden area of Ethiopia's Somali Region" (in en). Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2008/06/12/collective-punishment/war-crimes-and-crimes-against-humanity-ogaden-area.
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Vaughan, Sarah (2019), de Vries, Lotje; Englebert, Pierre; Schomerus, Mareike, eds., "Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Ogaden: Still a Running Sore at the Heart of the Horn of Africa" (in en), Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment (Cham: Springer International Publishing): pp. 91–123, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90206-7_4, ISBN 978-3-319-90206-7, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90206-7_4
58. ↑ "THE SECRET WARS TO CRUSH THE SOUTHEAST, 1978-84". 3 August 2022. https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/e/ethiopia/ethiopia.919/c5ogaden.pdf.
59. ↑ Gleijeses, Piero (2013). Visions of Freedom: Havana, Washington, Pretoria and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1976–1991. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4696-0968-3.
60. ↑ Lewis, I. M. (1989). "The Ogaden and the Fragility of Somali Segmentary Nationalism". African Affairs 88 (353): 573–579. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098217. ISSN 0001-9909. https://www.jstor.org/stable/723037.
61. ↑ "Ogaden: The Land But Not the People" (in en). Horn of Africa 4 (1): 42–45. 1981. https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=P00004137.
62. ↑ Lowell Barrington, After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115
63. ↑ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003-02-25) (in en). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. pp. 132. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC.
64. ↑ Publications, Europa (2003) (in en). A Political Chronology of Africa. Routledge. pp. 382. ISBN 978-1-135-35666-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=0O86sZdHfHUC&q=Siad+barre+Kenya+1984#v=snippet&q=Siad barre Kenya 1984&f=false.
65. ↑ Cowell, Alan (1982-10-08). "ETHIOPIAN DRIVE AGAINST SOMALIA BOGS DOWN" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/08/world/ethiopian-drive-against-somalia-bogs-down.html.
66. ↑ Ethiopian-Somalian Border Clash 1982 OnWar.com
67. ↑ (in en) Collective Punishment. Human Rights Watch. pp. 19. https://books.google.com/books?id=DnbhJwRtFwUC.
68. ↑ Mark-Thiesen, Cassandra; Mihatsch, Moritz; Sikes, Michelle (2021-12-06) (in en). The Politics of Historical Memory and Commemoration in Africa. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-065549-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hGZUEAAAQBAJ.
69. ↑ Prunier, Gérard (2021) (in en). The Country that Does Not Exist: A History of Somaliland. Oxford University Press. pp. 118. ISBN 978-1-78738-203-9. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Country_that_Does_Not_Exist/ynEhEAAAQBAJ?hl=en.
70. ↑ Salih, Mohamed Abdel Rahim Mohamed; Wohlgemuth, Lennart (1994) (in en). Crisis Management and the Politics of Reconciliation in Somalia: Statements from the Uppsala Forum, 17-19 January 1994. Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 22–24. ISBN 978-91-7106-356-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=lEx6HIaaGfcC.
71. ↑ Bakonyi, Jutta; Guevara, Berit Bliesemann de (2014-06-11) (in en). A Micro-Sociology of Violence: Deciphering patterns and dynamics of collective violence. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-97796-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=-QjKAwAAQBAJ&dq=usc+copied+snm&pg=PA46.
72. ↑ FitzGerald, V.; Stewart, F.; Venugopal, R. (2006-05-05) (in en). Globalization, Self-Determination and Violent Conflict. Springer. pp. 165. ISBN 978-0-230-50237-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=qrWDDAAAQBAJ.
73. ↑ Dualeh, Hussein Ali (2002) (in en). Search for a New Somali Identity. H.A. Dualeh. pp. 63–66. https://books.google.com/books?id=KzZyAAAAMAAJ.
74. ↑ Richburg, Keith (8 September 1992). "AIDEED: WARLORD IN A FAMISHED LAND". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/09/08/aideed-warlord-in-a-famished-land/071be58c-f5fb-47ef-92df-b1197b638ee7/.
75. ↑ Laffin, John (1997) (in en). The World in Conflict: War Annual 8 - Contemporary Warfare Described and Analyzed. Brassey's. pp. 179. ISBN 978-1-85753-216-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=_BncAAAAMAAJ.
76. ↑ Clapham, Christopher S. (1998) (in en). African Guerrillas. James Currey. pp. 81. ISBN 978-0-85255-815-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=mkeCIJQwPkEC.
77. ↑ Africa, United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on (1993) (in en). Recent Developments in Somalia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, First Session, February 17, 1993. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 45. ISBN 978-0-16-041196-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=lHNvbVWS8R0C.
78. ↑ Ciment, James (2015-03-27) (in en). Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II. Routledge. pp. 278. ISBN 978-1-317-47186-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=BpGXBwAAQBAJ.
79. ↑ Coyne, Christopher J. (2008) (in en). After War: The Political Economy of Exporting Democracy. Stanford University Press. pp. 141. ISBN 978-0-8047-5439-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=1jKsAAAAIAAJ.
80. ↑ Mohamoud, Abdullah A. (2006) (in en). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC.
81. ↑ Ciisa-Salwe, Cabdisalaam M. (1994) (in en). The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. A.M. Issa-Salwe. pp. 75–93. ISBN 978-1-874209-61-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=79ktAQAAIAAJ.
82. ↑ de Montclos, Marc-Antoine Perouse (June 2008). "Humanitarian Aid, War, Exodus, and Reconstruction of Identities: A Case Study of Somali "Minority Refugees" in Kenya". Nationalism & Ethnic Politics (London: Taylor & Francis Ltd) 14 (2): 289–321. doi:10.1080/13537110802034985. ISSN 1557-2986.
83. ↑ Mohamud Omar Ali; Koss Mohammed. "Peace in Somaliland: An Indigenous Approach to State-Building". Academy for Peace and Development. p. 12. http://apd-somaliland.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Interpeace_APD_Statebuilding_EN.pdf. "On 18 May 1991 at this second national meeting, the Somali National Movement Central Committee, with the support of a meeting of elders representing the major clans in the Northern Regions, declared the restoration of the Republic of Somaliland, covering the same area as that of the former British Somaliland Protectorate. The Burao conference also established a government for the Republic"
84. ↑ Abdullahi, Abdi M. (2007). "The Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF): The Dilemma of Its Struggle in Ethiopia". Review of African Political Economy 34 (113): 556–562. ISSN 0305-6244. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20406430.
85. ↑ Ylönen, Aleksi; Záhořík, Jan (2017-02-17) (in en). The Horn of Africa since the 1960s: Local and International Politics Intertwined. Taylor & Francis. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-1-317-02857-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=QColDwAAQBAJ.
86. ↑ "Ogaden draws in tension once more" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2006-10-02. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5383012.stm.
87. ↑ Cocodia, Jude (2021-04-03). "Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia" (in en). African Security 14 (2): 110–131. doi:10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026. ISSN 1939-2206. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026. "Ethiopia considered a weak Somali state dependent on Ethiopian support as a lesser threat than a strong one. This propelled Ethiopia to undertake the forceful installment of the TFG.".
88. ↑ "Ethiopia prepares to attack Somali Islamists – Eritrea". 21 August 2006. https://sudantribune.com/article17688/.
89. ↑ Cocodia, Jude (2021-04-03). "Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia" (in en). African Security 14 (2): 110–131. doi:10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026. ISSN 1939-2206. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026. "The TFG had Ethiopia's approval on the basis that under Yusuf, Somalia will rest its claim to the Ogaden region".
90. ↑ "Africa File: Al Shabaab Attacks Ethiopia". https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/africa-file/africa-file-al-shabaab-attacks-ethiopia.

## Bibliography

* Pierre Petrides, The Boundary Question between Ethiopia and Somalia. New Delhi, 1983.
* Abdi, Mohamed Mohamud (2021). A History of the Ogaden (Western Somali) Struggle for Self-Determination: Part I (1300-2007) (2nd ed.). UK: Safis Publishing. ISBN 978-1-906342-39-5. OCLC 165059930.
* Lewis, I.M., ed (1983). Nationalism & Self Determination in the Horn of Africa. Ithaca Press. ISBN 978-0-903729-93-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=uDdyAAAAMAAJ.
* FitzGibbon, Louis (1985). The Evaded Duty. London: Rex Collings. ISBN 0860362094. OCLC 15018961.
* Drysdale, John (1964). The Somali Dispute. New York: Frederick A. Praeger Inc.. OCLC 467147.
* Weitzberg, Keren (2017). We Do Not Have Borders: Greater Somalia and the Predicaments of Belonging in Kenya. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-4595-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=L_stDwAAQBAJ.

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