Hadhramaut

Hadhramaut[note 1] (Arabic: حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Ḥaḍramawt Audio file "LL-Q13955 (ara)-Mohammed Al-Aidaroos (Abo Yemen)-حَضْرَمَوْت.wav" not found; Hadrami Arabic: حَضْرَمُوت, romanized: Ḥaḍramūt Audio file "LL-Q13955 (ara)-Mohammed Al-Aidaroos (Abo Yemen)-حَضْرَمُوت.wav" not found) is a geographic region in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula which includes the Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Shabwah and Mahrah, Dhofar in southwestern Oman, and Sharurah in the Najran Province of Saudi Arabia, and sometimes the Aden, Abyan and Lahij governorates of Yemen at a more stretched historical definition. The region's people are known as the Hadharem. They formerly spoke Hadramautic, an old South Arabian language, but they now predominantly speak the Hadhrami dialect of Arabic.

Though the origins of the name are unknown, the name Hadhramaut is traditionally explained as a compound word meaning "death has come" or "court of death," derived either from the Arabic ḥaḍara ("he came") plus mawt ("death"), a folk nickname for Amer bin Qahtan, the region's legendary first settler, or from the Biblical Hebrew ḥaṣar ("court" or "dwelling") plus māweṯ ("death") as seen in Hazarmaveth. The name is of ancient origin and is reflected in the name of the modern-day Yemeni governorate of Hadhramaut.

The boundaries of Hadhramaut stretches from the Empty Quarter desert in the north down through its Wadi Hadhramaut and its coastal plain on the Arabian Sea, historically spanning from modern-day Aden in the west across Dhofar to the east but today spans Yemen's Shabwah from the west and Oman's Dhofar to the east. The region once comprised the Qu'aiti and Kathiri sultanates whose lands now form the Hadhramaut governorate, with tribal Hadhrami towns clustered around oasis wells in the wadis, where they farm wheat, millet, dates, coconuts and coffee, while Bedouin herders graze flocks on the plateau. Physically, the region divides into Inner Hadhramaut,centered on the main wadi and its tributaries, and Coastal Hadhramaut, a narrow plain backed by the steep Jowl escarpment rising to about 1,370 m; to the north the highland plateau (Haḍbat Ḥaḍramawt) slopes down sharply into the Empty Quarter, creating a transition from lush valley to arid desert.

## Contents

* 1 Toponymy
* 2 History
* 2.1 Prehistory
* 2.2 Ancient
* 2.3 Middle Ages
* 2.3.1 Islamic
* 2.3.2 Portuguese and Ottoman Influence
* 2.4 Modern
* 2.4.1 Sultanates and the British rule
* 2.4.2 Communist rule
* 2.4.3 Contemporary Yemen
* 3 Geography
* 3.1 Political geography
* 3.2 Physical geography
* 3.2.1 Inner Hadhramaut
* 3.2.1.1 Mountains
* 3.2.1.2 Wadis
* 3.2.1.3 Desert
* 3.2.2 Coastal Hadhramaut
* 4 Economy
* 4.1 Oil and gas
* 5 Culture
* 5.1 Music and dance
* 5.2 Architecture
* 6 Demographics
* 6.1 Hadhrami diaspora
* 7 See also
* 8 Explanatory notes
* 8.1 Language notes
* 9 References
* 9.1 Sources
* 10 External links

## Toponymy

The origins of the name Ḥaḍramawt is disputed, and numerous debated hypotheses regarding its meaning exist. The most popular folk etymology is that the word comes from a nickname of Amer bin Qahtan, who is thought to be the first person to dwell in the region, meaning "death has come", from the words in Arabic: حَضَر, romanized: ḥaḍara, lit. 'he came' and Arabic: مَوْت, romanized: mawt, lit. 'death'.[1][2] Another theory is that it is a variant of the name of Islamic prophet Hud[lower-alpha 1] who was sent to this region or his last words "Ludara al-mawt," meaning "death has come."[3]

The name Ḥaḍramawt has also been found within Biblical Hazarmaveth.[note 2] The name means "court of death" and is composed of two parts: Hebrew: חֲצַרְ, romanized: ḥaṣar, lit. 'dwelling; court' and Hebrew: מָוֶת māweṯ "death".[6] There, Hud was the descendant of ʿĀd, son of Joktan,[lower-alpha 2] the purported ancestor and progenitor of the South Arabian kingdoms. According to tradition, the family of ʿĀd was the first to settle in the region, and when the sons of ʿĀd had died, Amer bin Qahtan, nicknamed "Hadhramaut", came to power.[3]

Though the origins of the name are unknown, there are several scholarly proposals. Kamal Salibi says that the diphthong "-aw" is an incorrect vocalisation, noting that "-ūt" is a frequent ending for place names in the Ḥaḍramawt; given that "Ḥaḍramūt" is the colloquial pronunciation of the name, and also its ancient pronunciation, the correct reading of the name would thus be "place of ḥḍrm". Salibi proposes, then, that the name means "the green place", which is appropriate given its well-irrigated wadis, giving a lushness that contrasts with the surrounding high desert plateau.[7]

Variations of the name are attested to as early as the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The names ḥḍrmt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩) and ḥḍrmwt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩥𐩩) are found in texts of the Old South Arabian languages (Ḥaḍramitic, Minaic, Qatabanic and Sabaic), though the second form is not found in any known Ḥaḍramitic inscriptions.[8] In either form, the word itself can be a toponym, a tribal name, or the name of the kingdom of Ḥaḍramawt. In the late fourth or early 3rd century BC, Theophrastus gives the name Άδρραμύτα,[9] a direct transcription of the Semitic name into Greek.

## History

Template:History of Yemen

### Prehistory

The earliest human activities in the region date from the Middle Palaeolithic, with the local population using a Levallois technique for flake preparation until the appearance of tools produced by a desert-dwelling pre-agricultural population. From this latter period, or perhaps the succeeding one, can be dated several megalithic structures, large stone circles, and four dolmen-like strictures whose inner surfaces were decorated with repetitive rows of pecked meander or crenellated design.[10]

### Ancient

Main article: History:Kingdom of Hadhramaut

An ancient sculpture of a griffin, from the royal palace at Shabwa, the then-capital city of Hadhramaut

The Kingdom of Hadhramaut was established in the early 1st millennium BCE.[11] Its capital was Shabwa, not far from the city of Teman (the capital of the Kingdom of Qataban),[12] a tribal federation consisting of several tribes united by their common veneration of the lunar god Sin. Hadhramaut became independent from Sheba in c. 330 BCE.[13] Hadhramaut and its god Sin are mentioned in the inscription of Surwah by the Makrib Sabean writer Karib'il Watar I around 700–680 BCE.

The Kingdom, led by King Shahr-al-Khuraymat, allied with the Minaeans and the Kingdom of Qataban and became independent from the Kingdom of Sheba around 330 BCE, during which the Himyarite dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Sheba.[14][15] The relationship between the Kingdom of Hadhramaut and the Himyarite Kingdom remained tense, with both sides waging wars against each other for control of the trade routes and territory in the region.[16] Early Islamic authors believed the nomadic Kinda tribe that founded a kingdom in central Arabia were originally from Hadhramaut, although distinct from the settled Hadhrami population.[17]

File:Ruins6.JPGThe ruins of Sumhuram in Khor Rori

The Hadhrami are referred to as "Chatramotitai" in ancient Greek texts. Hadhramautic texts come later than Sabaean ones, and some Sabaean texts from Hadhramaut are known. Greek, Latin, Sabaean and Hadhramautic texts preserve the names of many kings of Hadhramaut, but there is as yet no definitive chronology of their reigns. Their capital was Shabwa in the northwest corner of the kingdom, along the Incense trade route. Eratosthenes called it a metropolis. It was an important cult centre as well. At first, the religion was South Arabian polytheism, distinguished by the worship of the Babylonian moon god Sin. By the sixth century, the monotheistic cult of Rahmanan was followed in the local temple.[17]

The political history of Hadhramaut is not easy to piece together. Numerous wars involving Hadhramaut are referenced in Sabaean texts. From their inscriptions, the Hadhrami are known to have fortified Libna (now Qalat (Yemen) (ar)) against Himyar and to have fortified mwyt (Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb حِصْن ٱلْغُرَاب) against the Kingdom of Aksum in the period following the death of Dhū Nuwās.[13] The kingdom ceased to exist by the end of the 3rd century CE, having been annexed by the Himyarite Kingdom. Hadhramaut continued to be used in the full titulature of the kings of Sabaʾ and Dhu Raydān (Himyar).[17]

In the 2nd century CE, Hadhramaut was known for its frankincense and myrrh trade.[18] The incense trade route (southern incense route) that passed through the southern part of Hadhramaut helped the region flourish economically and culturally.[19] The Kingdom of Hadhramaut played a significant role in connecting the cultures of Arabia, Mesopotamia, East Africa, and the Roman Empire.[20]

### Middle Ages

#### Islamic

File:Hadramawt Flag (17).pngThe flag of Hadhramaut in the Battle of Siffin File:Hadhramaut in Houghton Typ 794.34.475 - Kâtip Çelebi, Kitab-ı cihannüma (cropped).jpgHadhramaut in a 1732 copy of the map by Ottoman geographer Kâtip Çelebi (1609–57), from the first printed atlas in the Ottoman Empire

Islam reached Hadhramaut in c. 630 after Islamic prophet Muhammad sent Wael bin Hajar (ar) as a da'i to the region.[13] The tribes of the region and the ancient aristocracy initially resisted the religion for a considerable period with the city of Tarim being the only adopter of the religion. Nevertheless, companions of Muhammad like Miqdad ibn Aswad and Islamic military leaders like Qaisabah ibn Kalthum (ar) were from the region.[21][22]

In the 11th century, the Hadhramaut region came under the rule of the Mahdids, who were of Banu Hadhrami origin.[23]: 237 They established the Qasimi dynasty, which ruled the region for several centuries.[23]: 239

was reportedly from Hadhramaut. Several prophets before them are believed to have dwelt here, including Hud of ʿĀd. He is thought to be buried at Qabr Hud.[24][25]

#### Portuguese and Ottoman Influence

In the 16th century, the Portuguese arrived in Hadhramaut and established several settlements along the southern coast. However, their influence was short-lived as the Yemeni Imams managed to drive them out by the 17th century.[26]: 115 Subsequently, Hadhramaut came under Ottoman influence, and the Ottomans maintained control over the region until the early 20th century.[26]: 114

### Modern

#### Sultanates and the British rule

Flag of Kathiri

File:Flag of the Qu'aiti Sultanate from 1939 until 1967.svg

Flag of Qu'aiti

#### Communist rule

See also: Place:South Yemen

In 1967, the former states of the British Aden Protectorate became an independent Communist state, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. South Yemen was united with North Yemen in 1990 as the Republic of Yemen.[27]

#### Contemporary Yemen

The capital and largest city of Hadhramaut is the port Mukalla. Mukalla had a 1994 population of 122,400 and a 2003 population of 174,700, while the port city of Ash Shihr has grown from 48,600 to 69,400 in the same time. One of the more historically important cities in the region is Tarim. An important locus of Islamic learning, it is estimated to contain the highest concentration of descendants of Muhammad anywhere in the world.[28]

## Geography

Al-Hajarayn, Wadi Dowan

### Political geography

The borders of Hadhramaut have varied over time to include the territory between Aden and Dhofar, but it always included the Wadi Hadhramaut, the lands between the Wadi and the coast, and the desert region of the Empty Quarter north of the Wadi.[29] This encompasses the current governorates of Hadramaut and Mahra in their entirety as well as parts of the Shabwah Governorate.[30][29] The current governorate of Hadhramaut roughly incorporates the former territory of the two sultanates.[29]

The Hadharem live in densely built towns centered on traditional watering stations along the wadis. Hadharem harvest crops of wheat and millet, tend date palm and coconut groves, and grow some coffee. On the plateau, Bedouins tend sheep and goats. Society is still highly tribal, with the old Seyyid aristocracy, descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, traditionally educated, strict in their Islamic observance, and highly respected in religious and secular affairs.[31]

### Physical geography

File:Al-Shaggain, Mukalla.jpgAl-Shaggain in Burum, Brom Mayfa District

Hadhramaut is geographically divided into Inner Hadhramaut (Hadrami Arabic: حضرموت الداخل) which is made up of Wadi Hadhramaut, smaller tributary wadis south from the main wadi, and Coastal Hadhramaut (Hadrami Arabic: حضرموت الساحل)[31] which consists of a narrow, arid coastal plain bounded by the steep escarpment of a broad plateau locally known as the Jowl (Hadrami Arabic: ٱلْجَوْل, romanized: al-Jawl, averaging 1,370 m (4,490 ft)).[32] The undefined northern edge of Hadhramaut slopes down to the desert of the Empty Quarter, where the Hadhramaut Plateau or Highlands (Arabic: هَضْبَة حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Haḍbat Ḥaḍramawt) meets the Gulf of Aden in the Arabian Sea, elevation abruptly decreases.[33]

* Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut, with mountains in the background

Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut, with mountains in the background

* Bir Ali Crater in Shabwa, the crater is about 1.3 km wide and contains water with a surface of about 800 meters wide

Bir Ali Crater in Shabwa, the crater is about 1.3 km wide and contains water with a surface of about 800 meters wide

#### Inner Hadhramaut

##### Mountains

The Hadhramaut Mountains (Arabic: جِبَال حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Jibāl Ḥaḍramawt),[34] also known as the "Mahrat Mountains"[35] (Arabic: جِبَال ٱلْمَهْرَة, romanized: Jibāl Al-Mahrah), are a mountain range in Yemen.[36] They are contiguous with the Omani Dhofar Mountains to the northeast,[33] and James Canton considered Aden in the southwest to be in the mountains' recesses.[37]

##### Wadis

File:Dry river valleys in Yemen (iss069e010858).jpgImage of Wadi Hadhramaut, its tributaries and the plateau from the ISS

Wadi Hadhramaut (Arabic: وادي حضرموت) is the main wadi in the region, which has 16 tributary wadis, which are:[38]

Wadis  Southern plateau | Northern plateau

|

Wadi Dahr | Wadi Hanin
Wadi Rahyah | Wadi Sad
Wadi 'Amd | Wadi Na'am
Wadi Dawan | Wadi Ja'imah
Wadi al'Ain | Wadi Thabi
Wadi Manoob bin Ali | Wadi al-Jon
Wadi 'Adim |
Wadi 'Aynat |
Wadi Tena |
Wadi Sena |

##### Desert

#### Coastal Hadhramaut

## Economy

File:Qasr Bugshan.jpgThe Bugshan Palace in Wadi Dawan

Historically, Hadhramaut was known for being a major producer of frankincense, which in the early 20th century was mainly exported to Mumbai in India.[39]: 84 The region has also produced senna and coconut. Farming and fishing are other economic activities in the region, where 5.8% of Yemen's total agriculture comes from the Hadhramaut Governorate alone. Key agricultural products from this region include dates and various grains. Additionally, the fishing sector serves as a primary economic resource for the local population, benefiting from a lengthy coastline along the Arabian Sea that is rich in diverse fish and marine life.[13]

The governorate's lands also hold mineral resources, notably oil and gold, further enhancing its economic significance.[13] Currently, Hadhramaut produces approximately 260,000 barrels of oil per day; one of the most productive fields is Al Maseelah in the strip (14), which was discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is keen to develop its oil fields to increase oil production to increase national wealth in response to the requirements of economic and social development in the country. Oil contributes 30–40% of the nation's GDP, over 70% of total state revenues, and more than 90% of the value of the country's exports.[39]: 85

### Oil and gas

A Soviet discovery in the southern governorate of Shabwah has proven only marginally successful even when taken over by a different group. A Western consortium began exporting oil from Masila in the Hadhramaut in 1993, and production there reached 67,000 m3/d (420,000 bbl/d) in 1999. There are new finds in the Jannah (formerly known as the Joint Oil Exploration Area) and east Shabwah blocks. Yemen's oil exports in 1995 earned about US$1 billion. Yemen's offshore oil and gas deposits are estimated to contain billions of barrels of oil and gas. Marib oil contains associated natural gas. In September 1995, the Yemeni Government signed an agreement that designated TotalEnergies of France to be the lead company for a project for the export of liquefied natural gas (LNG). In 1997, Yemen Gas Company joined with various privately held companies to establish Yemen LNG (YLNG).

File:Yemen 06.jpgAn oil drill in Hadhramaut

In August 2005, the government gave final approval to three LNG supply agreements, enabling YLNG to award a $2 billion contract to an international consortium to build the country's first liquefaction plant at Balhaf on the Arabian Sea coast. The project is a $3.7 billion investment over 25 years, producing approximately 6.7 million tons of LNG annually, with shipments likely to go to the United States and South Korea. Production of LNG began in October 2009. The Yemen government expects the LNG project to add $350 million to its budget and enable it to develop a petrochemicals industry.[40]

Hadramout produces approximately 258.8 thousand barrels per day.[41] One of the prominent oil fields is the Masila Basin Sector (14), discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is committed to developing its oil fields to increase oil production, aiming to enhance national wealth in response to the country's economic and social development needs. Oil contributes between 30% and 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) value and represents more than 70% of the total general budget revenues of the state. Moreover, it constitutes more than 90% of the country's export value.[42]

## Culture

### Music and dance

File:مزمار الهبيش.webmMizmar Al-Habeesh (Arabic: مزمار الهبيش), a Coastal Hadhrami song

Hadhrami Music is one of the five main Yemeni musical genres or "colours" (alwan). It is native to the Hadhramaut region and regarded as one of the most prominent forms of Arabic music. Its unique maqamat are widely employed by composers and musicians throughout the Arabian Peninsula. It compasses vocal performances in the Hadhrami Arabic dialect and features melodic phrases and a characteristic humming-style known as the Dan.

Hadhramaut's strategic location along the ancient incense road has shaped a unique musical tradition. Indian and African musical elements have intermingled with indigenous forms over time.[43] Besides, It has been deeply influenced by Sufism.[44]

File:Iddah-Shabwani dance.webmThe Shabwani music and dance

The region is renowned for its vast array of over four hundred distinct rhythmic patterns that vary by locality. These rhythms are closely tied to daily activities and special occasions—from planting and fishing to wedding celebrations. A key musical form in the region is al-Dan, a fixed melodic structure in which the melody precedes the lyrics; in contrast, in other songs, the lyrics typically come before the melody.[45] Steps have been taken by the Yemeni government to include the Dan art on UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, Cultural authorities in Yemen have already received initial approval from UNESCO to consider its inclusion.[46]

Numerous art critics note that the Hadhrami Dan has played a pivotal role in shaping vocal traditions throughout the Arab world, particularly within the Gulf region. This distinctive musical form is regarded as a foundational element for many singing schools, with contemporary artists continuing to draw inspiration from its rich heritage and folkloric melodies.[47]

The Hadhrami Dan has spread to the Arabian Gulf through the migration of Hadhrami musicians who settled in Gulf countries. Over time, local musicians integrated the Hadhrami Dan and other forms of the Dan and other Hadhrami musical forms into their own repertoires.[44][48] Furthermore, Hadhrami music has significantly influenced the cultural landscapes of regions beyond the Arabian Peninsula, notably in parts of Africa and East Asia.[49][50]

File:اغنية نادرة - غدار الليل - الفنان أبو بكر سالم بلفقيه والفنان أحمد فتحي.webmAbu Bakr Salem and Ahmed Fathi perform (Hadrami Arabic: غدر الليل, romanized: Ghadar al-Layl, lit. 'Night Has Come')

Several Hadhrami influential musicians and poets played an important role in shaping Hadhrami and the wider Arabian music. Abu Bakr Salem Belfkih (1932–2017), for example, modernised al-Dân songs by incorporating contemporary musical instruments, while poets such as Haddad al-Kaff (1910–1970) and Hussein al-Mihdhar (1932–2000) enriched the tradition with their lyrics. Additionally, Mohammed Juma Khan (1903–1963) is celebrated as a pioneer who blended his Punjabi musical influences with local traditions.[45]

Moreover, several prominent non-Hadhrami Arab musicians have also embraced Hadhrami styles. These include Kuwaiti singer Abdallah Al Rowaished; Saudi singers Abdul Majeed Abdullah and Abdel Rab Idris, the latter of Hadhrami origin; as well as Emirati singers Ahlam and Hussain Al Jassmi.[51]

The instruments used in Hadhrami music vary widely, encompassing percussion instruments, string instruments, wind instruments, and simple clapping techniques, often used individually or in combination. This includes notably the Qanbūs, which the Hadhrami migrants spread across the Indian Ocean across the Muslim Southeast Asia areas (notably in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei).

### Architecture

The Hadhramaut region has significant tourism potential due to its historical and cultural heritage. The ancient city of Shibam, known as "the Manhattan of the Desert," is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is famous for its high-rise mud-brick buildings and has attracted tourists worldwide.[52] Other notable tourist attractions in the region include the historic towns of Tarim and Seiyun, the Wadi Hadramout with its lush palm groves, and the traditional mud-brick architecture found throughout the region.

Mukalla, a coastal city in the Hadhramaut region. The city's buildings exhibit intricate facades adorned with geometric patterns, reflecting local craftsmanship. Minarets with delicate latticework rise gracefully, reflecting a blend of architectural and spiritual significance. Mukalla's urban design features narrow alleys and courtyard houses, showcasing adaptation to the arid climate and fostering community interaction. The use of indigenous materials further emphasizes its connection to the local context.

* Sultan al-Quaiti Palace, now a Museum

* Old city of Mukalla

Old city of Mukalla

* The Mukalla creek

The Mukalla creek

Tarim has a distinctive Hadhrami architecture with filigreed facades and minarets. It has interconnected alleyways and courtyards.[53] Tarim was the Islamic Capital of Culture in 2010.[53] It has the world's tallest mudbrick minaret, located in the Al-Muhdhar Mosque.[53] There are initiatives to protect and restore its mud structures.[53]

* Qasr al-'Ishshah, Tarim

Qasr al-'Ishshah, Tarim

* Minaret of al-Muhdar Mosque, Tarim

Minaret of al-Muhdar Mosque, Tarim

* View of Qasr al-'Ishshah

View of Qasr al-'Ishshah

* File:Tarim (2286431839).jpg

Shibam, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is known for its distinct architecture. The houses of Shibam are all made out of mudbrick, and about 500 of them are tower blocks, which rise 5 to 11 stories high,[54] with each floor having one or two rooms.[55] This architectural style was used in order to protect residents from Bedouin attacks.[56] While Shibam has been in existence for an estimated 1,700 years, most of the city's houses originate from the 16th century. Many, though, have been rebuilt numerous times in the last few centuries.

Shibam is often called "the oldest skyscraper city in the world".[57] It is one of the oldest and best examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction.[58] The city has some of the tallest mud buildings in the world, with some of them over 30 m (98 feet) high,[59] thus being early high-rise apartment buildings. In order to protect the buildings from rain and erosion, the walls must be routinely maintained by applying fresh layers of mud. The city is surrounded by a fortified wall, giving it the name "the walled city of Shibam".[58]

* City's gate

City's gate

* street view of the city

* Closeup of the details of a window in Shibam

Closeup of the details of a window in Shibam

* Shibam buildings with balconies

* View of Old Walled City of Shibam

* File:رباط الشقاع .jpg

## Demographics

The people of the region are known as the Hadharem, generally belong to the Semitic south Arabians who claim descent from Yarub bin Qahtan. There is, however, a large number of Sada (Hadrami Arabic: سادة, romanized: Sadah; Singular: Sayyid), or descendant of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed descent. The Sada, descendants of Husain ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic Prophet, form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people and are even, in some cases are regarded with great respect as saints. Among the leading families are that of Sheikh Abu Bakar bin Salem (Hadrami Arabic: الشيخ ابو بكر بن سالم) of ʽAynat, al-Aidarus (Hadrami Arabic: العيدروس) of Shihr and Wadi Dawan, Bin Sumayt (Hadrami Arabic: بن سميط) of Shibam and the Sakkaf (Hadrami Arabic: سقاف) of Seiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade, nor manual labour, nor even agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other classes, they are well educated and are strict in their observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent, they exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs.[60][61]

The Mashayikh (Hadrami Arabic: المشايخ) is another highly regarded group that is second in prestige to the Sada. Like the Sada, they don't bear arms.[62] Men from this group are given the honorific surname Sheikh (Hadrami Arabic: شيخ) and women are given the surname Sheikha (Hadrami Arabic: شيخة) which is different from the term Sheikh (Arabic: شيخ) that is used to refer to a tribal chief or a Muslim scholar.[62] Prominent Mashayikh families include the ‘Amudi (Hadrami Arabic: العمودي), Ba Wazir (Hadrami Arabic: با وزير), and Ba ‘Abbad (Hadrami Arabic: با عبّاد) families.[62]

The Qaba'il (Hadrami Arabic: القبائل) or tribesmen, as in the rest of Arabia, are the predominant class in the population. All the adults carry arms. Some of the tribes have settled towns and villages, others live a bedouin life, keeping however within the territory which is recognised as belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief while the head of the tribe is called the muqaddam or sultan. He is the leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he can only rule with their support.[60] Historically, the most powerful tribes in Hadhramaut was the Qu’aiti, a branch of the Yafa'a tribe. Originally invited by the Sada to protect the settled districts against the marauding tribes, they established themselves as rulers of the country, and possessed the coastal districts with the towns of Mukalla and Shihr as well as Shibam in the interior. The family had accumulated great wealth and was in the service of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India as commander of the Arab levy composed of his tribesmen.[60][61]

The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as distinguished from the Sada and the tribesmen; they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants, artificers, cultivators, and servants and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave trade nourished on this coast; as all Islamic countries they are well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.[60][61]

### Hadhrami diaspora

File:Map of Hadhrami emigrations.svgMap of Hadhrami emigrations around the world

Since the early 19th century, large-scale Hadhramaut migration has established sizable Hadhrami minorities all around the Indian Ocean,[63] in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Africa, including Mombasa, Hyderabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtrian Konkan,[64][65] Mangalore, Bhatkal, Gangolli, Malabar, Sylhet, Tanzania, the Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, southern Philippines and Singapore.[66] In Hyderabad and Aurangabad, the community is known as Chaush and resides mostly in the neighborhood of Barkas. There are also settlements of Hadharem in Gujarat, such as in Ahmadabad and Surat. In South India, the Nawayath community also descends from Hadrami traders.

Earlier, several sultans in the Malay Archipelago such as the Malacca Sultanate,[67] Pontianak Sultanate or Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura were descents of Hadharem . In the 19th century, Hadhrami businessmen owned many of the maritime armada of barks, brigs, schooners and other ships in the Malay archipelago.[68] In modern times, several Indonesian ministers, including former Foreign Minister Ali Alatas and former Finance Minister Mar'ie Muhammad are of Hadhrami descent, as is the former Prime Minister of East Timor, Mari Alkatiri (2006).[69]

The Hadharem have also settled in large numbers along the East African coast,[70] and two former ministers in Kenya, Shariff Nasser and Najib Balala, are of Hadhrami descent. It has also been proved by genetic evidence[71] that the Lemba people of Southern Africa bear some relation to the people of Hadramaut.[72]

Within the Hadhramaut region there has been a historical Jewish population.[73][74][75]

## See also

* Hejaz
* Tihamah
* Al-Yamama
* Najd
* Greater Yemen

## Explanatory notes

1. ↑ identified as Eber in Biblical tradition
2. ↑ identified as Qahtan in Islamic tradition

### Language notes

1. ↑ Also romanized as Hadramaut, Hadramout or Hadramawt, pronounced /ˌhɑːdrəˈmɔːt/ (Audio file "LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Hadramaut.wav" not found) HAH-drə-MAWT.
2. ↑ Biblical Hebrew: חֲצַרְמָוֶת, romanized: Ḥăṣarmāweṯ; Genesis 10:26[4] and 1 Chronicles 1:20[5]

## References

1. ↑ Al-Ameri, Aidah (June 2018). "في مفهوم حضرموت والحضارمة" (in ar). Hadramawt Cultural Journal (Hadramawt Center for Historical Studies) 8: 38. https://hadramout.center/articles/2884. "لقد أفاضت المصادر العربية الإسلامية في ذكر دلالة تسمية حضرموت، ومما جاء عندهم في هذا الأمر عدد من الروايات، الأولى ترى أن عامر بن قحطان كان أول من نزل بالأحقاف، وكان إذا حضر حربًا أكثر من القتل فصار يقولون عند حضوره (حضر موت)، ثم صار ذلك عليه لقبًا وصاروا يقولون للأرض التي بها قبيلته (أرض حضرموت)، ثم أطلق على البلاد ذاتها".
2. ↑ Everett-Heath, John (2014-05-22), "Hadhramaut" (in en), The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (Oxford University Press), doi:10.1093/acref/9780191751394.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-175139-4, https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191751394.001.0001/acref-9780191751394-e-2786, retrieved 2025-03-20
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Lewcock 1986, p. 21.
4. ↑ Genesis 10:26
5. ↑ 1 Chronicles 1:20
6. ↑ Hitchcock, Roswell (2013) (in en). Hitchcock's Bible Names Dictionary. Send The Light Distribution LLC. ISBN 9781481024761.
7. ↑ Salibi, Kamal (1981). al-Qāḍī. ed. "Ḥaḍramūt: A Name with a Story". Studia Arabica et Islamica: Festschrift for Iḥsān ʿAbbās on His Sixtieth Birthday: 393–397.
8. ↑ "General word list". http://dasi.humnet.unipi.it/index.php?id=32&prjId=1&corId=0&colId=0&navId=22579382&wl_group=11&wl_subgroup=5.
9. ↑ Theophrastus: Historia Plantarum. 9,4.
10. ↑ Van Beek 1997.
11. ↑ Avanzini 2016, p. 184.
12. ↑ Naval Western Arabia & The Red Sea p.224 Routledge, 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-20995-6
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 "حضرموت" (in ar). 19 October 2014. https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/2014/10/19/%d8%ad%d8%b6%d8%b1%d9%85%d9%88%d8%aa.
14. ↑ Holger Gzella Languages from the World of the Bible p.162 Walter de Gruyter, 2011 ISBN 978-1-934078-63-1
15. ↑ Woodard The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia p.145 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-1-139-46934-0
16. ↑ Leonard & Brunschvig The Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol. II, p.183 ISBN 978-90-04-05745-6
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Beeston (1971). "Ḥaḍramawt, I. Pre-Islamic Period". in Lewis, B.. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 51–53. OCLC 495469525. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/search?s.q=Ḥaḍramawt,+I.+Pre-Islamic+Period&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&search-go=Search.
18. ↑ Robin (2017). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-134-64634-0.
19. ↑ Miller Arabic Geography in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries p.37 Indiana University Press, 1999
20. ↑ Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Central Arabia p.953 Government of India, 1908
21. ↑ al Asqalani, Ibn Hajar; Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafii, Abū ʿAbdillāh; ibn Kathir, Ismail; ibn Faisal al-Tamimi al-Darimi, Abu Hatim Muhammad. "Al-Isabah Fi Tamyiz Al-Sahabah by Ibn Hajr; al Istishaab by Shafii; al Bidayah wan Nihayah by Ibn Kathir; Kitab al Sahaba by Ibn Hibban". Story of Islam. https://islamstory.com/-المقداد_بن_الأسود.
22. ↑ Lewcock 1986, p. 29.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Daftary, Farhad. The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. pp. 237–239.
24. ↑ Wensinck, A.J.; Pellat, Ch. (1960–2007). Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. eds. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 537. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2920. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.
25. ↑ van der Meulen, Daniel; von Wissmann, Hermann (1964). Hadramaut: Some of its mysteries unveiled. Publication of the De Goeje Fund no. 9. (1st ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-9-0040-0708-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=mskUAAAAIAAJ.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Malekandathil, Pius. The Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India. pp. 114–115.
27. ↑ "2 Yemens Become One, and Celebrate" (in en-US). The New York Times. 1990-05-23. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/23/world/2-yemens-become-one-and-celebrate.html.
28. ↑ Alexandroni, Sam (October 18, 2007). "No Room at the Inn". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200710180041.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Talib, Saadaldeen; Petouris, Thanos; Lackner, Helen; Kaptein, Nicolaas J. G.; Arai, Kazuhiro; Clarence-Smith, William G.; Spencer, James; Walker, Iain et al. (2017). Brehony, Noel. ed. Hadhramaut and its diaspora: Yemeni politics, identity and migration. Library of modern Middle East studies. Hadhramaut Research Centre. London New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-78672-167-9.
30. ↑ Schofield, Richard N.; Blake, Gerald Henry (1988), "Arabian Boundaries: Primary Documents, 1853–1957", Archive Editions 22: p. 220, ISBN 1-85207-130-3, "...should be made along the coast to the west as far as the DHOFAR-HADHRAMAUT frontier..."
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 ميخائيل رودينوف. عادات وتقاليد حضرموت الغربية. https://archive.org/details/20220809_20220809_1502/page/3/mode/2up.
32. ↑ Boxberger 2002, p. 13.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Fisher, Martin (2013-04-17). "1–2". Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 27–55. ISBN 978-9-4017-3637-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=uc_tCAAAQBAJ&q=hadhramaut+highlands&pg=PA52.
34. ↑ Bilādī, ʿĀtiq ibn Ghayth (1982) (in ar). بين مكة وحضرموت: رحلات ومشاهدات. دار مكة. https://books.google.com/books?id=RrktAQAAIAAJ&q=جبال+حضرموت.
35. ↑ Cavendish, Marshall (2006). "I: Geography and climate". World and Its Peoples: The Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Cavendish Publishing. pp. 9–144. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=j894miuOqc4C&q=mahrat.
36. ↑ Scoville, Sheila A. (2006). Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula. 2. Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. pp. 117–122. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=AH8YAQAAMAAJ&q=hadhramaut+mountains.
37. ↑ Canton, James (2014-08-25). "4: Modernising Arabia". From Cairo to Baghdad: British Travellers in Arabia. London and New York City: I.B. Tauris. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8577-3571-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=oU9QBgAAQBAJ&q=hadhramaut+mountains.
38. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `NIC`
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Prothero, G.W. (1920). Arabia. London: H.M. Stationery Office. pp. 84–85. http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/84/.
40. ↑ Country Profile: Yemen, Library of Congress – Federal Research Division, Dec 2006, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Yemen.pdf This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
41. ↑ "International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200254/http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=5&pid=53&aid=1&cid=YM,&syid=1997&eyid=2010&unit=TBPD.
42. ↑ "CIA World Factbook". Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180209041951/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ym.html.
43. ↑ Hasan, Gamal (2020-07-29). "الأغنية الحضرمية كصورة للرحابة والتنوع" (in ar). Khuyut. https://www.khuyut.com/blog/07-28-2020-08-20-pm. Retrieved 2025-02-05.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 AlMaslami, Farea (2016-09-23). "جغرافيا الغناء في اليمن" (in ar). السفير العربي. https://assafirarabi.com/ar/5397/2016/09/23/جغرافيا-الغناء-في-اليمن/. Retrieved 2025-02-05.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Bawazir, Fatima. "In Hadhramaut, Music Rings with Youth Ambitions" (in en). Arabia Felix. https://arabiafelix.social/in-hadhramaut-music-rings-with-youth-ambitions/#:~:text=Historians and Arab singers trace,Indonesia, Brunei, and India. Retrieved 2025-02-07.
46. ↑ Al-Shadely, Abdullah (2022-10-08). "الدان الحضرمي: متعة الكلمة واللحن" (in ar). South24. https://south24.net/news/newse.php?nid=2969. Retrieved 2025-02-16.
47. ↑ Abdulmalek, Mohammed (2019-06-14). "الدان الحضرمى في طريقه إلى قائمة اليونسكو" (in ar). The New Arab. https://www.alaraby.co.uk/الدان-الحضرمي-في-طريقه-إلى-قائمة-اليونسكو. Retrieved 2025-02-02.
48. ↑ "Document Title" (in en). HAL-SHS. https://shs.hal.science/halshs-02476223/document. Retrieved 2025-02-07.
49. ↑ Topp Fargion, Janet (2002). "The Music of Zenj: Arab-African crossovers in the music of Zanzibar" (in en). Persee. https://www.persee.fr/doc/jafr_0399-0346_2002_num_72_2_1315. Retrieved 2025-02-06.
50. ↑ "Musical Practice of Zafin/Zapin Arab in Singapore" (in en). National Library Board, Singapore. https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/api/MusicDetailPage/ViewPdf?resourceUuid=7cb87386-f807-4e9a-a611-6fbb24487745. Retrieved 2025-02-06.
51. ↑ AlNadhami, Ahmed (2019-02-11). "الأغنية الحضرمية.. ذات أجنحة لا تعترف بحدود الجهات الأربع..!" (in ar). AlAyyam Newspaper. https://www.alayyam.info/news/7P2U8EEG-0WJPW9. Retrieved 2025-02-11.
52. ↑ "Old Walled City of Shibam - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Archived from the original on 9 August 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180809120849/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/192.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 (in en) Yemeni town named cultural capital, 9 March 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kBfEUOGLNEQ, retrieved 2023-08-14
54. ↑ Helfritz, Hans (April 1937). "Land without shade". Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 24 (2): 201–16. doi:10.1080/03068373708730789.
55. ↑ Jerome, Pamela; Chiari, Giacomo; Borelli, Caterina (1999). "The Architecture of Mud: Construction and Repair Technology in the Hadhramaut Region of Yemen". APT Bulletin 30 (2–3): 39–48 [44]. doi:10.2307/1504639.
56. ↑ Morrison, Alastair M.; Coca-Stefaniak, J. Andres (27 August 2020). Routledge Handbook of Tourism Cities. Routledge. ISBN 9780429534805. https://books.google.com/books?id=71HzDwAAQBAJ&dq=architectural+style+protect+bedouin+"shibam"&pg=PT81.
57. ↑ "Wadi Hadramowt and walled city of Shabam". http://www.shibamonline.net/eng/wadi13.php.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Old Walled City of Shibam, UNESCO World Heritage Centre
59. ↑ Shipman, J. G. T. (June 1984). "The Hadhramaut". Asian Affairs 15 (2): 154–162. doi:10.1080/03068378408730145.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: India Office (1917). Gazetteer of Arabia Vol. I (Qatar Digital Library). pp. 727–729. https://archive.org/details/20201031_20201031_1145/page/727/mode/2up.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Encyclopædia Britannica 11 ed. Vol. 12 (Gichtel, Johann Georg to Harmonium). Cambridge University Press. 1911. https://archive.org/stream/Encyclopaediabrit12chisrich_201303/encyclopaediabrit12chisrich_djvu.txt. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Boxberger 2002, pp. 19–37.
63. ↑ Ho, Engseng (2006), The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-93869-4, https://books.google.com/books?id=YMcZU0VHdG0C
64. ↑ Khalidi, Omar (1996), "The Arabs of Hadramawt in Hyderabad", in Kulkarni; Naeem; De Souza, Mediaeval Deccan History, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-8-1715-4579-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA52
65. ↑ Manger, Leif (2007), Hadramis in Hyderabad: From Winners to Losers, 35, Asian Journal of Social Science, pp. 405–433 (29), http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/saj/2007/00000035/F0020004/art00003
66. ↑ Tan, Joanna (20 July 2018). "Singapore's Arab community traces ancestral roots to Yemen's Hadhramaut Valley". Arab News. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1342016/world.
67. ↑ Freitag, Ulrike; Clarence-Smith, William G. (1997) (in en). Hadhrami Traders, Scholars and Statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s to 1960s. Brill. ISBN 9-0041-0771-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=gBTbS4eNGp8C.
68. ↑ Ibrahim, Hassan; Shouk, Abu (2009-03-16) (in en). The Hadhrami Diaspora in Southeast Asia: Identity Maintenance or Assimilation?. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-2578-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=XBWwCQAAQBAJ&q=sultanate+arab+in+maluku&pg=PA141.
69. ↑ Agence France-Presse
70. ↑ Bang, Anne K. (2003), Sufis and Scholars of the Sea: Family Networks in East Africa, 1860–1925, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-31763-4, https://books.google.com/books?id=aCgzr5jKQEkC
71. ↑ Soodyall, Himla (2013-10-11). "Lemba origins revisited: tracing the ancestry of Y chromosomes in South African and Zimbabwean Lemba". South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde 103 (12 Suppl 1): 1009–1013. doi:10.7196/samj.7297. ISSN 0256-9574. PMID 24300649.
72. ↑ Espar, David (February 22, 2000). "Tudor Parfitt's Remarkable Quest". PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/tudor-parfitts-remarkable-quest/.
73. ↑ Wahrman, Miryam Z. (1 January 2004). Brave New Judaism: When Science and Scripture Collide. UPNE. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-58465-032-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=zYXcRVGNznEC&pg=PA150.
74. ↑ Ahroni, Reuben (1994) (in en). The Jews of the British Crown Colony of Aden: History, Culture, and Ethnic Relations. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-10110-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=d58QQocrWVkC&dq=hadramawt+jews&pg=PA201.
75. ↑ Skolnik, Fred (2007) (in en). Encyclopaedia Judaica: Gos-Hep. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865936-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=fEEOAQAAMAAJ&q=hadramawt+jews.

### Sources

* Darles, Christian (2018). "Mud Brick Architecture in Ḥaḍramawt-Yemen under the Qu'aiti and Kathiri Sultanates". in Pradines, Stéphane (in en). Earthen Architecture in Muslim Cultures: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-35633-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=YpJyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA164.
* Jerome, Pamela; Chiari, Giacomo; Borelli, Caterina (1999). "The Architecture of Mud: Construction and Repair Technology in the Hadhramaut Region of Yemen". APT Bulletin: The Journal of Preservation Technology 30 (2/3): 39–48. doi:10.2307/1504639. ISSN 0848-8525. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1504639.
* Avanzini, Alessandra (2016) (in en). By Land and by Sea: A History of South Arabia Before Islam Recounted from Inscriptions. "L'Erma" di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-88-913-1110-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=JMkfvgAACAAJ.
* Boxberger, Linda (2002). On the Edge of Empire: Hadhramawt, Emigration, and the Indian Ocean, 1880s–1930s. State University of New York Press. doi:10.1353/book4490. ISBN 978-0-7914-8935-2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/book4490.
* Van Beek, Gus W. (1997). "Ḥadhramaut". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. 2. Oxford, United Kingdom; New York City, United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 452–453.
* Lewcock, Ronald B. (1986) (in en). Wādī Ḥaḍramawt and the Walled City of Shibām. Unesco. ISBN 978-92-3-102338-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=88ltAAAAMAAJ&q=w%C4%81d%C4%AB%20%E1%B8%A5a%E1%B8%8Dramawt%20and%20the%20walled%20city%20of%20shib%C4%81m%20ronald%20lewcock.

## External links

Library resources about
Hadhramaut

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Architecture of Mud: documentary Film about the rapidly disappearing mud brick architecture in the Hadhramaut region
* Nova special on Ubar, illustrating a hydreuma
* Book review of a biography of Qu'aiti sultan Alin din Salah
* Hadhrami migration in the 19th and 20th centuries
* Ba`alawi.com Ba'alawi, the Definitive Resource for Islam and the Alawiyyen Ancestry

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*[lit.]: Literal translation
*[c.]: circa