Hejaz

Hejaz[lower-alpha 1] is a historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes the majority of the western region of Saudi Arabia, covering the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif and Al-Bahah. It is thus known as the "Western Province",[1] and it is bordered in the west by the Red Sea, in the north by Jordan and the Gulf of Suez, in the east by the Najd, and in the south by Yemen.[2] Its largest city is Jeddah, which is the second-largest city in Saudi Arabia, with Mecca and Medina, respectively, being the third- and fourth-largest cities in the country.[3]

As the location of the holy cities of Mecca[4] and Medina,[5][6][7] respectively the first and second holiest sites in Islam, the Hejaz is significant in the Arabo-Islamic historical and political landscape. This region is the most populated in Saudi Arabia,[8] and Arabic is the predominant language, as in the rest of Saudi Arabia, with Hejazi Arabic being the most widely spoken dialect here. Some Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins,[3] although the vast majority are of Arab origin.[9]

According to Islamic tradition, this region is the birthplace of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who was born in Mecca, which is held to be founded by his believed ancestors Abraham, Ishmael, and Hagar.[10][11] The area became part of his empire through the early Muslim conquests, and it formed part of successive caliphates, first the Rashidun Caliphate, followed by the Umayyad Caliphate, and finally the Abbasid Caliphate. The Ottoman Empire held partial control over the area; after its dissolution, an independent Kingdom of Hejaz existed briefly in 1925 before being conquered by the neighbouring Sultanate of Nejd, creating the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd.[12] In September 1932, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd joined the Saudi dominions of Al-Hasa and Qatif, creating the unified Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[13]Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag and it is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihāmah in the west.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Prehistoric and ancient times
* 1.1.1 Era of Abraham and Ishmael
* 1.1.2 Era of Shuaib
* 1.1.3 Era of Saleh
* 1.1.4 Era of Muhammad
* 1.2 Subsequent history
* 1.2.1 Brief independence
* 1.2.2 In modern Saudi Arabia
* 2 Culture
* 2.1 Religion
* 2.2 Cuisine
* 3 Geography
* 3.1 Cities
* 4 Tourism
* 5 Demographics
* 6 Culture
* 7 Notable people
* 7.1 Al-Abwa'
* 7.2 Mecca
* 7.2.1 Pre–6th century CE
* 7.2.2 Since
* 7.3 Medina
* 7.3.1 Pre–6th century CE
* 7.3.2 Since
* 7.4 Ta'if
* 7.4.1 6th–7th centuries CE
* 7.4.2 Since
* 8 See also
* 9 Explanatory notes
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## History

The city of al-Ula in 2012. The city's archaeological district is in the foreground, with the Hejaz Mountains in the background.

### Prehistoric and ancient times

Caruso

Pavarotti

The Nabataean Kingdom spanned from southern Jordan to Damascus, including the Tihamah coastal plain and Hejaz region 600 – 100 BC (above), and the Lihyanite Kingdom 400 BC – 106 AD (below)

One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Hejaz.[14]

The Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab ("Cradle of the Gold") ( [ ⚑ ] 23°30′13″N 40°51′35″E﻿ / ﻿23.50361°N 40.85972°E﻿ / 23.50361; 40.85972) and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow 600 miles (970 km) north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wādi Al-Rummah and Wādi Al-Bātin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the river system was active in 2500–3000 BCE.[15]

According to Al-Masudi the northern part of Hejaz was a dependency of ancient Israel,[16] and according to Butrus al-Bustani the Jews in Hejaz established a sovereign state.[17] The German orientalist Ferdinand Wüstenfeld believed that the Jews established a state in northern Hejaz.[18]

#### Era of Abraham and Ishmael

According to Arab and Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrāhīm (Abraham) brought his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wife Hājar (Hagar) here, for the latter two to stay. The Adnanites were a tribal confederation of the Ishmaelite Arabs, who trace their lineage back to Ishmael son of the Islamic prophet and patriarch Abraham and his wife Hagar through Adnan, who originate from the Hejaz.[19] Some people from the Yemeni tribe of Jurhum settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing another, at least one of them from this tribe, and helped his father to construct or re-construct the Ka'bah,[20][21][22] which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region.[10][11]

For example, in Arab or Islamic belief, the tribe of Quraysh would descend from Isma'il ibn Ibrahim, be based in the vicinity of the Ka'bah,[23] and include Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf. From the Period of Jāhiliyyah ('Ignorance') to the days of Muhammad, the often-warring Arab tribes would cease their hostilities during the time of Pilgrimage, and go on pilgrimage to Mecca, as inspired by Ibrahim.[22] It was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Madanis who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca.[24][25][26][27][28][29]

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Muslim pilgrims surrounding the Maqam (Station) of Ibrahim (Abraham) near the Kaaba in 2008

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The Hateem where Isma'il (Ishmael) and Hajar (Hagar) dwelt

#### Era of Shuaib

File:مدائن شعيب.jpgMaghayir Shu'ayb in Midian, or what is now Tabuk Province

The Midianites of the Bible lived in Hejaz.[30] Shuaib, who is revered as a prophet by both Muslims and Druze,[31] was from this community,[32][33] who are also known as the Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ("Companions of the Wood").[34][35][36][37][38][39] The historical area of Midian roughly corresponds to what is now region of Tabuk.[40][41] Also, the northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.[42]

#### Era of Saleh

The rock-carved Qaṣr Al-Farīd at Al-Ḥijr (Hegra) or Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ ("Cities of Saleh")

Saudi Arabia's and Hejaz's first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hijr. The name Al-Ḥijr ("The Land of Stones" or "The Rocky Place") occurs in the Qur'an,[43] and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, similar to Petra.[44][45] Construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. The location is also called Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ ("Cities of Saleh"),[46][47][48][49][50][51] as it is speculated to be the city in which the Islamic prophet Saleh was sent to the people of Thamud. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada'in Saleh, it came under the influence of other people, such as the Nabataeans, whose capital was Petra. Later, it would lie in a route used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca.[42][52][53]

#### Era of Muhammad

Main article: Religion:Muhammad in Islam

As the land of Mecca[4] and Medina,[5][6][7] the Hejaz was where Muhammad was born, and where he founded a Monotheistic Ummah of followers, bore patience with his foes or struggled against them, migrated from one place to another, preached or implemented his beliefs, lived and died. Given that he had both followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area, like those of Al-Aḥzāb ("The Confederates"), Badr[54] and Ḥunayn. They involved both Makkan companions, such as Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, Ubayda ibn al-Harith and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, and Madani companions.[5][28][29][55][56] The Hejaz fell under Muhammad's influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire.[10][24][26][27][57][58][59]

* Makkah Al Mukarramah Library near the Sacred Mosque. Because it is believed to be built on the spot where Amina bint Wahb gave birth to Muhammad, it is also known as Bayt al-Mawlid (House of the Birth).

Makkah Al Mukarramah Library near the Sacred Mosque. Because it is believed to be built on the spot where Amina bint Wahb gave birth to Muhammad, it is also known as Bayt al-Mawlid (House of the Birth).

* Muhammad's Mosque in Medina, his place-of-residence after the Hijrah (Migration) from Mecca. Muhammad is buried underneath the Green Dome.

Muhammad's Mosque in Medina, his place-of-residence after the Hijrah (Migration) from Mecca. Muhammad is buried underneath the Green Dome.

### Subsequent history

Hejazi Arabian merchant and wife (Códice Casanatense, c. 1540) Workers laying tracks for the Hejaz Railway near Tabuk, 1906

Due to the presence of the two holy cities in the Hejaz, the region was ruled by numerous empires. The Hejaz was at the center of the Rashidun Caliphate, in particular whilst its capital was Medina from 632 to 656 ACE. The region was then under the control of regional powers, such as Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, throughout much of its later history. After the Ottomans lost control of it, Hejaz became an independent state.

Caliphates that directly ruled Hejaz:

* Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE)
* Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE)
* Abbasid Caliphate (750–967 CE)

Rule of the Sharifs (semi-sovereign Sharifate of Mecca) who ruled under the suzerainty of different caliphates and dynasties:

* Abbasid Caliphate (967–969)
* Fatimid Caliphate (969–1171)
* Abbasid Caliphate (Ayyubid Sultanate) (1171–1254)
* Abbasid Caliphate (Mamluk Sultanate) (1254–1517)
* Ottoman Caliphate (Hejaz Vilayet) (1517–1803)
* Emirate of Diriyah (1803–1813)
* Ottoman Caliphate (Hejaz Vilayet) (1813–1916)

#### Brief independence

After the end of the Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, in 1916, Hussein bin Ali became the leader of an independent State of Hejaz.[60] In 1924, Ali bin Hussein succeeded as the King of Hejaz. Then Ibn Saud succeeded Hussein as the King of Hejaz and Nejd. Ibn Saud ruled the two as separate units, known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd from 1926 to 1932.

File:Hejaz-English.jpgKingdom of Hejaz (green) with the modern-day region of Hejaz

#### In modern Saudi Arabia

King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) campus in Jeddah at night

After a series of wars between the Hashimites and Al Saud, on 23 December 1925 Sharif Hussein surrendered to the Saudis, bringing both the Kingdom of Hejaz and the Sharifate of Mecca to an end.[61] On 23 September 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were renamed as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[62] This day is commemorated as the Saudi National Day.[63]

## Culture

### Religion

The cultural setting of Hejaz is greatly influenced by that of Islam, especially as it contains its 2 holiest cities, Mecca and Medina. Moreover, the Quran is considered the constitution of Saudi Arabia, and the Sharia is the main legal source. In Saudi Arabia, Islam is not just adhered politically by the government but also it has a great influence on the people's culture and everyday life.[64][65] The society is in general deeply religious, conservative, traditional, and family-oriented. Many attitudes and traditions are centuries-old, derived from Arab civilization and Islamic heritage.

* The camp of Mina on the outskirts of Mecca, where Muslim pilgrims gather for the Hajj (Greater Pilgrimage). Masjid Al-Khayf is visible to the right.

* Muslim pilgrims gathering at the plain of Mount Arafat

### Cuisine

Hejazi cuisine has mostly Arabian dishes like the rest of Saudi Arabia, Some dishes are native to the Hejaz, like Saleeg.[66] Other Dishes were imported from other cultures through Saudis of different origins, like Mantu (منتو), Yaghmush (يَغْمُش) and Ruz Bukhāri (رُز بُخاري) from Central Asia, Burēk (بُريك) and Šurēk شُريك and Kabab almīru (كباب الميرو) from Turkey and the Balkans, Mandi (مَنْدي) and Mutabbag (مُطَبَّق) from Yemen, Biryāni برياني and Kābli (كابلي) rice dishes from South Asia. Grilled meat dishes such as shawarma and kebab are well-known in Hejaz. The Hejazi dishes are known for their spice.

## Geography

The region is located along the Red Sea Rift. It is also known for its darker, more volcanic sand. Depending on the previous definition, the Hejaz includes some of the mountains of the Sarat range, which topographically separate the Najd from Tehamah. Bdellium plants are also abundant in the Hejaz. Saudi Arabia, and in particular the Hejaz, is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes.[67] Lava fields in the Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of ḥarrāt (حَرَّات, singular: ḥarrah (حَرَّة)), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 km2 (69,000 sq mi), an area greater than the state of Missouri.[68]

* The village of Dhi 'Ain in Al-Bahah Province

The village of Dhi 'Ain in Al-Bahah Province

* Mountains near At-Ta'if, 2012

* Mount Uhud in the area of Medina

Mount Uhud in the area of Medina

* Harrat Khaybar, as seen from the International Space Station

### Cities

Al Bahah Region:

* Al-Bāḥah[69]

Medina:

* Al-Madīnah Al-Munawwarah (Medina)[2]
* Badr[70]
* Yanbuʿ al-Baḥr (Yanbu)[2]

Mecca Province:

* Aṭ-Ṭāʾif[71]
* Jiddah (Jeddah)[2]
* Makkah (Mecca)[2]
* Rābigh[72][73]

Tabuk Region:

* Tabūk[74]
* Umluj

* The old city of Jeddah on the coast of the Tihamah

* Al-Bahah City, located 2,155 m (7,070 ft) above sea level

## Tourism

Beach promenade in Al-Wajh

As a component of Saudi Vision 2030, a tourist destination with an area of 28,000 square kilometres (11,000 square miles) is under development,[75] between the towns of Umluj ( [ ⚑ ] 25°3′0″N 37°15′54.36″E﻿ / ﻿25.05°N 37.2651°E﻿ / 25.05; 37.2651) and Al-Wajh ( [ ⚑ ] 26°14′11.76″N 36°28′8.04″E﻿ / ﻿26.2366°N 36.4689°E﻿ / 26.2366; 36.4689), on the coast of the Red Sea. The project will involve "the development of 22 of the 90+ islands"[76] that lie along the coast to create a "fully integrated luxury mixed-use destination",[77] and will be "governed by laws on par with international standards".[78]

## Demographics

The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,[8] containing 35% of the population of Saudi Arabia.[79] Most people of Hejaz are Sunnis with a Shia minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the Umayyads to the Ottomans.[80] People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.[81]

## Culture

## Notable people

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

* Salih of Thamud[44][lower-alpha 2]
* Shuaib of Midian[30]

### Al-Abwa'

* Musa al-Kazim ibn Jaʿfar al-Sadiq, descendant of Muhammad[82]

### Mecca

#### Pre–6th century CE

* Qusai ibn Kilab ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr ibn Malik ibn An-Nadr ibn Kinanah[83] ibn Khuzaymah ibn Mudrikah ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan the descendant of Isma'il ibn Ibrahim ibn Azar ibn Nahor ibn Serug ibn Reu ibn Peleg ibn Eber ibn Shelakh,[84][85] Chief of the Tribe of Quraysh, and an ancestor of Muhammad[86]
* Qusai's son Abd-al-Dar[87][88] the father of Uthman the father of Abdul-Uzza the father of Barrah the maternal grandmother of Muhammad
* Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, paternal ancestor of Muhammad[89]
* Abdul-Uzza, son of Qusai, and an ancestor of Barrah bint Abdul-Uzza
* Hashim, son of Abd Manaf, paternal great-grandfather of Muhammad, and the progenitor of Banu Hashim in the tribe of Quraysh
* Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim, paternal grandfather of Muhammad
* Hubbah bint Hulail ibn Hubshiyyah ibn Salul ibn Kaʿb ibn Amr al-Khuzaʿi, wife of Qusai, and an ancestor of Muhammad
* Atikah bint Murrah ibn Hilal ibn Falij ibn Dhakwan, wife of Abd Manaf, and an ancestor of Muhammad[89]

#### Since

* Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim[28][29]
* Abu Bakr[28][29] Abdullah ibn Uthman Abu Quhafah ibn Amir ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b, father-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
* Umar[28][29] ibn Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl ibn Abdul-Uzza the descendant of Adi ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy, father-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
* Ali ibn Abi Talib,[28][29] cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
* Hamzah, son of Abdul-Muttalib, and a paternal uncle of Muhammad, and other Muhajirun[5] or Makkan followers of Muhammad, including Ubaydah and Sa'd[28][29][55]
* Abu Talib, son of Abdul-Muttalib,[28][29] chief of Banu Hashim, paternal uncle of Muhammad, and the father of Ali
* Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim,[28][29] Chief of Bani Hashim, and the paternal grandfather of Muhammad
* Khadija bint Khuwaylid[90] ibn Asad ibn Abdul-Uzza ibn Qusai, and other Meccan wives of Muhammad
* Fatimah,[90] other daughters of Muhammad, and other Muhajir women
* Umm Ammar Sumayyah bint Khayyat, wife of Yasir ibn Amir ibn Malik al-Ansi, believed to be the first martyr from the followers of Muhammad
* Aminah[28][29][86] bint Wahb ibn Abd Manaf ibn Zuhrah ibn Kilab ibn Murrah, wife of Abdullah, and the mother of Muhammad

### Medina

#### Pre–6th century CE

* Salmah, daughter of Amr, wife of Hashim, and a great-grandmother of Muhammad[89]

#### Since

* Caliph Al-Hasan,[28][29] and other sons of Ali and grandsons of Muhammad born in Medina[90]
* Caliph Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz ibn Marwan ibn Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As ibn Umayyah ibn Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, great-grandson of Umar ibn Al-Khattab
* Al-Hasan of Basra
* Muhammad al-Baqir ibn Ali Zaynul-Abidin, grandson of Hasan and Husayn the grandsons of Muhammad[90]
* Zayd ibn Ali Zaynul-Abidin ibn Husayn ibn Fatimah bint Muhammad, half-brother of Muhammad al-Baqir
* Ansari women[28][29]
* Ja'far al-Sadiq ibn Muhammad al-Baqir[90]
* Malik the son of Anas ibn Malik ibn Abi Amir al-Asbahi (not Anas the companion of Muhammad)
* Ali al-Rida ibn Musa al-Kadhim ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq[90]
* Fatima bint Musa ibn Ja'far al-Maʿsumah of Qum,[91] sister of Ali al-Ridha
* Abu Ali Muhammad al-Jawad ibn Ali al-Ridha[90]

### Ta'if

#### 6th–7th centuries CE

* Uthman ibn Affan[28][29] ibn Abu al-'As ibn Umayyah ibn Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf, son-in-law of Muhammad, and Caliph
* Urwah ibn Mas'ud,[24] chief of Banu Thaqif
* Nafi ibn al-Harith, physician[92]

#### Since

* Sharif Ali ibn Ajlan ibn Rumaithah ibn Muhammad, son-in-law and successor of Sultan Ahmad of Brunei, father of Sultan Sulaiman, and a descendant of Muhammad[93]

## See also

* Al Baydha Project
* Desert of Paran
* Hejaz Vilayet
* Hejazi turban
* Hijazi script
* Relationship between the Hijaz, Shaam and Yemen
* Sharifate of Mecca
* History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia

## Explanatory notes

1. ↑ /hiːˈdʒæz, hɪˈ-/ (Audio file "LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Hijaz.wav" not found), also US: /hɛˈ-/; Arabic: ٱلْحِجَاز, romanized: Al-Ḥijāz, lit. 'the Barrier', acw
2. ↑ Quran: 7:73–79;[46] 11:61–69;[47] 26:141–158;[48] 54:23–31;[49] 89:6–13;[50] 91:11–15.[51]

## References

1. ↑ Mackey, p. 101. "The Western Province, or the Hejaz[...]"
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Hopkins, Daniel J. (2001). Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. p. 479. ISBN 0-87779-546-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA479. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Leatherdale, Clive (1983). Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925–1939: The Imperial Oasis. Psychology Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7146-3220-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=Lt0-U4cUj9sC&pg=PA12.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Quran 48:22-29
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Quran 9:25-129
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Quran 33:09-73
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Quran 63:1-11
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart". http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp. "The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there."
9. ↑ Minahan, James (1996) (in en). Nations Without States: A Historical Dictionary of Contemporary National Movements. Greenwood Press. pp. 229. ISBN 978-0-313-28354-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=2yFnAAAAMAAJ.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Lings, Martin (1983). Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 978-0-946621-33-0.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Glassé, Cyril (1991). "Kaaba". The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-0606-3126-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=dlPuAAAAMAAJ.
12. ↑ Yamani, M. (2009), Cradle of Islam: the Hijaz and the quest for an Arabian identity, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-1-84511-824-2 (Pbk. ed.)
13. ↑ Al-Rasheed, M. A History of Saudi Arabia. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
14. ↑ Gajus Scheltema (2008). Megalithic Jordan: an introduction and field guide. ACOR. ISBN 978-9957-8543-3-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=aqUbAQAAMAAJ. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
15. ↑ Sullivan, Walter (1993-03-30). "Science Watch; Signs of Ancient River". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/30/science/science-watch-signs-of-ancient-river.html.
16. ↑ Ibn Khaldun, "Kitāb al-ʿIbar wa-Dīwān al-Mubtadaʾ wa-l-Khabar", Dar Al-Fikr publication. Beirut. 1988. volume 2 page 342
17. ↑ al-Bustani, Butrus. "Daerat Al-Maaref". Dar Al-Marifa Publication. Beirut. volume 11 page 672
18. ↑ Wolfensohn, Israel. "Tarikh Al-Yahood Fi Belad Al-Arab". Al-Nafezah Publication. Cairo. 2006. page 68
19. ↑ "Family Tree of Muhammad". 26 December 2018. https://slife.org/family-tree-of-muhammad/.
20. ↑ Quran 2:127 -Yusuf Ali
21. ↑ Quran 3:96 -Yusuf Ali
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Quran 22:25-37
23. ↑ Quran 106:1-4
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad (1955). Guillaume, Alfred. ed. Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah – The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 88–589. ISBN 978-0-1963-6033-1. https://archive.org/stream/TheLifeOfMohammedGuillaume/The_Life_Of_Mohammed_Guillaume#page/n67/mode/1up.
25. ↑ Karen Armstrong (2002). Islam: A Short History. Random House Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 0-8129-6618-X.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Firestone, Reuven (1990). Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0331-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=O69zjVnjL10C.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 al-Tabari (1987). Brinner, William M.. ed. The History of al-Tabari Vol. 2: Prophets and Patriarchs. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-921-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=BQNtV--kD5sC&pg=frontcover.
28. ↑ 28.00 28.01 28.02 28.03 28.04 28.05 28.06 28.07 28.08 28.09 28.10 28.11 28.12 Mubarakpuri, S. R. (2002). "The Compensatory ‘Umrah (Lesser Pilgrimage)". Ar-Raḥīq Al-Makhtūm ("The Sealed Nectar"). Darussalam. pp. 127–47. ISBN 9960-899-55-1. http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch6s4.html. Retrieved 2014-10-06.
29. ↑ 29.00 29.01 29.02 29.03 29.04 29.05 29.06 29.07 29.08 29.09 29.10 29.11 29.12 Haykal, Husayn (1976), The Life of Muhammad, Islamic Book Trust, pp. 217–18, ISBN 978-983-9154-17-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Rothenberg, B. (2003), Egyptian Chariots, Midianites from Hijaz/ Midian (Northwest Arabia) and Amalekites from the Negev in the Timna Mines: Rock drawings in the Ancient Copper Mines of the Arabah – new aspects of the region's history II, Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies, p. 12
31. ↑ Sandra Mackey (16 March 2009). Mirror of the Arab World: Lebanon in Conflict (Illustrated, Reprint ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-3933-3374-9.
32. ↑ Quran 7:85-91
33. ↑ Quran 11:61-94
34. ↑ Quran 15:78-79
35. ↑ Quran 23:20
36. ↑ Quran 26:176-189
37. ↑ Quran 38:13-15
38. ↑ Quran 50:12-14
39. ↑ Ibn Kathir, Ismail. Qisas Al-Anbiya. p. 220.
40. ↑ "Tabouk City Profile, Saudi Arabia". http://www.the-saudi.net/saudi-arabia/tabouk/Tabouk - Saudi Arabia.htm.
41. ↑ Edwards, Grace (2023-12-19). "6: Tabuk and Medina Provinces". Saudi Arabia. Bradt Travel Guides. pp. 188–246. ISBN 978-1-7847-7933-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9PrEAAAQBAJ.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Kesting, Piney. "Saudi Aramco World (May/June 2001): Well of Good Fortune". http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200103/well.of.good.fortune.htm.
43. ↑ Quran 15:80-84
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Butler, J. W. S.; Schulte-Peevers, A.; Shearer, I. (2010-10-01). Oman, UAE & Arabian Peninsula. Lonely Planet. pp. 316–333. ISBN 978-1-7417-9145-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=D8hmZIAaTGQC&pg=PA316.
45. ↑ "Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)". UNESCO. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Quran 7:73-79
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Quran 11:61-69
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Quran 26:141-158
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Quran 54:23-31
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Quran 89:6-13
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Quran 91:11-15
52. ↑ Hizon, Danny. "Madain Saleh: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia". http://www.bootsnall.com/articles/06-11/madain-saleh-arabias-hidden-treasure-madain-saleh-saudi-arabia.html.
53. ↑ "ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination". World Heritage Center. https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1293.pdf.
54. ↑ Quran 3:110-128
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:74
56. ↑ Witness Pioneer "Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions"
57. ↑ "Muhammad". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world.
58. ↑ Holt (1977), p. 57
59. ↑ Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32
60. ↑ Hourani, Albert (2005). A History of the Arab Peoples. Faber & Faber. pp. 315–319. ISBN 978-0-571-22664-1.
61. ↑ Peters, Francis E. (2017). Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land. Princeton Legacy Library. Princeton, New Jersey and Woodstock, Oxfordshire: Princeton University Press. p. 397. ISBN 9781400887361. OCLC 468351969. https://books.google.com/books?id=tdb6F1qVDhkC&pg=PA397.
62. ↑ "History of Arabia". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia.
63. ↑ "History of Saudi Arabia (The Saudi National Day 23, September).". https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866.
64. ↑ "Saudi Arabia – Religion". https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia.
65. ↑ "Islam | The Embassy of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia". https://www.saudiembassy.net/islam.
66. ↑ "Saleeg — a Saudi dish that won't let you down" (in en). 2013-09-11. https://www.arabnews.com/news/464223.
67. ↑ "The Tourists Guide To The 10 Amazing Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia" (in en). https://insidesaudi.com/the-tourists-guide-to-the-10-amazing-volcanoes-in-saudi-arabia/.
68. ↑ "VOLCANIC ARABIA: It started with tremors" (in en). https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200602/volcanic.arabia.htm.
69. ↑ "Al-Baha City Profile". The Saudi Network. http://www.the-saudi.net/saudi-arabia/baha/Al Baha City - Saudi Arabia.htm.
70. ↑ بـتـصـرف عـن مـجـلـة الأمـانـة الـعـدد عـشـرون شـوال 1419 تـصـدر عـن أمـانـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـورة إمـارة مـنـطـقـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـورة
71. ↑ "Brief about Ta'if City" (in ar). Taif Municipality. http://www.taifcity.gov.sa/pages/نبذة-عن-الطائف-57.aspx.
72. ↑ "Rābigh". GeoNames. http://www.geonames.org/103035/rabigh.html.
73. ↑ "Al-Juhfah | Hajj & Umrah Planner" (in en-GB). April 10, 2017. http://hajjumrahplanner.com/al-juhfah/.
74. ↑ "Tabouk City Profile, Saudi Arabia" (in en). http://www.the-saudi.net/saudi-arabia/tabouk/Tabouk - Saudi Arabia.htm.
75. ↑ "Construction underway on Saudi Red Sea project site". Zawya. 27 February 2019. https://www.zawya.com/mena/en/business/story/Construction_underway_on_Saudi_Red_Sea_project_site-SNG_138916601/.
76. ↑ "Red Sea project master plan wins approval". The Saudi Gazette. 17 September 2017. http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/557422.
77. ↑ "Hospitality is 'anchor' of Red Sea project". Arab News. 27 January 2019. http://www.arabnews.com/node/1441476/saudi-arabia.
78. ↑ "Saudi Arabia to allow women in bikinis at new beach resort". The USA Today. 4 August 2017. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/08/04/saudi-arabia-allow-women-wear-bikinis-new-beach-resort/538407001/.
79. ↑ "Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic)". p. 11. http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf.
80. ↑ Riedel, Bruce (2011). "Brezhnev in the Hejaz". The National Interest 115. http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf. Retrieved April 23, 2012.
81. ↑ Beranek, Ondrej (January 2009). "Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia". Middle East Brief 33: 1–7. https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
82. ↑ "The Infallibles Taken from Kitab al Irshad By Sheikh al Mufid". al-islam.org. http://www.al-islam.org/masoom/bios/7thimam.html.
83. ↑ Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris. "The Prophet's Line Family No 3 – Qusayy, Hubbah, and Banu Nadr to Quraysh". Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood Dawah. http://www.ruqaiyyah.karoo.net/articles/prophfamily3.htm.
84. ↑ Book of Genesis, Chapters 10, 11, 16, 17, 21 and 25
85. ↑ 1 Chronicles, Chapter 1
86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 Ibn Hisham. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad. 1. p. 181.
87. ↑ "SUNY Press :: History of al-Tabari Vol. 39, The". Archived from the original on September 12, 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060912005228/http://www.sunypress.edu/details.asp?id=53377.
88. ↑ "Adab of Islam". Masud. http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/adab_of_islam.htm.
89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris. "The Prophet's Family Line No. 4 – Amr (Hashim), the Founder of the Hashimites". Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood Dawah. http://www.ruqaiyyah.karoo.net/articles/prophfamily4.htm.
90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 90.2 90.3 90.4 90.5 90.6 Chittick, William C. (1981). A Shi'ite Anthology. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-510-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=rMnFZOHkurcC&pg=PA138.
91. ↑ Jaffer, Masuma (2003). Lady Fatima Masuma (a) of Qom. Qum, Iran: Jami'at al-Zahra: Islamic Seminary for Women. http://www.al-islam.org/masumaqum/. Retrieved June 5, 2018.
92. ↑ Browne, Edward G. (2002), Islamic Medicine, Goodword Books, p. 11, ISBN 81-87570-19-9
93. ↑ "Pusat Sejarah Brunei" (in ms). www.history-centre.gov.bn. http://www.history-centre.gov.bn/sultanbrunei.htm.

## Further reading

* Mackey, Sandra (2002). The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Updated ed.). New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-32417-6. PBK, first edition: 1987.

## External links

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Southeast|

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Regions of Europe

North|

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East|

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Central|

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West|

* Benelux
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South|

* Po Valley (Padania)
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* Germanic
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* v
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* e

Regions of North America

North
(Canada)|

| Eastern|

* Central Canada
* Atlantic Canada
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* Great Lakes region

|

Western|

* Pacific Northwest
* Prairie Pothole Region

Northern|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Greenland

* Canadian Prairies
* The Maritimes
* French Canada
* English Canada
* Acadia
* Acadian Peninsula
* Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
* Peace River Country
* Cypress Hills
* Palliser's Triangle
* Canadian Shield
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Kodiak Island
* Newfoundland (island)
* Vancouver Island
* Gulf Islands
* Strait of Georgia
* Labrador Peninsula
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* Avalon Peninsula
* Bay de Verde Peninsula
* Brodeur Peninsula
* Melville Peninsula
* Bruce Peninsula
* Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
* Cook Peninsula
* Gulf of Boothia
* Georgian Bay
* Hudson Bay
* James Bay

North
(United States)|

| Arctic|

* Aleutian Arc
* Aleutian Range
* Alaska Peninsula
* Aleutian Islands
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Bering Strait
* Gulf of Alaska

|

Eastern|

* East Coast
* Northeast
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* New England
* Mid-Atlantic
* Commonwealth
* Southeast

Western|

* West Coast
* Mountain states
* Intermountain West
* Great Basin
* Basin and Range Province
* Northwestern United States
* Inland Northwest
* Pacific Northwest
* Southwest
* Old Southwest
* Four Corners

Central|

* Great Lakes
* Tallgrass prairie
* Midwest
* Upper Midwest
* South Central
* Gulf Coast

Southern|

* Deep South
* Old South
* Upland South
* Santa Fe de Nuevo México

* Pacific Coast Ranges
* Oregon Trail
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* Calumet Region
* Llano Estacado
* Third Coast
* Backcountry
* Trans-Mississippi
* Great North Woods
* Great Plains
* Interior Plains
* Great Basin
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* Acadia
* Ozarks
* Ark-La-Tex
* Waxhaws
* Siouxland
* Twin Tiers
* Driftless Area
* Palouse
* Piedmont
* Atlantic coastal plain
* Outer Lands
* Black Dirt Region
* Blackstone Valley
* Piney Woods
* Rocky Mountains
* Mojave Desert
* The Dakotas
* The Carolinas
* Shawnee Hills
* San Fernando Valley
* Tornado Alley
* North Coast
* Lost Coast
* Emerald Triangle
* San Francisco Bay Area
* San Francisco Bay
* North Bay
* East Bay
* Silicon Valley
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Gulf of Mexico
* Lower Colorado River Valley
* Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
* Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
* Colville Delta
* Arkansas Delta
* Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
* Mississippi Delta
* Mississippi River Delta
* Columbia River Estuary
* Great Basin
* High Desert
* Monterey Peninsula
* Upper Peninsula of Michigan
* Lower Peninsula of Michigan
* Virginia Peninsula
* Keweenaw Peninsula
* Middle Peninsula
* Delmarva Peninsula
* Alaska Peninsula
* Kenai Peninsula
* Niagara Peninsula
* "Belt" regions
* Bible Belt
* Black Belt
* Corn Belt
* Cotton Belt
* Frost Belt
* Rice Belt
* Rust Belt
* Sun Belt
* Snow Belt

Middle|

| Northern|

* Basin and Range Province
* Baja California Peninsula
* Gulf of California
* Colorado River Delta
* Gulf of Mexico

|

Southern|

* Soconusco
* Tierra Caliente
* La Mixteca
* La Huasteca
* Bajío
* Valley of Mexico
* Mezquital Valley
* Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
* Yucatán Peninsula
* Gulf of Mexico

Central|

* Northern Triangle of Central America
* Western Caribbean Zone
* Isthmus of Panama
* Gulf of Panama
* Pearl Islands
* Azuero Peninsula
* Mosquito Coast

Caribbean|

* Antilles
* Greater Antilles
* Lesser Antilles
* Leeward
* Leeward Antilles
* Windward
* Lucayan Archipelago
* Southern Caribbean
* West Indies

* Aridoamerica
* Mesoamerica
* Oasisamerica
* Anglo
* Latin
* French
* Hispanic
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Oceania

Australia|

| Australian Capital Territory|

* Australian Capital Territory

|

New South Wales|

* Central Coast
* Central Tablelands
* Central Western Slopes
* Greater Western Sydney
* Hunter
* Mid North Coast
* Northern Rivers
* North West Slopes
* Northern Tablelands
* Riverina
* South Coast
* South West Slopes
* Southern Tablelands
* Western Plains

Northern Territory|

* Arnhem Land
* Barkly Tableland
* Central Australia
* Darwin
* Katherine

Queensland|

* Central West
* Central
* Darling Downs
* Far North
* Gulf Country
* North
* South East
* South West
* Wide Bay–Burnett

South Australia|

* Adelaide Hills
* Barossa Light and Lower North
* Eastern Adelaide
* Eyre Western
* Far North
* Fleurieu and Kangaroo Island
* Limestone Coast
* Murray and Mallee
* Northern Adelaide
* Southern Adelaide
* Western Adelaide
* Yorke and Mid North

Tasmania|

* Central Highlands
* East Coast
* Midlands
* North East
* North West
* Northern
* South West
* Southern
* West Coast

Victoria|

* Barwon South West
* Gippsland
* Grampians
* Greater Melbourne
* Hume
* Loddon Mallee

Western Australia|

* Gascoyne
* Goldfields-Esperance
* Great Southern
* Kimberley
* Mid West
* Peel
* Pilbara
* South West
* Wheatbelt

Melanesia|

* Islands Region
* Bismarck Archipelago
* Solomon Islands
* North Solomon Islands
* Solomon Islands
* Fiji
* New Caledonia
* New Guinea
* Bonis Peninsula
* Papuan Peninsula
* Huon Peninsula
* Huon Gulf
* Bird's Head Peninsula
* Gazelle Peninsula
* Vanuatu

Micronesia|

* Caroline Islands
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Palau
* Kiribati
* Mariana Islands
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* Wake Island

Polynesia|

* Easter Island
* Hawaiian Islands
* Cook Islands
* French Polynesia
* Austral Islands
* Gambier Islands
* Mangareva Islands
* Marquesas Islands
* Society Islands
* Tuamotus
* Kermadec Islands
* New Zealand
* South Island
* North Island
* Niue
* Pitcairn Islands
* Samoan Islands
* American Samoa
* Independent State of Samoa
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu

* Asia-Pacific
* Ring of Fire

* v
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* e

Regions of South America

East|

* Amazon basin
* Atlantic Forest
* Caatinga
* Cerrado

North|

* Caribbean South America
* West Indies
* Los Llanos
* The Guianas
* Amazon basin
* Amazon rainforest
* Gulf of Paria
* Paria Peninsula
* Paraguaná Peninsula
* Orinoco Delta

South|

* Tierra del Fuego
* Patagonia
* Pampas
* Pantanal
* Gran Chaco
* Chiquitano dry forests
* Valdes Peninsula
* Triple Frontier
* Río de la Plata
* Río de la Plata Basin

West|

* Andes
* Tropical Andes
* Wet Andes
* Dry Andes
* Pariacaca mountain range
* Altiplano
* Atacama Desert

* Latin
* Hispanic
* Bolivarian
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Polar regions of Earth

Antarctic|

* Antarctic Peninsula
* East Antarctica
* West Antarctica
* Eklund Islands
* Ecozone
* Extreme points
* Islands

Arctic|

* Arctic Alaska
* British Arctic Territories
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Finnmark
* Greenland
* Northern Canada
* Northwest Territories
* Nunavik
* Nunavut
* Russian Arctic
* Sakha
* Sápmi
* Yukon
* North American Arctic

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Borders of the oceans

Arctic Ocean|

* Amundsen Gulf
* Barents Sea
* Beaufort Sea
* Chukchi Sea
* East Siberian Sea
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Boothia
* Kara Sea
* Laptev Sea
* Lincoln Sea
* Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
* Pechora Sea
* Queen Victoria Sea
* Wandel Sea
* White Sea

Atlantic Ocean|

* Adriatic Sea
* Aegean Sea
* Alboran Sea
* Archipelago Sea
* Argentine Sea
* Baffin Bay
* Balearic Sea
* Baltic Sea
* Bay of Biscay
* Bay of Bothnia
* Bay of Campeche
* Bay of Fundy
* Black Sea
* Bothnian Sea
* Caribbean Sea
* Celtic Sea
* English Channel
* Foxe Basin
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Gulf of Lion
* Gulf of Guinea
* Gulf of Maine
* Gulf of Mexico
* Gulf of Saint Lawrence
* Gulf of Sidra
* Gulf of Venezuela
* Hudson Bay
* Ionian Sea
* Irish Sea
* Irminger Sea
* James Bay
* Labrador Sea
* Levantine Sea
* Libyan Sea
* Ligurian Sea
* Marmara Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Myrtoan Sea
* North Sea
* Norwegian Sea
* Sargasso Sea
* Sea of Åland
* Sea of Azov
* Sea of Crete
* Sea of the Hebrides
* Thracian Sea
* Tyrrhenian Sea
* Wadden Sea

Indian Ocean|

* Andaman Sea
* Arabian Sea
* Bali Sea
* Bay of Bengal
* Flores Sea
* Great Australian Bight
* Gulf of Aden
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Suez
* Java Sea
* Laccadive Sea
* Mozambique Channel
* Persian Gulf
* Red Sea
* Timor Sea

Pacific Ocean|

* Arafura Sea
* Banda Sea
* Bering Sea
* Bismarck Sea
* Bohai Sea
* Bohol Sea
* Camotes Sea
* Celebes Sea
* Chilean Sea
* Coral Sea
* East China Sea
* Gulf of Alaska
* Gulf of Anadyr
* Gulf of California
* Gulf of Carpentaria
* Gulf of Fonseca
* Gulf of Panama
* Gulf of Thailand
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Halmahera Sea
* Koro Sea
* Mar de Grau
* Molucca Sea
* Moro Gulf
* Philippine Sea
* Salish Sea
* Savu Sea
* Sea of Japan
* Sea of Okhotsk
* Seram Sea
* Seto Inland Sea
* Shantar Sea
* Sibuyan Sea
* Solomon Sea
* South China Sea
* Sulu Sea
* Tasman Sea
* Visayan Sea
* Yellow Sea

Southern Ocean|

* Amundsen Sea
* Bellingshausen Sea
* Cooperation Sea
* Cosmonauts Sea
* Davis Sea
* D'Urville Sea
* King Haakon VII Sea
* Lazarev Sea
* Mawson Sea
* Riiser-Larsen Sea
* Ross Sea
* Scotia Sea
* Somov Sea
* Weddell Sea

Endorheic basins|

* Aral Sea
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Salton Sea

* Book
* Category

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