Kinshasa

Kinshasa (/kɪnˈʃɑːsə/; fr; Lingala: Kinsásá), formerly named Léopoldville from 1881–1966 (Dutch: Leopoldstad), is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kinshasa is one of the world's fastest-growing megacities, with an estimated population of 17.8 million in 2024.[1] It is the most densely populated city in the DRC, the second-most populous city and third-largest metropolitan area in Africa, and the world's twenty-second most populous city and fourth-most populous capital city. It is the leading economic, political, and cultural center of the DRC,[2][3][4][5] housing several industries including manufacturing,[6] telecommunications,[7][8] banking, and entertainment.[9][10] The city also hosts some of the DRC's significant institutional buildings, such as the People's Palace, Palace of the Nation, Court of Cassation, Constitutional Court, African Union City, Marble Palace, Martyrs Stadium, Government House, Kinshasa Financial Center, and other national departments and agencies.[11][12][13][14]

The Kinshasa site has been inhabited by Teke and Humbu people for centuries and was known as Nshasa before transforming into a commercial hub during the 19th and 20th centuries.[15][16] The city was named Léopoldville by Henry Morton Stanley in honor of Leopold II of Belgium.[15][17][18] The name was changed to Kinshasa in 1966 during Mobutu Sese Seko's Zairianisation campaign as a tribute to Nshasa village.[15] Covering 9,965 square kilometers, Kinshasa stretches along the southern shores of the Pool Malebo on the Congo River. It forms an expansive crescent across flat, low-lying terrain at an average altitude of about 300 meters.[15] Kinshasa borders the Mai-Ndombe Province, Kwilu Province, and Kwango Province to the east; the Congo River delineates its western and northern perimeters, constituting a natural border with the Republic of the Congo; to the south lies the Kongo Central Province. Across the river sits Brazzaville, the smaller capital of the neighboring Republic of the Congo, forming the world's closest pair of capital cities despite being separated by a four-kilometer-wide unbridged span of the Congo River.[19][20][15][21]

Kinshasa also functions as one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo; it is administratively divided into 24 communes, which are further subdivided into 365 neighborhoods.[22] With an expansive administrative region, over 90 percent of the province's land remains rural, while urban growth predominantly occurs on its western side.[23] Kinshasa is the largest nominally Francophone urban area globally, with French being the language of government, education, media, public services and high-end commerce, while Lingala is used as a lingua franca in the street. The city's inhabitants are popularly known as Kinois, with the term "Kinshasans" used in English terminology.[2][24][25][26]

The National Museum of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is DRC's most prominent and central museum. The College of Advanced Studies in Strategy and Defense is the highest military institution in DRC and Central Africa. The National Pedagogical University is DRC's first pedagogical university and one of Africa's top pedagogical universities. N'Djili International Airport is the largest airport in the nation.[27] In 2015, Kinshasa was designated as a City of Music by UNESCO and has been a member of the Creative Cities Network since then.[28][29] Nsele Valley Park is the largest urban park in Kinshasa, housing a range of fauna and flora. According to the 2016 annual ranking, Kinshasa is Africa's most expensive city for expatriate employees, ahead of close to 200 global locations.[30][31][32]

## Contents

* 1 Toponymy
* 2 History
* 2.1 Urban history
* 2.1.1 Colonial urban planning
* 2.1.2 Segregation
* 2.1.3 African housing and post-World War II urban development
* 2.2 Unrest in 1991 and the First Congo War
* 2.2.1 Systematic torture, detention conditions, and crackdowns on political opposition
* 2.3 Second Congo War
* 2.3.1 Armed confrontation and urban warfare
* 2.3.2 Systematic human rights violations, authoritarian repression, and crackdowns on Cabindan separatists
* 2.3.3 Joseph Kabila's rise to power and the shift in the conflict
* 3 Geography
* 3.1 Location
* 3.2 Relief
* 3.3 Hydrography
* 3.3.1 Geomorphology
* 3.3.2 Aquifers and water table
* 3.4 Soil and geology
* 3.5 Vegetation
* 3.6 Residential and commercial areas
* 3.7 Administrative divisions
* 3.8 Climate
* 3.9 Parks and gardens
* 4 Demographics
* 4.1 Population
* 4.1.1 Native population and other ethnic groups
* 4.1.2 Internal and international migration, and urbanization
* 4.2 Language
* 5 Government and politics
* 5.1 Administrative history
* 5.2 Political organization
* 5.2.1 Provincial Assembly
* 5.2.2 Provincial government and public services
* 5.2.3 Communal and neighborhood
* 5.3 Politics
* 6 Economy
* 6.1 Mining sector and export growth
* 6.2 Fiscal performance and debt sustainability
* 6.3 Companies, foreign exchange reserves, international support
* 7 Education
* 8 Health and medicine
* 9 Culture
* 10 Places of worship
* 11 Media
* 12 Sports
* 13 Buildings and institutions
* 14 Infrastructure and housing
* 15 Transport
* 15.1 Air
* 15.2 Rail
* 15.3 External transport
* 16 Social issues
* 16.1 Crime and punishment
* 16.2 Street children
* 17 Notable people
* 18 International relations
* 19 In popular culture
* 19.1 Cinematic and TV representations
* 19.2 Literary depictions
* 19.3 Music and dance
* 19.4 Visual arts and fashion
* 19.4.1 La Sape
* 19.5 Martial arts
* 20 See also
* 20.1 Films about Kinshasa
* 21 References
* 21.1 Bibliography
* 22 External links

## Toponymy

There are several theories about the origin of the name Kinshasa. Paul Raymaekers, an anthropologist and ethnologist, suggests that the name derives from the combination of the Kikongo and Kihumbu languages.[15] The prefix "Ki(n)" signifies a hill or inhabited area and "Nsasa" or "Nshasa" refers to a bag of salt. According to Raymackers, Kinshasa was a significant trading site where people from the Lower Congo (now Kongo Central Province) and South Atlantic Ocean exchanged salt for goods such as iron, slaves and ivory brought by those from the Upper Congo (now Tshopo Province).[15] However Hendrik van Moorsel, an anthropologist, historian and researcher, proposes that Bateke fishermen traded fish for cassava with locals along the riverbank, and the place of this exchange was called "Ulio".[15][16] In Teke, "exchange" is "Utsaya", and "place of exchange" is "Intsaya". Thus, the name evolved from Ulio to Intsaya, and later, under the influence of Kikongo, transformed into Kintsaya, eventually becoming Kinshasa.[15] Kinshasa, also known as N'shasa, is regarded as the primary "place of exchange" on the southern bank of the Pool Malebo, where bartering occurred even before the commercial boom of Kintambo.[15]

The name Nshasa is believed to originate from the Teke verb "tsaya" (tsaa), meaning "to exchange", and the noun "intsaya" (insaa), referring to any market or place of exchange. It was at this location that Teke brokers traded ivory and slaves from the Banunu slave traders, often mistaken for the Yanzi, for European trade items brought by the Zombo and Kongo people.[15] Despite the various theories, the historical name of Kinshasa is known to have been Nshasa, as documented by Henry Morton Stanley during his crossing of Africa from Zanzibar to Boma in 1874–1877 when he mentioned visiting "the king of Nshasa" on 14 March 1877.[15][18][17]

## History

View of Léopoldville station and port (1884) Kinshassa village (1912)

In pre-colonial times, the area was inhabited by two trading centres, Ntamo and Ntsaasa, which were part of the Tio Kingdom.[33]: 247–55

The city was established as a trading post by Henry Morton Stanley in 1881.[34] It was named Léopoldville in honor of Stanley's employer King Leopold II of the Belgians. He would then proceed to take control of most of the Congo Basin as the Congo Free State, not as a colony but as his private property. The post flourished as the first navigable port on the Congo River above Livingstone Falls, a series of rapids over 300 kilometres (190 miles) below Leopoldville. At first, all goods arriving by sea or being sent by sea had to be carried by porters between Léopoldville and Matadi, the port below the rapids and 150 km (93 mi) from the coast. The completion of the Matadi-Kinshasa portage railway, in 1898, provided an alternative route around the rapids and sparked the rapid development of Léopoldville. In 1914, a pipeline was installed so that crude oil could be transported from Matadi to the upriver steamers in Leopoldville.[35] By 1923, the city was elevated to capital of the Belgian Congo, replacing the town of Boma in the Congo estuary, pursuant to the Royal Decree of 1 July 1923, countersigned by the Minister of the Colonies, Louis Franc.[15][35] This transition, finalized in 1929, led to the development of a new administrative quartier located between Kinshasa, then emerging as a major commercial center, and Léopoldville-West, a preexisting settlement. The selected site was named Kalina (now Gombe) and developed as the colonial administrative center.[36] Before this, Léopoldville was designated an "urban district", encompassing exclusively the communes of Kintambo and the current Gombe, which burgeoned around Ngaliema Bay.[15][37][38] Then the communes of Kinshasa, Barumbu, and Lingwala emerged. In the 1930s, these communes predominantly housed employees of Chanic, Filtisaf, and Utex Africa.[38]

In 1941, legislative ordinance n°293/AIMO of 25 June 1941, conferred Kinshasa the status of a city and established an Urban Committee (Comité Urbain), with an allocated area of 5,000 hectares and a population of 53,000.[39][38] Concurrently, it became the colony's capital, the Congo-Kasaï Province's capital, and the Moyen Congo district. The city was demarcated into two zones: the urban zone, comprising Léo II, Léo-Ouest, Kalina, Léo-I, or Léo-Est, and Ndolo; and the indigenous zone to the south. The urban populace swelled in 1945 with the cessation of forced labor, facilitating the influx of native Africans from rural regions. Léopoldville then became predominantly inhabited by the Bakongo ethnic group.[38]

In the 1950s, planned urban centers such as Lemba, Matete, and a segment of Ndjili were established to accommodate workers from the Limete industrial zone.[38] Lovanium University, the colony's inaugural university, was founded in 1954.[38] By 1957, Léopoldville comprised eleven communes and six adjunct regions: Kalamu, Dendale (present-day Kasa-Vubu commune), Saint Jean (now Lingwala), Ngiri-Ngiri, Kintambo, Limete, Bandalungwa, Léopoldville (current Gombe), Barumbu, Kinshasa, and Ngaliema; along with the adjunct regions of Lemba, Binza, Makala, Kimwenza, Kimbanseke, and Kingasani. Subsequently, the adjunct regions of Ndjili and Matete were incorporated.[38]

After gaining its independence on 30 June 1960, following riots in 1959, the Republic of the Congo elected its first prime minister, Patrice Lumumba whose perceived pro-Soviet leanings were viewed as a threat by Western interests. This being the height of the Cold War, the U.S. and Belgium did not want to lose control of the strategic wealth of the Congo, in particular its uranium. Less than a year after Lumumba's election, the Belgians and the U.S. bought the support of his Congolese rivals and set in motion the events that culminated in Lumumba's assassination.[40] In 1964, Moïse Tshombe decreed the expulsion of all nationals of Republic of the Congo, Burundi and Mali, as well as all political refugees from Rwanda.[41][42][43][44] In 1965, with the help of the U.S. and Belgium, Joseph-Désiré Mobutu seized power in the Congo. He initiated a policy of "Authenticity", attempting to renativize the names of people and places in the country. On 2 May 1966, the government announced that the nation's major cities would be restored to their pre-colonial names, effective on 30 June, the sixth anniversary of independence.[45] Léopoldville was renamed Kinshasa, for a village named Kinshasa that once stood near the site. Kinshasa grew rapidly under Mobutu, drawing people from across the country who came in search of their fortunes or to escape ethnic strife elsewhere, thus adding to the many ethnicities and languages already found there.[35]

### Urban history

#### Colonial urban planning

The arrival of the first locomotive in Léopoldville, Congo Free State, ca. 1898

Photograph of Kinshasa Central Station, ca. 1905. A small locomotive is seen at the platform alongside a series of freight cars. Several Congolese workers and passengers are present, as well as a European colonial official.

European urban development began in 1881 and was guided by rigid planning principles aimed at preserving an orderly and aesthetically pleasing environment, emphasizing open space and vegetation.[46] A major catalyst for urban expansion was the construction of the Matadi–Léopoldville Railway, initiated in 1890 and completed in 1911. This infrastructure project was emblematic of colonial progress and served as a critical link between the port of Léopoldville and the coastal city of Matadi.[47] Upon its completion, the station area began to transform, with the erection of prefabricated residences known as "Danish houses", imported from Belgium. These permanent structures gradually replaced the temporary tents that had accommodated early explorers, soldiers, and mercenaries.[47] As Léopoldville developed into an administrative and military center, agents of the Congo Free State, and, after 1908, those of the Belgian Congo, settled in the area. Europeans often took on multiple roles, functioning as engineers, architects, carpenters, and builders.[47] They were supported by mercenaries and trained African laborers, who were instrumental in the physical construction. By 1902, the Kitambo (now Kintambo) area was entirely occupied by European constructions.[47] The urban center expanded as surrounding villages grew, drawn by the prospects of employment and commerce. These settlements would eventually constitute the earliest cités indigènes, designated residential areas for the African population.[47]

A 1942 view of Léopoldville from the balcony of the A.B.C. Hotel. Established in 1914, the A.B.C. Hotel was the city's first hotel complex, constructed by the Compagnie Commerciale et Agricole d'Alimentation du Bas-Congo (ABC), a subsidiary of the Compagnie du Congo pour le Commerce et l'Industrie (CCCI), which also oversaw the construction of the Matadi–Léopoldville Railway. The hotel formed part of a broader colonial initiative to expand infrastructure and hospitality services in the Belgian Congo.[48][49]

At this early stage, the connection between Léopoldville (commonly referred to as "Léo") and Kinshasa consisted of an eight-kilometer track that was often impassable during the rainy season. Transportation was rudimentary, with a few bicycles, limited private cars, and even dromedaries in use, as public transit infrastructure was virtually nonexistent.[47] In 1911, George Moulaert, an influential colonial administrator, drafted a comprehensive urban plan for Léopoldville and the greater Kinshasa area. This plan would guide spatial development for the coming decades.[50][47] Ironically, World War I accelerated local economic activity. The Belgian Congo, largely cut off from Europe, experienced a period of relative prosperity. Motorboats and trucks increasingly replaced traditional forms of transport, such as canoes and human porters.[47] By the end of the war in 1918, Léopoldville had emerged as a dynamic urban center, rivaling other Congolese cities and attracting the attention of Belgian architects, who viewed the city as a potential model for colonial urban experimentation. Colonial urbanization remained tightly controlled and reflected the aspirations and limitations of Belgian policy.[47] In 1922, a decree mandated that large companies provide housing for their African workers. While major firms such as Huileries du Congo Belge (HCB) complied by building workers' camps, smaller enterprises often failed to meet these requirements.[51] The existing framework, governed by the decree on "the labor contract between natives and civilized masters", proved insufficient to meet growing housing demands.[51] In response, religious missions extended loans to African residents for self-construction, though they were quickly overwhelmed by demand. A special fund was subsequently established to provide interest-free loans for the construction of houses using locally available materials.[51]

#### Segregation

The Kinshasa Central Market was launched in January 1944 to serve the commercial needs of the African population as urban development and colonial segregation measures grew more pronounced.

Colonial authorities enforced a racially segregated urban model. African residents were confined to separate indigenous quarters, known as cités indigènes, such as Léo I and Léo II.[46] These zones were delineated by colonial authorities who allocated land in rudimentary grids. Lacking modern infrastructure like sewers, these neighborhoods only had basic sanitation facilities, typically simple pit latrines made from a hole dug or drilled into the ground.[46] During the 1920s, the urban growth brought the indigenous quarters into proximity with European residential areas, particularly near the Matadi–Kinshasa Railway and the Boulevard Albert 1er (now Boulevard du 30 Juin).[46] This spatial convergence led to heightened concerns among European settlers regarding public health and urban hygiene, leading the Léopoldville Urban Committee in 1933 to implement a buffer known as the "neutral zone".[52][46] Although an 800-meter-wide zone was recommended, the implemented buffer measured only 250 to 300 meters due to logistical constraints and exemptions granted to some Europeans residing in the area.[52][46] This zone, referred to as Parc De Bock, now the Kinshasa Botanical Garden, was created by District Commissioner Fernand De Bock and agronomist Roeck.[46] The zone also housed the Kinshasa Zoological Garden and served both as a recreational area for European residents and as a sanitary barrier between the European and indigenous quarters. Vegetable gardens, maintained by unemployed volunteers, were cultivated within the park.[46] Located immediately south of the neutral zone, the indigenous area included notable facilities such as Ndolo Airport, a market, the botanical and zoological gardens, Kinshasa General Hospital, a wireless telegraph station (TSF), a golf course, a cemetery, and Camp Léopold II (now Camp Kokolo).[52][53][54]

#### African housing and post-World War II urban development

A busy city square in Léopoldville, 1943

Belgian colonial authorities, motivated by a paternalistic ideology associated with the so-called "civilizing mission", initiated efforts to provide formal housing for the African population, particularly for those employed in urban areas. In the aftermath of the Second World War, a large-scale residential project was launched in Dendale, present-day Kasa-Vubu commune, on 407 hectares of land.[52] The development was overseen by the Service de la Population Noire under the direction of Dendale, from whom the area took its name. This "Nouvelle Cité" was among the first planned residential zones for Congolese workers. By 1947, just two years after its inception, the area housed over 8,000 residents, including future President Joseph Kasa-Vubu.

To further address housing needs for the African population, the Office des Cités Africaines (OCA) was tasked with urban development. Beginning in 1949, under a ten-year plan, OCA spearheaded projects involving urban design, infrastructure, community facilities, and housing construction.[46] Over 40,000 homes were built by 1959, following a controlled, segregationist approach. Planning responsibilities were initially led by urban planner Georges Ricquier and later taken over by Maurice Heymans in 1953.[46] The new city plan preserved European dominance over the historical center (La Gombe), limiting expansion to adjacent zones and promoting industrial development in Limete.[46]

Post-1950s urban expansion arose due to the "sprawl of quartiers, the high demand for housing among the population, and the increasing distance between riverside employment zones and cités indigènes". Communes like Kasa-Vubu and Ngiri-Ngiri featured structured housing with proper streets, sanitation systems, twin houses, and single-level row buildings. Some housing areas were self-built but still regulated, with residents adhering to official layouts and construction guidelines based on their resources.[46] Between 1954 and 1960, OCA developed Matete, Bandalungwa, and Lemba, alongside the satellite city of Ndjili. These included prearranged roads, drainage systems, sewer networks, and paved primary access routes.[46]

For the first time, two-story houses and collective apartment buildings appeared, particularly in Bandalungwa, Matete, and Lemba. Kalamu followed with the expansion of Camp Kaouka and the 20 May neighborhood beyond the Funa River.[46] Further east, across the Yolo River, residential development continued in Limete and its accompanying industrial zone.[46]

### Unrest in 1991 and the First Congo War

In 1991 the city had to fend off rioting soldiers, who were protesting the government's failure to pay them. Subsequently a rebel uprising began, which in 1997 finally brought down the regime of Mobutu.[35]

The eruption of the First Congo War (1996–1997), closely tied to the aftermath of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, significantly intensified instability in Kinshasa and across the broader region. Following the genocide, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), under Paul Kagame, launched military operations into eastern Zaire, not only targeting Hutu insurgents but also committing large-scale violence against Hutu civilians.[55][56][57] UNHCR consultant Robert Gersony estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 people were killed monthly in mid-1994 alone. The influx of over two million Rwandan Hutu refugees into eastern Zaire further exacerbated security and humanitarian tensions, particularly in provinces such as South Kivu.[55][58][59] President Mobutu's regime proved incapable of managing the crisis, thus facilitating the conditions for war.[60] By 1996, foreign-backed militias, including the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the Ugandan People's Defence Force (UPDF), and Burundi's Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB), began supporting Congolese Tutsi groups such as the Banyamulenge.[60] Belgian legal and political scholar Filip Reyntjens describes the First Congo War as the convergence of two overlapping goals: the genuine resistance of Congolese Tutsi, who feared retaliation, and the strategic use of this resistance by the Rwandan government to justify the RPA's military involvement in Zaire.[61]

The fall of Kinshasa in May 1997 to the Rwandan- and Ugandan-backed Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, marked the beginning of serious human rights abuses in the capital.[62] In the days following the city's capture, AFDL and RPA forces carried out extrajudicial killings, acts of torture, rape, and targeted former regime officials as well as members of the elite Special Presidential Division (DSP).[62] On 17 May, Mobutu was overthrown in an AFDL-led coup.[63] Between 18 and 22 May 1997, volunteer teams from the Congolese Red Cross collected between 228 and 318 bodies in Kinshasa and its outskirts and evacuated wounded civilians to local medical facilities. Reports from the United Nations Special Rapporteur and the United Nations Mapping Team indicate that the security situation deteriorated further between May and June 1997.[62] During this period, AFDL and RPA units, often with the participation of civilians, carried out public executions, frequently incinerating the bodies in neighborhoods such as Masina, Matete, and Kingabwa (Limete commune). At the GLM (Groupe Litho Moboti) building, detainees, many of them former members of the Zairean Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises; FAZ) or political opponents, were routinely executed and their bodies discarded in the Congo River, a practice halted only after intervention by human rights advocates alerted by local fishermen.[62] In September 1997, the security crisis in Kinshasa was compounded by cross-border shelling from Brazzaville. Armed factions involved in a separate conflict in Brazzaville launched artillery fire into Kinshasa between 29 September and 1 October, killing at least 21 civilians. In retaliation, FAC and RPA forces shelled Brazzaville for two consecutive days.[62]

#### Systematic torture, detention conditions, and crackdowns on political opposition

Security forces also engaged in systemic torture and abuse. In June and July 1997, detainees in military prisons at Kokolo and Tshatshi camps suffered ill-treatment that led to numerous deaths from torture, disease, and medical neglect.[62] Reports from late 1997 indicate that at least 24 wounded former members of the Rwandan Armed Forces (Forces Armées Rwandaises, ex-FAR) soldiers disappeared after being transferred from hospitals to military camps, where they were subjected to threats and degrading treatment.[62] The militarization of Kinshasa's public life continued under the new regime. Units of the Congolese Air Force (Force Aérienne Congolaise, FAC) and the RPA, particularly the young child soldiers known as Kadogo, imposed harsh disciplinary measures on civilians, including public floggings and whippings with the chicotte, a "leather-thonged whipping device". These punishments often resulted in severe internal injuries and deaths due to internal bleeding.[62]

Beginning in June 1997, the new authorities ordered ex-FAZ to undergo political re-education at Kitona military base in Bas-Congo (now Kongo Central). In their absence, soldiers from the newly formed FAC and the RPA occupied military camps in Kinshasa, including CETA and Tshatshi, where they raped large numbers of women and girls, many of whom were family members of ex-FAZ soldiers. Victims were often subjected to sexual slavery and forced domestic labor.[62] At Kokolo military camp, similar atrocities occurred, including gang rapes and the random abduction and assault of women in nearby neighborhoods. At a location known as "Camp Américain", particularly brutal crimes were reported, including the case of a girl who was gang-raped, tortured, and had hot wax poured over her genitals.[62] Violence against women extended beyond military compounds. Numerous reports from the period indicate that FAC and RPA soldiers carried out systematic sexual violence across Kinshasa, including against sex workers and women detained arbitrarily.[62]

Political repression under Kabila's new government intensified after the prohibition of political party activity. Opposition activists and their families were frequently subjected to harassment, arbitrary arrest, and torture. Women related to political figures were especially vulnerable to sexual violence during state crackdowns.[62] Activists from major opposition parties such as the Parti Lumumbiste Unifié (PALU), Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), and the Front pour la Survie de la Démocratie au Congo (FSDC) were frequent targets. In July 1997, FAC and RPA soldiers killed between one and four PALU members during a protest crackdown and injured several others.[62] The residence of PALU leader Antoine Gizenga was ransacked, resulting in the death of an activist and the severe beating of six more. Documented cases of torture and rape continued into 1998. Notably, on 10 December 1997, two sisters of the FSDC president were gang-raped by FAC and RPA personnel.[62] The FSDC leader himself, a former Mobutu loyalist, was arrested in February 1998 and subjected to torture while detained in both the central prison and the Mikonga military training facility.[62]

### Second Congo War

Visit of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila to João de Deus Pinheiro, the European Commissioner for Relations with Parliament, Culture, and Audiovisual, to discuss the armed conflict raging in the country, November 1998.

The eruption of the Second Congo War in August 1998 plunged Kinshasa into a period of acute insecurity and military confrontation. The conflict was precipitated by a dramatic breakdown in relations between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila and his former allies in Rwanda and Uganda. Kabila accused these states of undermining Congolese sovereignty and harboring ambitions to orchestrate a coup d'état.[64][65] Allegations also surfaced that the United States had provided indirect support to Rwanda during this period, including claims of military training by the Rwanda Interagency Assessment Team (RIAT), ostensibly to secure access to the DRC's vast mineral wealth.[66][67] American individuals and institutions, such as Roger Winter of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, were further implicated in allegedly abetting insurgent activities.[66] In response to these tensions, President Kabila dismissed Rwandan General James Kabarebe from his position as Chief of Staff and demanded the withdrawal of all Rwandan military personnel from Congolese territory.[64][65] This move provoked a swift counteroffensive, as Rwanda and Uganda backed the formation of a new rebel group, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), which launched its rebellion from the city of Goma on 2 August 1998.[68] The insurrection was spearheaded by mutinous units within the Congolese armed forces in coordination with Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian troops. Within weeks, RCD forces had captured large swathes of territory in the eastern and northern parts of the country, including regions of North and South Kivu, Orientale Province, North Katanga, and Équateur Province.[68] Their advance toward Kinshasa and the western province of Bas-Congo was halted by military intervention from Angola and Zimbabwe, both of which deployed troops in support of Kabila's government.[68]

This escalation led to the effective partition of the DRC. Kabila's administration, reinforced by military contingents from Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan, retained authority over the western and central regions. Conversely, the eastern part of the country fell under the control of the RCD's military wing, the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC), which was supported by Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian forces.[68] In response, Kabila aligned with a range of non-state actors and militias, notably the Mayi-Mayi as well as Rwandan and Burundian Hutu rebel groups including the Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie (FDD) and the Armée de Libération du Rwanda (ALiR), the latter composed in part of former members of the Rwandan Armed Forces and the Interahamwe militia. Uganda, while occupying substantial portions of Orientale Province, simultaneously sponsored the establishment of the Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo (MLC), under the leadership of Jean-Pierre Bemba, to administer the Ugandan-controlled regions of Équateur.[68] Diverging strategic interests between Uganda and Rwanda eventually led to a split within the RCD itself, giving rise to two rival factions: the Rwanda-aligned RCD–Goma and the Uganda-supported RCD–ML.[68] Despite their military superiority, these rebel coalitions faced persistent challenges in exerting full administrative and security control over rural areas, where they were met with sustained resistance from local militias, interethnic hostility, and community mistrust.[69]

#### Armed confrontation and urban warfare

By late August 1998, Kinshasa became the theater of direct armed confrontation. Forces of the ANC, RPA, and UPDF clashed with troops from FAC and the Zimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) for control of the capital. The ZDF employed heavy artillery to bombard densely populated neighborhoods, including Kimbanseke, Masina, Ndjili, and the village of Kingatoko, located near the border of Bas-Congo Province.[70] These attacks resulted in the deaths of approximately 50 civilians and left 282 wounded, who were admitted to medical facilities across the capital during the night of 27 to 28 August. The shelling campaign led to mass displacement, as residents fled to safer parts of the city.[70] The ZDF's indiscriminate use of heavy weapons failed to differentiate between military and civilian targets, striking hospitals, religious buildings, and other non-combatant infrastructure. In some instances, Congolese military authorities exacerbated civilian casualties by ordering residents to remain in their homes, thereby preventing rebel fighters from taking shelter in abandoned buildings and leaving civilians exposed to sustained bombardment.[70]

During the same period, humanitarian workers became direct victims of violence. On 28 August 1998, in Mont-Ngafula, FAC soldiers brutally killed two Red Cross volunteers, one by crushing his skull, as they attempted to rescue victims in the Mitendi and Mbenseke areas.[70] The incident left several others severely wounded. Rebel forces further escalated the crisis by targeting strategic infrastructure. On 13 August 1998, troops from the ANC, RPA, and UPDF seized the Inga hydroelectric power station in Bas-Congo Province, halting its turbines for three weeks.[70] This act deprived Kinshasa and parts of Bas-Congo of electricity and water, critically affecting essential services such as hospitals. As a result, mortality rates, particularly among children, increased markedly in medical facilities.[70]

#### Systematic human rights violations, authoritarian repression, and crackdowns on Cabindan separatists

From the onset of the conflict, Congolese security forces were implicated in widespread human rights abuses, including extrajudicial executions, torture, rape, and arbitrary detentions. Political opponents and ordinary civilians alike were subject to these violations with near-total impunity.[70] Between August 1998 and January 2001, approximately 50 incident reports were submitted to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and its mechanisms, including the Working Groups on arbitrary detention and enforced disappearances, and the Special Rapporteurs on torture and extrajudicial killings.[70]

Particularly severe abuses were inflicted on members of opposition political parties such as the UDPS and PALU. Victims were often detained in notorious facilities such as the Police d'intervention rapide (PIR), the Direction des renseignements généraux et services spéciaux (DRGS, also known as Kin Mazière), the IPKIN (ex-Circo), and the Kokolo military camp. These sites became centers for torture, sexual violence, and in some cases, extrajudicial execution.[70] A significant crackdown occurred on 28 October 2000, when President Kabila's security services arrested at least 93 individuals, including 60 soldiers and 33 civilians from North Kivu, South Kivu, and Maniema, on accusations of plotting a coup d'état involving Anselme Masasu Nindaga, a founding member of the AFDL.[70] While some detainees were summarily executed or tortured to death, others were held for over three years and released only after a government-issued general amnesty.[70]

As part of its military alliance with Angola, the Kinshasa government also acted against members of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), a separatist movement advocating independence for the Angolan province of Cabinda.[70] Between 1998 and 1999, the DRC's security forces shuttered FLEC offices in Kinshasa and arrested numerous Cabindan militants. Many of those detained were reportedly tortured; others were forcibly transferred to Angola or remain missing to this day.[70]

#### Joseph Kabila's rise to power and the shift in the conflict

Claudel André Lubaya, Governor of Kasaï-Occidental, with Joseph Kabila as President.

George W. Bush meets with Joseph Kabila (left), Thabo Mbeki of South Africa (center), and Paul Kagame of Rwanda (right) at the Waldorf Astoria New York.

Following the assassination of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila on 16 January 2001, the Democratic Republic of the Congo entered a new phase in the protracted national crisis. His son and successor, Joseph Kabila, was swiftly installed as president and sought to redirect the country's trajectory through diplomacy and political dialogue. Central to his early agenda was the de-escalation of armed conflict and the promotion of national reconciliation, particularly through the organization of the Inter-Congolese Dialogue (ICD).[71] This initiative aimed to convene representatives from the government, rebel movements, political opposition, and civil society in a comprehensive peace process.[71] In March 2001, the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) deployed personnel to key conflict zones to oversee compliance with the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement. However, despite these peacebuilding measures, violence persisted, especially in the eastern provinces of North and South Kivu. The region remained mired in conflict involving various armed factions, including the Mayi-Mayi militias, the FDD, the ALiR, and the ANC.[71]

The formal opening of the Inter-Congolese Dialogue took place on 25 February 2002 in Sun City, South Africa. A preliminary power-sharing accord was reached on 19 April 2002 between President Joseph Kabila and Jean-Pierre Bemba. While the agreement marked progress, it was met with resistance from RCD-Goma and influential opposition parties, notably the UDPS.[71] A significant diplomatic breakthrough occurred on 30 July 2002, when the governments of Rwanda and the DRC signed a peace agreement in Pretoria. Under its terms, Rwanda agreed to withdraw its troops from Congolese territory in return for the disarmament and repatriation of Hutu militias, including the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR).[71] A parallel agreement was signed with Uganda in Luanda on 6 September 2002, outlining a withdrawal plan for Ugandan forces and aiming to restore stability in the war-torn Ituri Province.[71] By the end of that year, the disengagement of foreign military forces had begun, with troops from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia initiating their withdrawal. The culmination of these efforts was the signing of the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement in Pretoria on 17 December 2002. The accord laid the foundation for a transitional power-sharing government and the integration of former belligerents into a unified national army.[71] Despite its ambitions, the peace process remained vulnerable to setbacks. On 1 April 2003, delegates at the Inter-Congolese Dialogue ratified the agreement in Sun City, accompanied by a memorandum detailing transitional governance structures and the integration of armed groups.[71] On 30 June 2003, transitional institutions were formally inaugurated, marking a tentative step toward political stabilization.[71]

Nevertheless, President Joseph Kabila, who remained in power until 2019, faced persistent opposition in Kinshasa. His controversial victory in the 2006 presidential election triggered widespread unrest in the capital, prompting the deployment of European Union forces to support the MONUC in maintaining order.[72][73] Further unrest emerged in 2016 when the Independent National Electoral Commission announced a two-year delay in holding new presidential elections. The decision ignited mass demonstrations in September and December of that year, characterized by street barricades, violent clashes, and a significant civilian death toll. Schools and businesses across Kinshasa were shuttered amid the turmoil.[73][74]

## Geography

Dawn at the banks of the Congo River in Ngaliema commune

### Location

Kinshasa is strategically situated on the southern bank of the expansive Malebo Pool, spanning 9,965 square kilometers, configured in a grand crescent shape atop a low-lying, flat terrain with an average elevation hovering around 300 meters.[75][76] Positioned between latitudes 4° and 5° and longitudinal coordinates 15° to 16°32 east, Kinshasa is flanked by the provinces of Mai-Ndombe, Kwilu, and Kwango to the east, while the Congo River delineates its western and northern boundaries, naturally demarcating the border with the Republic of the Congo. To the south, it is demarcated by the Kongo Central Province.[77]

The Congo River is the second longest river in Africa after the Nile and has the continent's greatest discharge. As a waterway it provides a means of transport for much of the Congo Basin; it is navigable for river barges between Kinshasa and Kisangani; many of its tributaries are also navigable. The river is an important source of hydroelectric power, and downstream from Kinshasa it has the potential to generate power equivalent to the usage of roughly half of Africa's population.[78]

### Relief

A view of Congo River from Kinshasa

Sunset by the Congo River in Kinshasa

Topographically, Kinshasa has a marshy, alluvial plain, with altitudes ranging from 275 to 300 meters, along with hilly terrain that elevates from 310 to 370 meters.[79][77][80] The city has four principal features: the Malebo Pool, a vast expanse of water with islands and islets; the Kinshasa Plain, which is a highly urbanizable space, but susceptible to drainage issues; the Terrace, which is a series of low ridges overlooking the plain; and the Hills Area, which is characterized by deep valleys and cirque-shaped formations.[77]

The Malebo Pool spans over 35 kilometers in length and 25 kilometers in width and is encircled by Ngaliema commune to the west and Maluku to the east, traversing through Gombe, Barumbu, Limete, Masina, and Nsele communes.[77] The Kinshasa Plain has a banana-like shape and is surrounded by eastward-oriented hills. Comprising mainly sandy alluvial deposits, this plain covers an area of about 20,000 hectares and hosts some of the city's most densely populated and urbanized communes,[77][81] such as Limete, Kalamu, Bandalungwa, Ngiri-Ngiri, Kinshasa, Barumbu, and Lingwala. Despite its urban potential, the plain is highly vulnerable to seasonal flooding and waterlogging due to inadequate drainage infrastructure, with recurrent inundation occurring during the rainy season.[81]

Sunset along the banks of the Congo River in Kinshasa

The Terrace is mainly situated in the city's western expanse, between N'djili and Mont-Ngafula. It comprises stony blocks of soft sandstone and silica-covered yellow clay, topped with brown silt, and ranges from 10 to 25 meters in height. It retains vestiges of an ancient surface.[77] The Hills Area commences several kilometers from the Malebo Pool and is characterized by deep valleys and cirque-shaped formations. These hills reach heights surpassing 700 meters and exhibit gentle, rounded contours sculpted by local rivers.[77] While their eastern counterparts may reflect remnants of the Batéké Plateau, their origins in the west and south remain enigmatic.[77] This region forms a natural amphitheater shaped by river erosion processes, which have been exacerbated by anthropogenic activities, often resulting in significant environmental degradation.[81] Communes located within or adjacent to these hilly areas include Mont-Ngafula, Bumbu, Selembao, Kisenso, and Ngaliema. In addition, Makala and Ngaba, although partially located within the plains, gradually ascend into the adjacent highlands.[81]

### Hydrography

Congo River in full flow at Parc de la Vallée de la Nsele

Kinshasa's hydrographic landscape is defined by an intricate and predominantly dendritic network of rivers and valleys that converge toward the Pool Malebo on the Congo River. This fluvial system, which predominantly flows from the southern and southwestern highlands toward the north and northeast, is shaped by the region's topographical gradient and its underlying lithological structure.[82] The city's current hydrological dynamics are the cumulative result of long-term tectonic shifts, sedimentary processes, and climatic variability that have defined the development of river systems over geological time scales.[82]

Ndjili River

The hydrographic system is composed of two main categories of rivers: allochthonous (originating outside the city) and autochthonous (local or internal to the city). The allochthonous rivers, which include the N'djili, N'sele, and the Pool Malebo, form the city's eastern and northern boundaries.[82] These rivers have their sources far beyond the city's southern hills and generally flow in a south-to-north direction. The N'djili River, in particular, is prone to recurrent seasonal flooding in its lower reaches, frequently disrupting critical infrastructure.[82] In contrast, the autochthonous rivers, such as the Funa, Lukunga, Bombo, Mai-Ndombe, and Mbale, are generated from localized watersheds scattered throughout the urban area.[82][77][83][84] These rivers often carve deeply incised valleys, especially in the elevated southern regions. The Funa River is commonly but inaccurately referred to as the Kalamu, a misnomer derived from the Teke-Humbu term for "watercourse".[82]

#### Geomorphology

The current hydrographic network overlays an ancient system, likely dating back to the Tertiary period, which originally drained from south to north but was subsequently modified by tectonic deformation following the late Cretaceous peneplanation. These geodynamic changes reoriented some rivers east-west in the eastern parts of the Congo Basin and west-east in the west.[82] Traces of this paleonetwork persist in the form of broad, flat-bottomed valleys known as dambos or dembos, which emerged during the Holocene epoch. Characterized by diffuse channels and lacking pronounced riverbeds, these depressions often remain waterlogged throughout the year due to the persistent upwelling of the groundwater table.[82] In recent centuries, however, increased hydrological stress, marked by heightened peak runoff, has induced the incision of more distinct channels within these formerly marshy landscapes.[82] This hydrological transformation is evidenced by a marked rise in surface runoff and a reduction in infiltration retention, resulting in flashier hydrographs, more frequent flood events, and accelerated erosional processes.[82] Recent studies estimate Kinshasa's runoff coefficient has increased to approximately 13%, a stark contrast to the near-zero levels before urban expansion and land-use change.[82]

#### Aquifers and water table

A view of Congo River from Kinshasa

Closely connected to the surface drainage network are the city's groundwater systems, particularly the perched aquifers found in its permeable sandstone substratum.[82] These aquifers, often extending beyond the limits of their corresponding surface catchments, are sustained by deep percolation facilitated by the sandy and porous characteristics of the regional soils.[82] During the dry season, rivers are primarily fed by these underground aquifers, which are recharged during the rainy season. Early seasonal rains are absorbed into the soil and do not contribute to surface runoff until the retention threshold is surpassed, at which point excess water seeps downward to replenish groundwater reserves.[82] The region's high soil permeability also facilitates the formation of erosion cirques, particularly on steep slopes where groundwater undercutting and concentrated surface runoff progressively destabilize hillsides, often culminating in landslides.[82] These geomorphic hazards have become increasingly pronounced in Kinshasa's rapidly urbanizing fringe zones, where informal settlement expansion, deforestation, and inadequate land-use planning intensify environmental vulnerability.[82]

### Soil and geology

Mount Mangengenge is located southeast of Kinshasa

The soils of Kinshasa predominantly belong to the Arenoferrasol classification,[85][86] characterized by fine-textured sands with clay content typically below 20%, low organic matter, and saturated absorbent complexes.[77] These soils exhibit a strong acidity and are chemically deficient.[82] Despite their limited nutrient availability, they experience regular rainfall for approximately eight to nine months annually, resulting in significant leaching and intense hydrolysis of soil minerals. This extended exposure to precipitation adversely affects soil fertility and agricultural potential.[82]

Geologically, Kinshasa rests on a Precambrian basement complex, composed predominantly of finely stratified red sandstone often containing feldspar minerals.[77] These geological formations are prominently visible at the base of the rapids near Mount Ngaliema and to the south of the N'djili River, where they display considerable resistance to erosion.[77]

The region's diverse geological substrata have a notable impact on local soil composition. Schisto-limestone formations, along with older lithologies associated with the West-Congolian Orogeny, give rise to yellow, clay-rich soils that are largely sterile, exhibiting low permeability directly correlated with their sand content.[82] Conversely, schist-sandstone and clay-limestone substrates produce yellow to light brown clayey sands. Although these soils demonstrate slightly improved permeability, they still possess low fertility and minimal agricultural utility.[82] Fertile soils are primarily located within alluvial and colluvial deposits, where sediment accumulation enhances nutrient content and moisture retention.[82]

In elevated terrains and along the slopes of deeply incised valleys, hydric erosion actively reshapes the schist-sandstone relief and ancient massifs. In these areas, soils are predominantly grayish sandy or clay-sandy in texture.[82] In lower-lying regions, a distinctive local material known as Lemba sand is prevalent, although certain pockets of clay-sandy soils yield improved crop outcomes.[82]

### Vegetation

The Kinshasa Botanical Garden's lush greenery, featuring a well-kept lawn, diverse tropical and arid-region plants.

Kinshasa's vegetation consists of gallery forests, savannas, and semi-aquatic to aquatic plant communities, particularly within the valleys surrounding the Pool Malebo.[77] The hilly zones of the region were originally dominated by grassland species, notably Loudetia demeusei and Schizachyrium semiberbe, which are characteristic tufted hemicryptophytes.[82] However, the natural vegetation has undergone substantial transformation due to anthropogenic influences, most notably urban sprawl. As the city expanded, inhabitants introduced a range of fruit-bearing trees and ornamental plants, often cultivated as living hedges.[82]

The gallery forests, typically aligned along principal watercourses and occupying humid valleys associated with the Guineo-Congolese ombrophile-type, have experienced progressive degradation.[77] These once-continuous forest belts have been reduced to fragmented pre-forest fallows, consisting of secondary growths of varying maturity and structure.[77] Historical vegetation mapping reveals that Kinshasa's forest cover declined significantly over the latter half of the 20th century: from 46% in 1960 to 36% in 1982, and plummeting further to just 15% by 1987.[82] In parallel, the coverage of forest–savanna mosaics and terrestrial grassland formations expanded, rising from 48% in 1960 to 56% in 1982, and reaching 64% by 1987.[82] In contrast, areas dominated by aquatic and swamp vegetation remained relatively stable throughout this period.[82]

### Residential and commercial areas

Kinshasa is a city of sharp contrasts, with affluent residential and commercial areas and three universities alongside sprawling slums.[87] The older and wealthier part of the city (ville basse) is located on a flat area of alluvial sand and clay near the river, while many newer areas are found on the eroding red soil of surrounding hills.[88][72] Older parts of the city were laid out on a geometric pattern, with de facto racial segregation becoming de jure in 1929 as the European and African neighborhoods grew closer together. City plans of the 1920s–1950s featured a cordon sanitaire or buffer between the white and black neighborhoods, which included the central market as well as parks and gardens for Europeans.[89]

Urban planning in post-independence Kinshasa has been limited. The Mission Française d'Urbanisme drew up some plans in the 1960s which envisioned a greater role for automobile transportation but did not predict the city's significant population growth. Thus much of the urban structure has developed without guidance from a master plan. According to UN-Habitat, the city is expanding by eight square kilometers per year. It describes many of the new neighborhoods as slums, built in unsafe conditions with inadequate infrastructure.[90] Nevertheless, spontaneously developed areas have in many cases extended the grid street plan of the original city.[87]

### Administrative divisions

A map of Kinshasa presenting its Communes.

Kinshasa is both a city (ville in French) and a province, one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nevertheless, it has city subdivisions and is divided into 24 communes (municipalities), which in turn are divided into 369 quarters and 21 embedded groupings.[91] Maluku, the rural commune to the east of the urban area, accounts for 79% of the 9,965 km2 (3,848 sq mi) total land area of the city-province,[23] with a population of 200,000–300,000.[87] The communes are grouped into four districts which are not in themselves administrative divisions.

* Funa District
* Bandalungwa
* Bumbu
* Kalamu
* Kasa-Vubu
* Makala
* Ngiri-Ngiri
* Selembao
* Lukunga District
* Barumbu
* Gombe
* Kinshasa
* Kintambo
* Lingwala
* Mont Ngafula
* Ngaliema
* Mont Amba District
* Kisenso
* Lemba
* Limete
* Matete
* Ngaba
* Tshangu District
* Kimbanseke
* Maluku
* Masina
* Ndjili (N'Djili)
* Nsele (N'Sele)

Template:Kinshasa communes

### Climate

Under the Köppen climate classification, Kinshasa has a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw). Its lengthy rainy season spans from October through May, with a relatively short dry season, between June and September. Kinshasa lies south of the equator, so its dry season begins around its winter solstice, which is in June. This is in contrast to African cities further north featuring this climate where the dry season typically begins around December. Kinshasa's dry season is slightly cooler than its wet season, though temperatures remain relatively constant throughout the year.

Script error: No such module "weather box".

### Parks and gardens

Kinshasa is home to a diverse range of parks and gardens:

Nsele Valley Park, Kinshasa, October 2021

* Nsele Valley Park, the largest urban park in the city situated along the Nsele River, offers a setting for outdoor activities. It features picnic areas, walking trails, and viewpoints overlooking the river.[95]
* Parc Présidentiel, situated along the Congo River, is a park in Kinshasa. The park offers ponds, pools, and fountains, while the Théâtre de Verdure serve as venues for cultural performances. The park's mini zoo has a diverse array of animals.
* Jardin Zoologique, located in the heart of Gombe commune, is a zoo in Kinshasa. The zoo houses a wide variety of mammals, reptiles, and birds.[96]
* Jardin Botanique de Kinshasa, situated in Gombe, is a botanical garden that showcases the city's botanical treasures. The botanical garden houses an array of plants and colorful flowers.[97]
* Lola ya Bonobo, located south of Kinshasa, is the world's only sanctuary for orphaned bonobos. Situated at the Petites Chutes de la Lukaya, it provides a safe and nurturing environment for endangered primates.[98]

## Demographics

### Population

Night view of Kinshasa along Boulevard du 30 Juin, with traffic lights forming red and white streaks beneath towering buildings and glowing signage.

Kinshasa is the most populous city in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with its metropolitan area estimated to host approximately 17.8 million people as of mid-2025.[99][100] It ranks as the most densely populated city within the DRC, the third-largest metropolitan area in Africa, and the fourth-most populous capital city globally.

Since the early 20th century, Kinshasa has experienced substantial demographic growth, influenced by urban migration, natural population increase, and various political crises. In 1889, the population of Kinshasa was recorded at a mere 5,000.[101] By 1910, this figure had doubled to 10,000, and by 1930, it escalated to 39,530, driven by an annual increase of approximately 4,700 residents.[102] Between 1935 and 1945, the annual growth rate increased from 1.1% to 1.5%, largely attributable to economic revitalization efforts associated with World War II, which necessitated significant labor forces to support wartime industries mandated by the colonial administration.[102] During the 1940s, the city's population surged from 50,000 to over 200,000.[103] By 1960, coinciding with Congo's independence, Kinshasa expanded to cover 5,500 hectares and approximately 400,000 residents were recorded.[104] Following independence, the city experienced heightened rural-to-urban migration, population displacement due to armed conflicts, and a natural annual population increase of 3.8%.[104] The national census of 1984 recorded 2.6 million residents,[105] while estimates for 2005 varied between 5.3 million and 7.3 million.[87] By 2015, the population approached 12 million, placing Kinshasa among the world's largest metropolises.[102]

2015 demography  Communes | Land area

(in km2)[106]

| Population[106] | Density

(inh. per km2)[106]

|
|
|

Kimbanseke  | 237.8  | 2,631,205  | 11,066
Ngaliema  | 224.3  | 2,025,942  | 9,032
Masina  | 69.7  | 1,571,124  | 22,532
Ndjili  | 11.4  | 1,157,619  | 106,721
Kisenso  | 16.6  | 1,157,619  | 69,736
Lemba  | 23.7  | 1,120,992  | 47,299
Selembao  | 23.2  | 1,038,819  | 44,815
Limete  | 67.6  | 1,330,874  | 15,294
Kalamu  | 6.6  | 974,669  | 146,787
Bumbu  | 5.3  | 905,943  | 170,933
Matete  | 4.9  | 854,908  | 175,186
Mont Ngafula  | 358.9  | 718,197  | 2,001
Makala  | 5.6  | 698,495  | 124,731
Bandalungwa  | 6.8  | 934,821  | 93,082
Ngaba  | 4  | 539,135  | 134,784
Maluku  | 7.948  | 494,332  | 62
Ngiri-Ngiri  | 3.4  | 481,110  | 141,503
Kinshasa  | 2.9  | 453,632  | 158,060
Kasa-Vubu  | 5  | 437,824  | 86,870
Barumbu  | 4.7  | 413,628  | 87,633
Nsele  | 898.8  | 387,790  | 431
Kintambo  | 2.7  | 340,260  | 125,096
Lingwala  | 2.9  | 277,831  | 96,469
Gombe  | 29.3  | 89,080  | 3,037
Metropolitan Kinshasa | 9.965 | 12,000,066 | 1,200

According to United Nations Human Settlements Programme, the city receives an average of 390,000 new migrants annually, many fleeing conflict or economic hardship.[107] Projections anticipate that Kinshasa's metropolitan population will reach 35 million by 2050, 58 million by 2075, and 83 million by 2100, making it one of the largest projected urban areas on the planet.[108]

#### Native population and other ethnic groups

Ethnic group  | Traditional status  | Historical territory  | Notable figures  | Current status  | Ref

|
|
|
|
|

Humbu  | Traditional landowners  | Southern banks of Pool Malebo up to the Ndjili River; main village: Mbanza Lemba  | Makoko of Mbanza Lemba—arbitrated 1881 dispute with Ngaliema  | Still recognized as autochthonous group; central to Kinshasa's origin  | [109]
Teke (Tyo)  | Settlers and traders  | Originally from plateaus north of Pool Malebo; later settled on Mbamu Island and the mainland  | Chief Ngaliema—ceded land to Henry Morton Stanley; many moved to Brazzaville in 1891–1892  | Spread across DRC, Congo-Brazzaville, and Gabon; influential in early colonial contact  | [109]
Bamfununga  | Indigenous but marginalized  | Shared Mpumbu area with Humbu; later displaced by expanding Teke  | Known for facial tattoos; less politically dominant  | Now a lesser-known group within Kinshasa's ethnic mosaic  | [109]

Other groups closely linked to Kinshasa's early history include the Yaka, Banunu, and Bayanzi, primarily from Kongo Central. These populations were active in river-based trade and had longstanding ties to Pool Malebo before colonization.[110]

#### Internal and international migration, and urbanization

The city's rapid urbanization has been driven largely by internal migration. Beginning during the colonial era and intensifying after independence in 1960, waves of Congolese from various provinces moved to Kinshasa in search of economic opportunity, political stability, and access to education and services.[111] This demographic surge was channeled through two principal corridors: a river route from northern and central Congo and a road route through Bandundu and Kongo Central. The migration intensified during times of national crisis, especially during political upheavals in the 1990s and protracted conflicts in eastern DRC, which transformed Kinshasa into a refuge for displaced populations from across the country.[111]

A woman dressed in a traditional African dress with a bright pink headscarf beside her young daughter wearing a maroon hijab and a patterned skirt in Kinshasa.

Beyond domestic migrations, Kinshasa has historically exerted a centripetal pull on transnational populations from across the African continent and beyond. The Lari, from the Republic of the Congo, settled on fertile vacant lands and introduced new agricultural practices, including vegetable gardening.[111] Equally salient was the arrival of the Coastmen, or Ndingari, a term for West African migrants from present-day Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, Senegal, Benin, Guinea, and Togo. Predominantly Muslim, they were active in commerce, public works, and artisanal trades.[111] They also influenced the city's cultural makeup by introducing wax-printed textiles and socio-familial practices including polygamy.[111] Among the most demographically and culturally prominent expatriate communities are the Zombo, originally from Maquela do Zombo in Angola's Uíge Province. As the most populous foreign African demographic in Kinshasa, the Zombo initially migrated as traders and laborers.[111] From the 1950s onward, they were extensively conscripted to work at the port of CITAS (Compagnie Industrielle et de Transport au Stanley Pool), where their primary responsibilities included the handling and conveyance of colonial commodities such as palm derivatives, copal resin, cotton, and ivory.[111]

The Zombo became known for their physical endurance and work ethic, making them ideal laborers in the eyes of colonial authorities. Outside the workplace, they introduced door-to-door commerce in indigenous neighborhoods, selling rice, doughnuts, and beans, a practice that evolved into mobile street vending using handmade carts (pousse-pousse).[111] Their numbers escalated markedly during World War II, spurred by both economic incentives in the Belgian Congo and repressive governance in Angola under António de Oliveira Salazar. The authoritarian policies of the Estado Novo regime, particularly the brutal enforcement tactics of the PIDE (Portuguese secret police), pushed many Angolans to seek refuge in Kinshasa.[111] Belgian colonial authorities, constrained by porous borders and entrenched kinship networks among the Bakongo across both nations, were largely ineffectual in stemming this migratory tide.[111]

In contrast to other diasporic groups, the Zombo exhibited a pronounced tendency toward permanent settlement and integration. Avoiding repatriation, they raised successive generations in Kinshasa, where they assimilated both culturally and linguistically.[111] Youths often enlisted in the Force Publique, while their elders gained renown for frugality, temperance, and entrepreneurial self-sufficiency.[111] Over time, many transitioned into artisanal vocations and small-scale manufacturing, introducing innovations such as handcrafted women's footwear fashioned from repurposed automobile tires.[111]

### Language

The official language is French (See: Kinshasa French vocabulary). Kinshasa is the largest officially Francophone city in the world, though many residents struggle to speak it.[112][113][114] Although Lingala is widely used as a spoken national language, French is the language of street signs, posters, newspapers, government documents, schools; it dominates plays, television, and the press, and it is used in vertical relationships among people of different social classes. People of the same class, however, speak the Congolese languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba or Swahili) among themselves.[115] Kinshasa hosted the 14th Francophonie Summit in October 2012.[116]

## Government and politics

Statue of Lumumba, and behind it the Limete Tower

### Administrative history

Founded on 1 August 1881, as Léopold II's Station, Kinshasa has maintained a distinct administrative status over time, eventually becoming the administrative center for the Stanley Pool District, Haute-N'sele, and Panzi-Kasaï.[117] A Royal Decree promulgated on 11 April 1914 instituted a territorial reform in the Belgian Congo, reaffirming Kinshasa's dual role as the colonial capital and the central administrative seat for the districts of Bas-Congo, Kwango, Kasaï, Sankuru, and Léopoldville.[117] In 1941, Legislative Ordinance No. 293/AIMO of 25 June granted Kinshasa official city status and established an Urban Committee. Following Congolese independence, the colonial charter was replaced by the Fundamental Law of 19 May 1960, which designated Kinshasa as a neutral city and the political seat of national institutions.[117] This legal evolution culminated in Ordinance No. 68/024 of 20 January 1968, which granted Kinshasa the same politico-administrative status comparable to that of the provinces, thus expanding its communal subdivisions from 11 to 24. The advent of the Third Republic, as codified in the 2006 Constitution, officially institutionalized Kinshasa as a fully-fledged province.[117]

### Political organization

Pursuant to Article 2 of Law No. 08/012 of 31 July 2008, a province is defined as a political and administrative component of the national territory endowed with legal personality and managerial autonomy over its human, economic, financial, and technical resources.[118][117] Kinshasa exercises its constitutional mandates through two principal organs: the Provincial Assembly and the Provincial Government.[117]

#### Provincial Assembly

According to Article 7 of the same law, the Provincial Assembly serves as the city's legislative body. Its core prerogatives include enacting laws (by way of edicts), electing the provincial governor and vice-governor, and overseeing the provincial government.[118][117] Comprising 48 deputies elected by universal suffrage, the Assembly is administratively structured with a Bureau composed of a President, Vice-President, Questeur, Rapporteur, and Deputy Rapporteur.[117] The Assembly's legislative authority and procedural framework are outlined in Articles 11, 12, and 13 of Organic Law No. 08/016 from 7 October 2008, which governs decentralized territorial entities.[118][117]

#### Provincial government and public services

The provincial executive branch is constituted by the Governor, the Vice-Governor, and a cabinet of provincial ministers. The operation of the Kinshasa provincial government, like those of other provinces, is based on the provisions of Law No. 08/012 of 7 October 2008.[118][117] Ministerial portfolios are regulated by Arrêté No. SC/0121/BGV/2007 of 30 July 2007, which specifies the jurisdiction of each provincial ministry. The Provincial Director, serving as the Governor's principal administrative advisor, oversees the coordination of fifty departmental directorates and inspectorates.[117] These entities function as provincial extensions of national ministries, entrusted with the territorial execution of state policies and regulatory directives.[117]

Since 2008, the Kinshasa provincial government has established several technical public services, collectively known as "urban régies" to improve administrative effectiveness and city management.[119][117] These services operate under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Kinshasa.[119][117] The principal entities include:

No.  | Agency  | Acronym  | Legal basis  | Function  | Ref.

|
|
|
|
|

1. | Régie Immobilière de Kinshasa | RIMMOKIN  | Arrêté No. SC/0171/BGV/COJU/TN.T/PLS/2008  | Manages real estate  | [117]
2. | Régie d'Assainissement et des Travaux Publics de Kinshasa (now Régie d'Assainissement de Kinshasa)  | RATPK (now RASKIN)  | Arrêté No. SC/0178/BGV/MIN/PRO/COJU/PLS/2008  | Oversees sanitation and public works  | [117][120]
3. | Régie de Transport Urbain de Kinshasa | RETRANSKIN  | Arrêté No. SC/0175/BGV/COJU/TN.T/PLS/2008  | Handles urban transportation services  | [117][121]
4. | Direction Générale de Recettes de Kinshasa | DGRK  | Édit No. 001 Du 29 Janvier 2008  | Manages city revenue collection  | [117]
5. | Commission Permanente sur la Publicité Extérieure | CPPE  | Arrêté No. SC/0148/BGV/BIRCAB/PLS/2008  | Regulates outdoor advertising  | [117]
6. | Autorité de Régulation de la Publicité Extérieure |  | Arrêté No. SC/0163/BGV/DIRCARB/PLS/2008  | Enforces advertising standards  | [117]

#### Communal and neighborhood

The 24 communes are recognized as administrative subdivisions of the city, each further divided into smaller entities known as quartiers (neighborhoods). As decentralized territorial entities (entités territoriales décentralisées, ETD), the communes are endowed with legal personality and administrative autonomy.[122] Each commune operates through two main governing bodies: the Conseil Communal (Communal Council) and the Collège Exécutif Communal (Communal Executive College).[122]

* The Conseil Communal serves as the commune's deliberative body. Its members, known as Conseillers Communaux, are elected by direct universal suffrage. The council deliberates on all matters of communal interest, including those of an economic, social, cultural, or technical nature. It also elects the Bourgmestre (Mayor) and Deputy Mayor through indirect suffrage and oversees the implementation of the executive's program of action.[122]
* The Collège Exécutif Communal is responsible for the management of the commune and the implementation of decisions made by the Communal Council. It comprises the Bourgmestre, Deputy Bourgmestre, and two communal aldermen (échevins communaux), all appointed based on merit, credibility, and community representation. This executive body coordinates all tasks of communal interest and is led by the Bourgmestre, assisted by the Deputy.[122]

Two women carrying a transparent ballot box marked with the logo of the Independent National Electoral Commission (CENI) at the Palais du Peuple.

Every commune is managed by a Bourgmestre and their Deputy, and each is provisioned with public services such as civil registry (État civil), sanitation, and general population services. These are supported by technical services representing central ministries, made available to municipal authorities to enable the exercise of devolved functions.[122] These technical services include urban planning and development, rural infrastructure, agriculture, fisheries and livestock, public health, education, environmental protection, alternative energy, finance, budget, demographic statistics, and more.[122] Additionally, specialized branches such as the Agence Nationale de Renseignements (ANR), the Direction Générale de Migration (DGM), and the Commissariat Communal of the Congolese National Police maintain a presence at the communal level.[122]

Neighborhoods (quartiers) function as subunits of the communes. As of 2015, the 24 communes of Kinshasa are divided into approximately 310 neighborhoods. These quartiers vary in structure depending on whether they fall within formally planned urban zones or more informally developed areas.[122] Popular semi-urban neighborhoods often exceed the size of planned residential districts and represent the core of the city's urban makeup. Each neighborhood is administered through a simplified structure that includes the chef de quartier (neighborhood chief), the chef de quartier adjoint (deputy), the secrétaire du quartier (secretary), the chargé de la population (population officer), and two to three agents recenseurs (enumerators).[122] These officials are appointed by the Governor of Kinshasa and assigned to their respective territories.[122] In highly populated semi-urban neighborhoods, administrative overload is common due to insufficient infrastructure for public health, urban roads, potable water, and electricity, resources that remain concentrated in lower-density, affluent residential areas.[122]

### Politics

As of 2015, the Mouvement de Libération du Congo (MLC) held legislative predominance; however, the provincial elections of 20 December 2023 resulted in a power shift in favor of the presidential coalition, the Union Sacrée de la Nation (USN), led by President Félix Tshisekedi's Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), which secured 14 seats.[117] Daniel Bumba assumed the governorship on 21 June 2024.[123] Kinshasa wields sovereign powers, encompassing the authority to issue passports and to act on behalf of the country in international forums.[72] The city also hosts the headquarters of the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), formerly known as MONUC.[124] In 2016, the United Nations bolstered its peacekeeping presence in Kinshasa in response to civil unrest related to President Joseph Kabila's controversial extension of power.[125]

In addition to state institutions, international and non-governmental organizations exert significant influence on local development and governance.[126] The Belgian development agency, Enabel, has been a key actor since 2016 through its sponsorship of the Programme d'Appui aux Initiatives de Développement Communautaire (PAIDECO), a €6 million initiative aimed at stimulating economic development in the region. The initial implementation took place in Kimbanseke, a densely populated hill commune with an estimated population of nearly one million.[127] In a strategic effort to address urban overcrowding and stimulate regional development, the provincial government established the Comité Stratégique pour la Supervision du Projet d'Extension de la Ville de Kinshasa (CSSPEVK) in October 2023. The committee, under the leadership of a provincial coordinator, was tasked with overseeing the "Kinshasa Kia Mona" urban expansion project in the Maluku district.[128][129][130]

## Economy

See also: Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Street scenes in Kinshasa, Zaire, captured in 1973, by Dutch photographer Rob Mieremet.

Historically, Kinshasa experienced a period of robust economic growth driven predominantly by a flourishing industrial sector. During its economic peak, often nostalgically referred to as la belle époque, the city's industrial activities spanned diverse domains including food processing, textiles, metallurgy, and assembly-line production.[131] These industries produced goods for domestic consumption and international export. It was during this era that Kinshasa earned the affectionate monikers Kin la belle, Kin-Kiese, and Kin la joie.[131] By the 1970s, Kinshasa had become a critical economic hub in Zaire, employing approximately 25% of the country's salaried workforce and accounting for nearly half (50%) of the national wage bill. Surveys conducted between 1974 and 1977 indicated that 33.7% of Kinshasa's working population held positions as executives or skilled laborers, with respective shares of 6.5% and 27.2%.[131] In terms of industrial concentration, Kinshasa in 1977 accounted for 49.9% of the country's manufactured industries.[81] It ranked second in secondary sector activity with 18%, following Katanga, which held 67.3%. In the tertiary sector, Kinshasa ranked first with 27.3%, followed by Katanga at 22%. The city also hosted 22.8% of all registered businesses nationwide, compared to 18% in Katanga.[81] By 1980, an estimated 412,000 people were in stable employment, supporting an average household of six. However, by the 1990s, inflation and economic deterioration significantly diminished purchasing power.[131] Studies revealed that by 1988, only 20% of workers could meet basic living costs on their wages, and by 1990, Kinshasa had become more expensive to live in than other interior cities of the country.[131] In 1977, wages could cover 62% of basic needs and 51% of family needs; these figures declined steeply in the subsequent decades.[131]

Modern buildings on the outskirts of Kinshasa, ca. 1980–1993

The 1990s marked a particularly devastating decade for Kinshasa's economy, beginning with waves of looting in 1991 and 1992. These events inflicted severe damage on the city's economic infrastructure. In the aftermath of these upheavals, an estimated 300,000 executives and skilled workers lost their jobs, with no prospect of compensation.[131] According to the Agence Nationale des Entrepreneurs du Zaïre (ANEZA), Kinshasa lost approximately 100,000 jobs during this period. Subsequent years of political instability and warfare further paralyzed the city's already weakened economic sectors.[131] Since then, industrial activity in Kinshasa has largely stagnated or been dismantled altogether. The city's rapidly expanding population, combined with a shortage of economic reintegration mechanisms for unemployed graduates from technical and tertiary institutions, has worsened the unemployment crisis.[131] The dismantling of the industrial sector has been significant, with much of the wage-earning population absorbed into the informal sector. This informal economy has now become the city's primary employment source, engaging nearly 70% of Kinshasa's total labor force.[131]

### Mining sector and export growth

Marsavco

In 2022, Kinshasa's GDP exceeded initial expectations by expanding 8.5%, as reported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The mining industry in the DRC has been instrumental in maintaining a positive economic outlook, even amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Raw material exports, particularly cobalt and copper, have experienced historically high prices, resulting in substantial investment in the industry. Parenthetically, production has increased, and Covid-related restrictions have eased, leading to sustained economic growth.[132][133]

### Fiscal performance and debt sustainability

Despite facing external challenges, including the repercussions of the Russo-Ukrainian War, the DRC has shown fiscal stability. In 2022, tax performance exceeded projections, showcasing improved revenue generation. However, increased expenditures related to security concerns and internal arrears resulted in a deterioration of the overall budget balance. Nevertheless, the DRC's debt risk remains moderate, with public debt at 24.7% of GDP. The approval of the third review of the IMF program reflects the satisfactory performance of the country's reform efforts.[134][133]

### Companies, foreign exchange reserves, international support

In front of Government Hall located on Boulevard Du 30 Juin

Gombe is Kinshasa's fastest-growing commune and is a central business district

Employees and families from the US Embassy in Kinshasa

Big manufacturing companies such as Marsavco S.A., All Pack Industries and Angel Cosmetics are located in the center of town (Gombe) in Kinshasa.

There are many other industries, such as Trust Merchant Bank, located in the heart of the city. Food processing is a major industry, and construction and other service industries also play a significant role in the economy.[135]

Although home to only 13% of the DRC's population, Kinshasa accounts for 85% of the Congolese economy as measured by gross domestic product.[90] A 2004 investigation found 70% of inhabitants employed informally, 17% in the public sector, 9% in the formal private sector, and 3% other, of a total 976,000 workers. Most new jobs are classified as informal.[87] By the end of 2022, Kinshasa's foreign exchange reserves had seen a significant improvement, soaring past $4.5 billion. The DRC benefits from support and partnerships with several global organizations and financial institutions, including the IMF, World Bank, African Development Bank, European Union, China and France.[134]

The People's Republic of China has been heavily involved in the Congo since the 1970s, when they financed the construction of the Palais du Peuple and backed the government against rebels in the Shaba war. In 2007–2008 China and Congo signed an agreement for an $8.5 billion loan for infrastructure development.[136] Chinese entrepreneurs are gaining an increasing share of local marketplaces in Kinshasa, displacing in the process formerly successful Congolese, West African, Indian, and Lebanese merchants.[137]

Mean household spending in 2005 was the equivalent of US$2,150, amounting to $1 per day per person. The median household spending was $1,555, 66 cents per person per day. Among the poor, more than half of this spending goes to food, especially bread and cereal.[87]

## Education

Park of the University of Kinshasa, below, the Administrative Building

Kinshasa is home to several education institutes, covering a wide range of disciplines, including civil engineering, nursing, and journalism. The city is also home to three large universities and an arts school:

* University of Kinshasa
* National Pedagogy University
* National Institute of Agronomic Studies and Research (INERA)
* Cardinal Malula University
* Académie de Design (AD)
* Institut Supérieur d'Architecture et Urbanisme
* Pan-African University of the Congo
* Université Libre de Kinshasa
* Université catholique du Congo [fr; fr]
* Congo Protestant University
* Université Chretienne de Kinshasa
* National Institute of Arts
* Institut Supérieur de Publicité et Médias
* Centre for Health Training (CEFA)[138]

Primary and secondary schools:

* Lycée Prince de Liège (primary and secondary education, French Community of Belgium curriculum)
* Prins van Luikschool Kinshasa (primary education, Flanders curriculum)[139]
* Lycée Français René Descartes (primary and secondary education, French curriculum)
* The American School of Kinshasa
* Allhadeff School[140]

The education system in DRC is plagued by low coverage, low quality and poor educational infrastructure, especially in rural areas. According to USAID (2018), 3.5 million children of primary school age are out of school, and 44% of those who do attend school started only after age six. Various statistical estimates by UNESCO, (2013) regarding secondary and tertiary education also reveal the difficulties facing the country. In DRC it is difficult to get a reliable estimate on the actual proportion of the population who can read and write, however, according to data from UIS (2016), the literacy rate of the population of 15 years and older in the country, is estimated to 77.04%. This rate is 88.5% for men and 66.5% for women. There is also a shortage of reading material, and certainly no culture of reading for pleasure.[141]

## Health and medicine

Monkole Hospital, Kinshasa

There are twenty hospitals in Kinshasa, plus various medical centers and polyclinics.[142]

## Culture

National Museum of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kinshasa

See also: Organization:Académie des Beaux-Arts (Kinshasa), Orchestre Symphonique Kimbanguiste, and La Sape

Located in Kinshasa are the National Museum and the Kinshasa Fine Arts Academy.[143]

Kinshasa has a flourishing music scene which, since the 1960s, has operated under the patronage of the city's elite.[72] The Orchestre Symphonique Kimbanguiste, formed in 1994, began using improved musical instruments and has since grown in means and reputation.[144]

A pop culture ideal type in Kinshasa is the mikiliste, a fashionable person with money who has traveled to Europe. Adrien Mombele, a.k.a. Stervos Niarcos, and musician Papa Wemba were early exemplars of the mikiliste style.[72] La Sape, a linked cultural trend also described as dandyism, involves wearing flamboyant clothing.[145]

Many Kinois have a negative view of the city, expressing nostalgia for the rural way of life, and a stronger association with the Congolese nation than with Kinshasa.[146]

## Places of worship

* Église Sainte-Anne de Kinshasa (Catholic Church in the Democratic Republic of the Congo)

* Église Francophone CBCO Kintambo (Baptist Community of Congo)

* Eglise Saint Léopold à Ngaliema, Kinshasa

Among the places of worship, which are predominantly Christian churches and temples: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kinshasa (Catholic Church), Kimbanguist Church, Baptist Community of Congo (Baptist World Alliance), Baptist Community of the Congo River (Baptist World Alliance), The Salvation Army, Assemblies of God, Province of the Anglican Church of the Congo (Anglican Communion), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints which has a temple and over 100 congregations in Kinshasa, Presbyterian Community in Congo (World Communion of Reformed Churches).[147] There are also Muslim mosques. A Baha'i House of Worship is in construction.[148] A Jewish synagogue, operated by the Chabad world movement, exists.Chabad Centers in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

## Media

Office of the Agence Congolaise de Presse (ACP)

Kinshasa serves as the nation's principal media hub, hosting the largest concentration of media outlets in the country. The primary languages used in media production are French and Lingala, with other indigenous languages seldom appearing.[149] Press freedom remains limited, with journalism subject to strict control and censorship. The 2023 Press Freedom Index rated the Democratic Republic of the Congo at 48.55%.[150] State-run channels generally provide minimal political content, and restrictive regulations limit investigative journalism. In the early 2000s, especially during the political transition, Kinshasa's media scene grew rapidly. By 2004, the city had 23 radio stations and 26 TV stations, with the number of television broadcasters increasing dramatically to 63 by 2007.[149]

These outlets are primarily commercial, religious, or community-based and are often affiliated, formally or informally, with political figures or parties. For instance, Numerica TV is owned by Kibambi Shintwa and Kabeya Pindi Pasi, both of whom were candidates in the 2006 parliamentary elections. Mirador TV is owned by Michel Ladi Luya, a former Member of Parliament and newspaper publisher.[149][151] Digital Congo TV was co-founded by Croatian businessman Nicolas Vazonne and Jaynet Kabila, twin sister of then-President Joseph Kabila.[149] Africa TV is associated with Azarias Ruberwa, a former vice president and 2006 presidential candidate, and Eugène Serufuli Ngayabaseka, the then-governor of North Kivu. CCTV (Canal Congo Télévision) and Canal Kin are linked to Jean-Pierre Bemba.[149] While many of these channels deny formal political affiliations, their ownership structures suggest otherwise.[149] Not all stations are politically aligned. Neutral and independent outlets such as Antenne A and Congoweb TV contribute to a more balanced media environment. RTNC1 remains the primary public broadcaster with nationwide reach, while other widely viewed stations include RTGA (Radio Télévision Groupe L'Avenir), Digital Congo TV, Mirador TV, Congoweb TV, and Antenne A.[149]

Several prominent national radio and television stations are headquartered in Kinshasa. The RTNC operates multiple channels, RTNC1, RTNC2, RTNC3, and RTNC4, providing news, cultural programming, and public service broadcasts. The UN-supported Radio Okapi, jointly managed with MONUSCO, is also based in the city and is widely regarded for its balanced reporting.[151][152] Other notable broadcasters include Top Congo FM, RTGA, Radio Télévision Message de Vie (RTMV), Raga FM, and Digital Congo FM. In addition to these, Kinshasa hosts a wide array of specialized and religious broadcasters, such as Radio Télévision Armée de l'Éternel (RTAE), Radio Télévision Sentinelle (RTS), Canal Chemin de Vérité et Vie (CVV), Radio Télévision Catholique Elikya (RTCE), Radio Parole de l'Éternel (RPE), and Radio Télé Assemblée Chrétienne (RTACK).[151][153][154][155] Community-based stations include Radio Shaloom Racha, Radio 7, Tam Tam Africain, Jo Dacosta FM, Afri Radio, and Mirador FM. International broadcasters such as the BBC (on 92.6 FM), Radio France Internationale (RFI), Africa Radio, China Radio International, and Euronews are also present and broadcast according to the editorial policies of their parent organizations.[151][149]

The print and digital media sector is equally diverse, with the capital being home to the state-owned news agency Agence Congolaise de Presse (ACP) and a range of newspapers and online platforms. Among the most prominent publications are L'Avenir, L'Observateur, Le Potentiel, Le Phare, Le Soft, La Conscience, and LeCongolais.[156]

## Sports

The exterior of the Stade des Martyrs, the largest sports venue by capacity in DR Congo

Sports, especially football and martial arts are popular in Kinshasa. The city is home to the country's national stadium, the Stade des Martyrs (Stadium of the Martyrs). The Vita Club, Daring Club Motema Pembe and AS Dragons frequently draws large crowds, enthusiastic and sometimes rowdy, to the Stade des Martyrs. Dojos are popular and their owners influential.[72]

In 1974, Kinshasa hosted The Rumble in the Jungle boxing match between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman, in which Ali defeated Foreman, to regain the World Heavyweight title.

## Buildings and institutions

The People's Palace, seat of the Congolese parliament

Kinshasa is home to the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo including:

* the Palais de la Nation, home of the President, in Gombe;
* the Palais du Peuple, meeting place of both houses of Parliament, Senate and National Assembly, in Lingwala;
* the Palais de Justice, in Gombe;
* the Cité de l'OUA, built for the Organization of African Unity in the 1970s and now serving government functions, in Ngaliema.

The Central Bank of the Congo has its headquarters on Boulevard Colonel Tshatshi, across the street from the Mausoleum of Laurent Kabila and the presidential palace.

Notable features of the city include the Gecamines Commercial Building (formerly SOZACOM) and Hotel Memling; L'ONATRA, the building of the Ministry of Transport; the central market; the Limete Tower.

## Infrastructure and housing

Road of Kinshasa City

The city's infrastructure for running water and electricity is generally in bad shape.[157] The electrical network is in disrepair to the extent that prolonged and periodic blackouts are normal, and exposed lines sometimes electrify pools of rainwater.[72][87]

Regideso, the national public company with primary responsibility for water supply in the Congo, serves Kinshasa only incompletely, and without uniform quality. Other areas are served by decentralized Associations des Usagers des Réseau d'Eau Potable (ASUREPs).[105] Gombe uses water at a high rate (306 liters per day per inhabitant) compared to other communes (from 71 L/d/i in Kintambo down to 2 L/d/i in Kimbanseke).[87]

The city is estimated to produce 6,300 m3 of trash and 1,300 m3 of industrial waste per day, with little to no capacity for disposal.[87]

The housing market has seen rising prices and rents since the 1980s. Houses and apartments in the central area are expensive, with houses selling for a million dollars and apartments going for $5000 per month. High prices have spread outward from the central area as owners and renters move out of the most expensive part of the city. Gated communities and shopping malls, built with foreign capital and technical expertise, began to appear in 2006. Urban renewal projects have led in some cases to violent conflict and displacement.[72][158] The high prices leave incoming refugees with few options for settlement besides illegal shantytowns such as Pakadjuma.[107]

In 2005, 55% of households had televisions and 43% had mobile phones. 11% had refrigerators and 5% had cars.[87]

## Transport

The Boulevard du 30 Juin provides an artery to the business district in Gombe, Kinshasa.

The city-province has 5000 km of roadways, 10% of which are paved. The Boulevard du 30 Juin (Boulevard of 30 June) links the main areas of the central district of the city. Other roads also converge on Gombe. The east–west road network linking the more distant neighborhoods is weak and thus transit through much of the city is difficult.[87] The quality of roads has improved somewhat, developed in part with loans from China, since 2000.[72]

The public bus company for Kinshasa, created in 2003, is Transco (Transport au Congo).[159]

Several companies operate registered taxis and taxi-buses, identifiable by their yellow color. In addition, an Uber-style, mobile phone, app-based, taxi hailing service was introduced in 2023.[160]

### Air

The city has two airports: N'djili Airport (FIH) is the main airport with connections to other African countries as well as to Istanbul, Brussels, Paris and some other destinations. N'Dolo Airport, located close to downtown, is used for domestic flights only with small turboprop aircraft. Several international airlines serve Ndjili Airport including Kenya Airways, South African Airways, Ethiopian Airlines, Brussels Airlines, Air France and Turkish Airlines. An average of ten international flights depart each day from N'djili Airport.[161] A small number of airlines provide domestic service from Kinshasa, for example Congo Airways and CAA. Both offer scheduled flights from Kinshasa to a limited number of cities inside DR Congo.[162]

### Rail

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)

| | Parts of this place (those related to section) need to be updated. Please update this place to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2022)

|

(Learn how and when to remove this template message)

A memorial at Kinshasa train station remembering those who died during the construction of the railroad

The Matadi–Kinshasa Railway[163] connects Kinshasa with Matadi, Congo's Atlantic port. The line reopened in September 2015 after around a decade without regular service. There is an intermittent service, with a poor safety record.

According to the Société Commerciale des Transports et des Ports (SCTP), the Matadi-Kinshasa Railway (CFMK) has the highest transport of goods in import, 8 746 tonnes in January, 11,318 tonnes in February 10,032 tonnes in March, 7,244 tonnes in April, 5,024 tonnes in March and 7,745 tonnes in June. The monthly tonnage of exported goods reached only 1,000 tonnes in the month of March 2018. In January some 284 tonnes of goods were exported from the ports of Boma and Matadi, via the railway, and 711 tonnes in February, then 1,058 tonnes in March, 684 tonnes in April, 818 tonnes in May and 853 tonnes in June.

The monthly statistics for passenger traffic are as follows: 2,294 persons in January, 1,836 in February 2065 in March, 2,660 in April, 1,952 in May and 2,660 in June.

The line connecting the port of Matadi to Kinshasa is 366 km long. Its distance has been since 3111 of 3112 feet or 42 inches (lane capped 1,067 meter): This railway belongs, in fact, to the National Railway Company of the Congo (Société nationale des chemins de fer du Congo; SNCC). It is only exploited by the SCTP, formerly ONATRA, according to an agreement signed by the two companies.

This line lost large shares of the market, following its lamentable state, insecurity on the rails (some trains are attacked), and the rehabilitation of the road along the rails in 2000. According to Congolese sources, an agreement with a Chinese construction company was signed in 2006, according to which this Chinese company will finance the renovation of the track, the rolling stock, the communication channels for the signaling, and the electrical power source. The ex-ONATRA has, in fact, opted for an aggressive commercial policy to revive the rails.

On 30 June 2018 the SCTP received two locomotives and 50 wagons from the African firm ARSS (African-Rolling Stock Solution).

In 2017, some 2.2 million tonnes of cement were produced by the two new start-up companies, PPC Barnet and Kongo Cement Factory (CIMKO). The SCTP did indeed transport part of this production to Kinshasa but the exact quantity was not communicated by the railway department of the company, the former DG Kimbembe Mazunga had communicated an agreed protocol of agreements with the cement manufacturers of Kongo-Central for the transport of their productions.

### External transport

Kinshasa is the major river port of the Congo. The port, called 'Le Beach Ngobila' extends for about 7 km (4 mi) along the river, comprising scores of quays and jetties with hundreds of boats and barges tied up. Ferries cross the river to Brazzaville, a distance of about 4 km (2 mi). River transport also connects to dozens of ports upstream, such as Kisangani and Bangui.

There are road and rail links to Matadi, the sea port in the Congo estuary 150 km (93 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean.

There are no rail links from Kinshasa further inland, and road connections to much of the rest of the country are few and in poor condition, although there has been a road built to the city of Kikwit (around 500 km away) that has been in operation since 2015 or so. It was recently extended to the small city of Tshikapa.

## Social issues

Downtown Kinshasa at night

### Crime and punishment

Since the Second Congo War, the city has been striving to recover from disorder, with many youth gangs living and operating from Kinshasa's poorer areas.[164] The U.S. State Department in 2010 informed travelers that Kinshasa and other major Congolese cities are generally safe for daytime travel, but to beware of robbers, especially in traffic jams and in areas near hotels and stores.[165]

Some sources say that Kinshasa is extremely dangerous, with one source giving a homicide rate of 112 per 100,000 people per year.[166] Another source cites a homicide rate of 12.3 per 100,000.[167] By some accounts, crime in Kinshasa is not so rampant, due to relatively good relations among residents and perhaps to the severity with which even petty crime is punished.[72]

While the military and National Police operate their own jails in Kinshasa, the main detention facility under the jurisdiction of the local courts is the Kinshasa Penitentiary and Re-education center in Makala. This prison houses much more than its nominal capacity of 1,000 inmates. In 2024, the population of Makala Prison was reported at 15,000.[168] The Congolese military intelligence organization, Détection Militaire des Activités Anti-Patrie (DEMIAP) operates the Ouagadougou prison in Kintambo commune with notorious cruelty.[167][169]

### Street children

In the 2010s, street children or "Shegués", often orphaned, are subject to abuse by the police and military.[170] Of the estimated 20,000 children living on Kinshasa's streets, almost a quarter are beggars, some are street vendors and about a third have some kind of employment.[171] Some have fled from physically abusive families, notably step-parents, others were expelled from their families as they were believed to be witches,[172] and have become outcasts.[173][174][175]

Street children are mainly boys,[176] but the percentage of girls is increasing according to UNICEF. Ndako ya Biso provides support for street children, including overnight accommodation for girls.[177] There are also second generation street children.[178]

These children have been the object of considerable outside study.[179]

## Notable people

## International relations

Kinshasa is twinned with:

* Template:Country data CGO Brazzaville, Republic of Congo
* Brussels, Belgium[180]
* Johannesburg, South Africa
* Ankara, Turkey, since 2005[181]

## In popular culture

With its mix of culture, history, and lively atmosphere, Kinshasa has become a focus for filmmakers, musicians, writers, and artists.[182]

### Cinematic and TV representations

Foreman trying to punch Ali, October 1974

Kinshasa has been represented in various films, most notably in the film When We Were Kings (1996). This documentary chronicles the historic Rumble in the Jungle boxing match between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman, held in Kinshasa in 1974. The film showcases the electrifying atmosphere of the city during the momentous event.[183][184][185]

In Viva Riva! (2010), directed by Djo Tunda Wa Munga, the film offers a gritty portrayal of the city's underworld, showing the tension between corruption, ambition, and survival.[186]

Kinshasa's social complexities are explored in Félicité (2017), directed by Alain Gomis. The film explores themes of pliability, community, and the power of music in the face of adversity. The film portrayed the essence of Kinshasa, depicting its vivacious music scene and the struggles faced by its inhabitants with sensitivity and authenticity.[187]

In 2019, The Widow (TV series) was released on Amazon Prime and the UK's ITV network. The mini-series tells the story of a woman searching for her husband in Kinshasa, after believing he'd been killed in a plane crash.[188]

### Literary depictions

Throughout history, authors have depicted the essence of Kinshasa in their writing, delving into its diverse cultural fabric, storied past, and the personal narratives of its residents. Fiston Mwanza Mujila's Tram 83 depicts the city's nightlife while exploring themes of postcolonial identity and the struggle for social and economic progress.[189] Meanwhile, In Koli Jean Bofane's novel Congo Inc.: Bismarck's Testament the city serves as a microcosm of post-colonial Congo, exploring themes of globalization, political corruption, and environmental degradation.[190]

### Music and dance

Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa performing in Kinshasa, in 1971

The music scene of Kinshasa has also made a significant impact on popular culture. Congolese rumba, a genre born in the city during the 1930s, continues to resonate globally. Artists like Franco Luambo Makiadi, Syran Mbenza, Le Grand Kallé, Nico Kasanda, Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Madilu System, Papa Noël Nedule, Vicky Longomba, Awilo Longomba, Pépé Kallé, Kanda Bongo Man, Nyboma Mwan'dido, General Defao, Papa Wemba, Koffi Olomide, Werrason, Abeti Masikini, Lokua Kanza, Fally Ipupa, and Ferré Gola have played a key role in popularizing Congolese music on the international stage, infusing their compositions with Kinshasa's pulsating rhythms and infectious energy. The infectious beats of Congolese music have influenced artists across continents, shaping genres like soukous and influencing international musicians such as Paul Simon and Vampire Weekend.[191][192][193][194]

The city itself has been repeatedly immortalized in song. Tabu Ley Rochereau's 1971 track "Kinshasa" and Franco's 1980 composition "Kinshasa mboka ya makambo" ("Kinshasa, city of problems") reflect both pride and criticism, capturing the spirit and struggles of urban life.[195] Cameroonian jazz saxophonist Manu Dibango echoed these themes in his nostalgic 1960s track "Twist à Léo", depicting the city's youth dancing to global rhythms during the twilight of the colonial era.[195] In the aftermath of the 1990s conflicts, Kinshasa's music scene underwent a period of transformation. While many musicians shifted toward Christian gospel, others sought to reconnect with indigenous roots. The "tradi-modern" movement, spearheaded by acts such as Swédé Swédé and supported by Belgian producer Vincent Kenis, captured global attention with its raw, electrified sound.[195] This led to the acclaimed Congotronics album series, which introduced international audiences to groups like Konono Nº1, Kasai Allstars, Staff Benda Bilili, and Mbongwana Star, who performed using handmade instruments and rudimentary amplification.[195]

Jupiter Bokondji and his band Okwess International at Rudolstadt-Festival in 2017

Contemporary projects have continued to build on this momentum. In 2011, the DRC Music collective, curated by Damon Albarn, recorded the collaborative album Kinshasa One Two in just five days, bringing together over fifty Congolese musicians and international producers to celebrate the city's eclectic musical creativity.[195] Among the featured artists was Jupiter Bokondji, whose band Okwess International has championed bofenia rock, a genre drawing from Congo's immense ethnic and musical diversity. His albums, such as Hotel Univers and Kin Sonic, incorporate Congolese rhythms, Western rock influences, and multilingual lyrics.[195][196][197] The city has also become a site for international artistic exchange. Since 2009, the Royal Flemish Theatre in Brussels has organized the Connexion Kin arts festival in the Limete commune, fostering collaborations between Kinshasa artists and European counterparts.[195] A notable product of this initiative was the acclaimed 2014 performance Coup Fatal, which combined Congolese guitar with classical opera, jazz, and contemporary choreography, earning praise at the Avignon Festival and in Brussels.[195]

Rapper and singer Baloji, born in Lubumbashi and raised in Belgium, returned to Kinshasa to record his 2011 album Kinshasa Succursale. Blending Congolese rumba, hip-hop, funk, and experimental sounds, Baloji's work reflects a diasporic reconnection with Kinshasa's musical traditions while infusing them with modern, global sensibilities.[195]

### Visual arts and fashion

Kinshasa's street art scene has gained recognition globally, with talented artists using their creations to express social and political messages. Murals and graffiti, adorned with colorful imagery, can be found throughout the city.[198][199][200]

#### La Sape

A traditional sapeur dressed in an outfit made from pearls in kinshasa, February 2015

The La Sape subculture, characterized by extravagant and dapper fashion choices, has become an emblem of style, self-expression, and identity for the sapeurs of Kinshasa. It has gained international recognition through the lens of well-known photographers such as Daniele Tamagni. Tamagni's book Gentlemen of Bacongo (2009) showcases the impeccable style and distinct personalities of Kinshasa's sapeurs, accentuating their taste in tailored suits, bold hues, and eye-catching accessories.[201][202] The city serves as the epicenter of La Sape, with various neighborhoods, communes and districts hosting events like le concours or la fête where sapeurs can display their style. La Sape has also inspired popular music and cultural expressions in Kinshasa, with sapeurs often featured in Congolese music videos as symbols of refinement and sophistication. Musicians such as Papa Wemba have embraced La Sape as an essential part of their artistic identity.[201][203][204]

### Martial arts

WWE wrestler Shinsuke Nakamura uses a running knee strike, called the Kinshasa, as his finisher, a reference to the eponymous city. The move was previously named as Bomaye (which translated to "kill him") during his time in New Japan Pro Wrestling but was renamed in 2016 when he was signed with the WWE for trademark reasons.[205] Both Bomaye and Kinshasa are homages to Nakamura's mentor, Antonio Inoki, who received Bomaye as a nickname from Muhammad Ali when Inoki and Ali fought in 1976, with Ali first hearing Bomaye in Kinshasa during the Rumble In The Jungle.[205]

## See also

* Traffic robots in Kinshasa
* Lake Chad replenishment project

### Films about Kinshasa

* Kinshasa Kids
* Kinshasa palace
* Kinshasa Symphony

## References

1. ↑ Kinshasa Population 2024, World population review 30 May 2024
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Cécile B. Vigouroux & Salikoko S. Mufwene (2008). Globalization and Language Vitality: Perspectives from Africa, pp. 103 & 109. A&C Black. ISBN 9780826495150. https://books.google.com/books?id=Le_8WMk1Pr4C&q=french lingala kinshasa&pg=PA103. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
3. ↑ Chignac, François (6 July 2023). "Conférence Risque Pays 2023 : le climat des affaires s'améliore en RDC" (in fr). https://fr.euronews.com/next/2023/07/06/conference-risque-pays-2023-le-climat-des-affaires-s-ameliore-en-rdc.
4. ↑ Rouaud, Pierre Olivier (25 July 2022). "RD Congo: les fortes prévisions de croissance confortées par le FMI" (in French). Classe-export.com. https://classe-export.com/index.php/pays/afrique/62036-rd-congo-les-fortes-previsions-de-croissance-confortees-par-le-fmi/.
5. ↑ Kaseso, Joel Machozi (27 May 2023). "Faux, le magazine Forbes n'a pas publié un classement du "Top 10 des meilleurs villes de la RDC en 2023"" (in fr-FR). https://congocheck.net/faux-le-magazine-forbes-na-pas-publie-un-classement-du-top-10-des-meilleurs-villes-de-la-rdc-en-2023/.
6. ↑ "Congo-Kinshasa: Les industries manufacturières affichent une bonne croissance" (in French). AllAfrica. 13 September 2013. https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201309131353.html.
7. ↑ Syosyo, Crispin Malingumu (2015). "Analyse du marché des télécommunications mobiles en République Démocratique du Congo: Dynamique du marché et stratégies des acteurs" (in French). https://hal.science/hal-03119515/document.
8. ↑ Tuema, Jacques Kiambu Di (5 December 2009). "Déréglementation des services de télécommunications en République Démocratique du Congo et inégale répartition des ressources" (in French). Revue d'Économie Régionale & Urbaine (2009/5): 975–994. doi:10.3917/reru.095.0975. https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-economie-regionale-et-urbaine-2009-5-page-975.htm. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
9. ↑ "La culture et le divertissement au Congo" (in fr). 27 May 2021. https://actualite.cd/2021/05/27/la-culture-et-le-divertissement-au-congo.
10. ↑ Luzonzo, Merseign (2016). "Les fondements de l'émergence économique de la République Démocratique du Congo: défis et perspectives" (in French). Université Catholique du Congo. https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9762/Les-fondements-de-lemergence-economique-de-la-Republique-Democratique-du-Congo--defis-et-pe.html.
11. ↑ "Actualité | Quelle est la nature juridique de l'autorité du ministre de la Justice sur le Parquet ?" (in French). 6 July 2020. https://www.mediacongo.net/article-actualite-71641_quelle_est_la_nature_juridique_de_l_autorite_du_ministre_de_la_justice_sur_le_parquet.html.
12. ↑ "En RDC, le difficile accès à la justice pour les femmes victimes de viols" (in fr). 25 November 2020. https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20201125-en-rdc-le-difficile-accès-à-la-justice-pour-les-femmes-victimes-de-viols.
13. ↑ Rédaction, La (28 January 2019). "Félix Tshisekedi s'installe dans "une modeste" villa à la cité de l'UA" (in fr-FR). https://www.politico.cd/encontinu/2019/01/28/felix-tshisekedi-sinstalle-dans-une-modeste-villa-a-la-cite-de-lua.html/34471/.
14. ↑ Huband, Mark (20 May 2019) (in en). The Skull Beneath The Skin: Africa After The Cold War. Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. 123. ISBN 978-0-429-96439-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=gf7EDwAAQBAJ&dq=palais+de+marbre+Mobutu&pg=PA123. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in French). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 9–28. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Moorsel, Hendrik van (1968) (in French). Atlas de préhistoire de la plaine de Kinshasa. Kinshasa, Belgian Congo: Université Lovanium.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Ness, Immanuel (19 September 2017) (in English). Encyclopedia of World Cities. Thames, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317471585. https://books.google.com/books?id=pHo2DwAAQBAJ&dq=Henry+Stanley+Nshasa+village&pg=PT699. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Boya, Loso Kiteti (2010) (in English). D.R. Congo. Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris Corporation. pp. 175. ISBN 9781450082495. https://books.google.com/books?id=hpi4lyWG7zwC. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
19. ↑ Buron, Thierry (22 November 2020). "Brazzaville et Kinshasa : proches, mais séparées" (in fr-FR). https://www.revueconflits.com/brazaville-et-kinshasa-proches-mais-separes/.
20. ↑ Academie, Jan Van Eyck (12 June 2006) (in en). Brakin: Brazzaville-Kinshasa : Visualizing the Visible. Baden, Switzerland: Lars Müller Publishers. ISBN 978-3-03778-076-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=_zFUAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
21. ↑ Burke, Jason (17 January 2017). "Face-off over the Congo: the long rivalry between Kinshasa and Brazzaville" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/jan/17/congo-rivalry-kinshasa-brazzaville-river-drc.
22. ↑ Zimi, Gutu Kia (10 January 2021) (in en). Growing Trees in Urban Kinshasa: Shrub Vegetation in Residential Plots in Kinshasa. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthoHouse. ISBN 978-1-6655-1262-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=3PMYEAAAQBAJ&dq=Ma+Campagne+Kinshasa&pg=PT55. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Géographie de Kinshasa". Ville de Kinshasa. http://www.kinshasa.cd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=300.
24. ↑ Magnan, Pierre (2 June 2017). "Kinshasa a dépassé Paris comme plus grande ville francophone du monde" (in fr-FR). https://www.francetvinfo.fr/monde/afrique/republique-democratique-du-congo/kinshasa-a-depasse-paris-comme-plus-grande-ville-francophone-du-monde_3060123.html.
25. ↑ "This is the most French-speaking city in the world" (in en-US). 10 October 2022. https://www.en-vols.com/en/inspirations-en/culture-en/most-french-speaking-city/.
26. ↑ Cornall, Flo (1 June 2023). "Congolese artists wear costumes made of trash to shine a light on Kinshasa's pollution problem" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/2023/06/01/style/congolese-artists-colin-delfosse-fulu-act-spc-intl/index.html.
27. ↑ [Airport rankings: Africa https://gettocenter.com/airports/continent/africa ]
28. ↑ "Kinshasa: Ville Créative de la Musique" (in French). 2016–2019. p. 3. https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/sites/default/files/kinshasa_rvcu_-rapport_exercice_2015_-_2019.pdf.
29. ↑ "Kinshasa: About the Creative City". 2015. https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/kinshasa#:~:text=Kinshasa, capital of the Democratic,shaped by many international influences..
30. ↑ Velluet, Quentin (31 October 2018). "Offres d'emploi : les meilleures opportunités en Afrique – Jeune Afrique" (in fr-FR). https://www.jeuneafrique.com/emploi-formation/offres/.
31. ↑ Karuri, Ken (22 June 2016). "Luanda, Kinshasa ranked among world's most expensive cities for expats" (in en). https://www.africanews.com/2016/06/22/luanda-kinshasa-ranked-among-world-s-most-expensive-cities/.
32. ↑ Hughes, Martin (3 July 2016). "Kinshasa Is Most Expensive City To Live For Expats" (in en-GB). https://www.moneyinternational.com/kinshasa-expensive-city-live-expats/.
33. ↑ Vansina, Jan (1973). "The Great Congo Trade". The Tio kingdom of the Middle Congo, 1880-1892. Internet Archive. London, New York, Oxford University Press for the International African Institute. ISBN 978-0-19-724189-9. http://archive.org/details/tiokingdomofmidd0000vans.
34. ↑ Roman Adrian Cybriwsky, Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 144
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 "Kinshasa – national capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo". britannica.com. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
36. ↑ Piette, Valérie (2011). "La Belgique au Congo ou la volonté d'imposer sa ville? L'exemple de Léopoldville". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 89 (2): 610. doi:10.3406/rbph.2011.8124. https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2011_num_89_2_8124.
37. ↑ Moulin, Léon de Saint (1971) (in fr). Les anciens villages des environs de Kinshasa. Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Lovanium. https://books.google.com/books?id=gEWQYgEACAAJ. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 38.6 Luaka, Evrard Nkenku (2005). "La gestion et la gouvernance des déchets dans la ville-province de Kinshasa" (in fr). University of Kinshasa. https://www.memoireonline.com/05/07/461/m_gestion-gouvernance-dechets-ville-province-kinshasa5.html.
39. ↑ Kinyamb, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). p. 43. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
40. ↑ Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja (17 January 2011). "Patrice Lumumba: the most important assassination of the 20th century". https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/jan/17/patrice-lumumba-50th-anniversary-assassination.
41. ↑ Jules Gerard-Libois and Benoit Verhaegen, Congo 1964: Political Documents of a Developing Nation, Princeton University Press, 2015, p. 450
42. ↑ "Congo Starts Expulsions" (in en). The New York Times. 22 August 1964. https://www.nytimes.com/1964/08/22/archives/congo-starts-expulsions.html.
43. ↑ Daouda Gary-Tounkara, 1964 : le Mali réinsère ses ressortissants expulsés, In:  Plein droit 2016/1 (n° 108), GISTI, 2016, p. 35-38
44. ↑ United States. Central Intelligence Agency, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Issues 11–15, 1967
45. ↑ "Congo Cities Get Back Old Names", Vancouver Sun, 3 May 1966, p.11
46. ↑ 46.00 46.01 46.02 46.03 46.04 46.05 46.06 46.07 46.08 46.09 46.10 46.11 46.12 46.13 46.14 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 55–59. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 47.6 47.7 47.8 Piette, Valérie (2011). "La Belgique au Congo ou la volonté d'imposer sa ville? L'exemple de Léopoldville". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 89 (2): 608–609. doi:10.3406/rbph.2011.8124. https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2011_num_89_2_8124.
48. ↑ "Kinshasa, hier et aujourd'hui…" (in fr-FR). 4 August 2020. https://e-journal.info/2020/08/kinshasa-hier-et-aujourdhui/.
49. ↑ Lemoine, Robert-J. (1934). "Finances et colonisation: la concentration des entreprises dans la mise en valeur du Congo belge". Annales d'Histoire Économique et Sociale 6 (29): 433–449. ISSN 0003-441X. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27573481.
50. ↑ "Leopoldville 1881-1956: Les cites indigènes" (in fr). 15 February 2010. http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-leopoldville-1881-1956-les-cites-indigenes-44967554.html.
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 Piette, Valérie (2011). "La Belgique au Congo ou la volonté d'imposer sa ville? L'exemple de Léopoldville". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 89 (2): 611. doi:10.3406/rbph.2011.8124. https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2011_num_89_2_8124.
52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 Mboka, Mwana (31 July 2011). "Kinshasa Then and Now: Leopoldville 1948 – "Le Grand Léo"". https://kosubaawate.blogspot.com/2011/07/leopoldville-1948-le-grand-leo.html.
53. ↑ Mandangi, Germain Manitu (2006). "Nature et analyse des indicateurs de la qualité de l'habitat au camp "lieutenant colonel Kokolo" à Kinshasa" (in fr). University of Kinshasa. https://www.memoireonline.com/05/12/5881/Nature-et-analyse-des-indicateurs-de-la-qualite-de-lhabitat-au-camp-lieutenant-colonel-Kokolo.html.
54. ↑ Ryckmans, François (6 July 2020). "Congo 1960 – épisode 9: le 6 juillet 1960, le Congo s'embrase" (in fr). Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française. https://www.rtbf.be/article/congo-1960-episode-9-le-6-juillet-1960-le-congo-s-embrase-10536910.
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Prunier, Gérard (31 December 2008) (in en). Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford, England, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 12–15. ISBN 978-0-19-970583-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=kp93kUfdhC0C.
56. ↑ "The Rwandan Patriotic Front (HRW Report - Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda)". Human Rights Watch. 1 March 1999. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/rwanda/Geno15-8-03.htm.
57. ↑ Moloo, Zahra (12 September 2018). "The crimes of the Rwandan Patriotic Front" (in en-US). https://africasacountry.com/2019/04/the-crimes-of-the-rwandan-patriotic-front.
58. ↑ Black, Christopher (12 September 2010). "The Rwandan Patriotic Front's Bloody Record and the History of UN Cover-Ups" (in en-US). https://mronline.org/2010/09/12/the-rwandan-patriotic-fronts-bloody-record-and-the-history-of-un-cover-ups/.
59. ↑ "10The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath". p. 2 (246). https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/legacy-pdf/3ebf9bb60.pdf.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 "First Congo War - Attacks against Hutu refugees - South Kivu" (in en-US). The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. https://www.mapping-report.org/en/first-congo-war-attacks-against-hutu-refugees-sud-kivu/.
61. ↑ Reyntjens, Filip (1999). "La deuxième guerre du Congo: plus qu'une réédition" (in fr). University of Antwerp. p. 3. https://medialibrary.uantwerpen.be/oldcontent/container2143/files/Publications/Annuaire/1998-1999/12-Reyntjens.pdf.
62. ↑ 62.00 62.01 62.02 62.03 62.04 62.05 62.06 62.07 62.08 62.09 62.10 62.11 62.12 62.13 62.14 "Attacks against other civilian populations – Kinshasa" (in en-US). The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-other-civilian-populations-kinshasa/.
63. ↑ Blanchard, Sandrine (7 September 2022). "Il y a 25 ans, la mort de Mobutu Sese Seko" (in fr). https://www.dw.com/fr/mobutu-zaïre-congo-rdc-25-ans/a-63044902.
64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Muiu, M.; Martin, G. (5 January 2009) (in en). A New Paradigm of the African State: Fundi wa Afrika. London, England, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 128. ISBN 978-0-230-61831-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ve_GAAAAQBAJ&dq=Laurent+Kabila+James+Kabarebe+of+his+position&pg=PA128.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Katulondi, Hubert Kabasu Babu (14 March 2019) (in en). Democratisation in the Dr Congo from Joseph Mobutu to Joseph Kabila: A Modelled Exploration. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-7283-8287-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=qzKNDwAAQBAJ&dq=Laurent+Kabila+James+Kabarebe+of+his+position&pg=PT124.
66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Snow, Keith Harmon (17 December 2023). "Exposing U.S. agents of low intensity warfare in Africa: The policy wonks behind covert warfare and humanitarian fascism" (in en-GB). https://africanagenda.net/exposing-u-s-agents-of-low-intensity-warfare-in-africa-the-policy-wonks-behind-covert-warfare-humanitarian-fascism/.
67. ↑ Madsen, Wayne (30 August 2001). "America's covert operations in the Great Lakes Region" (in en-US). https://l-hora.org/en/americas-covert-operations-in-the-great-lakes-region-wayne-madsen-august-2001/.
68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 68.5 "The Second Congo War (August 1998–January 2001)" (in en-US). The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. https://www.mapping-report.org/en/the-second-congo-war/.
69. ↑ "Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu" (in en-US). The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-south-kivu/.
70. ↑ 70.00 70.01 70.02 70.03 70.04 70.05 70.06 70.07 70.08 70.09 70.10 70.11 70.12 "Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – Kinshasa" (in en-US). The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-kinshasa/.
71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 71.3 71.4 71.5 71.6 71.7 71.8 "DRC Towards Transition (January 2001–June 2003)" (in en-US). The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. https://www.mapping-report.org/en/drc-towards-transition-january-2001-june-2003/.
72. ↑ 72.00 72.01 72.02 72.03 72.04 72.05 72.06 72.07 72.08 72.09 Joe Trapido, "Kinshasa's Theater of Power ", New Left Review 98, March/April 2016.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 "DR Congo election: 17 dead in anti-Kabila protests ", BBC, 19 September 2016.
74. ↑ Merritt Kennedy, "Congo A 'Powder Keg' As Security Forces Crack Down On Whistling Demonstrators ", NPR, 21 December 2016.
75. ↑ PhD, Gutu Kia Zimi (10 January 2021) (in en). Growing Trees in Urban Kinshasa: Shrub Vegetation in Residential Plots in Kinshasa. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-6655-1262-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=3PMYEAAAQBAJ&dq=Kinshasa+Pool+Malebo+9,965&pg=PT26. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
76. ↑ Iyenda, Guillaume (2007) (in en). Households' Livelihoods and Survival Strategies Among Congolese Urban Poor: Alternatives to Western Approaches to Development. Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 69. ISBN 978-0-7734-5269-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=zhu8AAAAIAAJ&q=Kinshasa Pool Malebo 9,965. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
77. ↑ 77.00 77.01 77.02 77.03 77.04 77.05 77.06 77.07 77.08 77.09 77.10 77.11 77.12 77.13 77.14 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in Fr). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 9–12. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
78. ↑ Wachter, Sarah J. (19 June 2007). "Giant dam projects aim to transform African power supplies". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/19/business/worldbusiness/19iht-rnrghydro.1.6204822.html.
79. ↑ Redwood, Mark, ed (16 May 2012) (in en). Agriculture in Urban Planning: Generating Livelihoods and Food Security. Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 8. ISBN 978-1-136-57205-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=NnQQBAAAQBAJ&dq=Kinshasa+alluvial+plain&pg=PA147. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
80. ↑ (in en) Congo Republic Energy Policy, Laws and Regulations Handbook - Strategic Information and Basic Laws. Miami, Florida, United States: Global Pro Info USA. 22 November 2017. pp. 32. ISBN 978-1-5145-1238-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=pVutDwAAQBAJ&dq=Kinshasa+alluvial+plain&pg=PA32. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 81.3 81.4 81.5 Sukisa, Maspy Yeta (2008). "La pression de l'habitat sur le site maraicher de Lukunga dans la commmune de Ngaliema a Kinshasa: problématique de planification urbaine et pistes d'aménagement" (in fr). University of Kinshasa. https://www.memoireonline.com/07/10/3702/La-pression-de-lhabitat-sur-le-site-maraicher-de-Lukunga-dans-la-commmune-de-Ngaliema-a-Kinshasa.html.
82. ↑ 82.00 82.01 82.02 82.03 82.04 82.05 82.06 82.07 82.08 82.09 82.10 82.11 82.12 82.13 82.14 82.15 82.16 82.17 82.18 82.19 82.20 82.21 82.22 82.23 82.24 82.25 82.26 82.27 Imwangana, Fils Makanzu (2010). "Etude de l'érosion ravinante à Kinshasa par télédétection et SIG (système d'information géographique) entre 1957 et 2007" (in fr). University of Liège. https://www.memoireonline.com/09/13/7437/Etude-de-lerosion-ravinante--Kinshasa-par-teledetection-et-SIG--systeme-dinformation-g.html.
83. ↑ Kitambo, Benjamin; Papa, Fabrice; Paris, Adrien; Tshimanga, Raphael M.; Calmant, Stephane; Fleischmann, Ayan Santos; Frappart, Frederic; Becker, Melanie et al. (12 April 2022). "A combined use of in situ and satellite-derived observations to characterize surface hydrology and its variability in the Congo River basin" (in English). Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 26 (7): 1857–1882. doi:10.5194/hess-26-1857-2022. ISSN 1027-5606. Bibcode: 2022HESS...26.1857K. https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/1857/2022/. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
84. ↑ Michael, Mukendi Tshibangu; Henri, Mbale Kunzi; Meti, Ntumba Jean; Felicien, Lukoki Luyeye (15 May 2020). "Floristic Inventory of Invasive Alien Aquatic Plants Found in Malebo Pool in Congo Rivers, Kinshasa, DR. Congo (Case of MOLONDO, MIPONGO, and JAPON Islands)" (in en-US). Global Journal of Science Frontier Research 20 (C6): 31–44. ISSN 2249-4626. https://journalofscience.org/index.php/GJSFR/article/view/2864. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
85. ↑ (in fr) Monographie de la province du Maniema. Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: République démocratique du Congo, Ministères de l'agriculture et de l'élevage. 1998. pp. 9. https://books.google.com/books?id=ca66AAAAIAAJ&q=Kinshasa Arenoferrasol. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
86. ↑ (in en) African Soils: Volumes 16-18. Paris, France: Commission Scientifique, technique et de la recherche de l'Organisation de l'unité Africaine. 1971. pp. 169. https://books.google.com/books?id=lgouAAAAIAAJ&q=Kinshasa Arenoferrasol. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
87. ↑ 87.00 87.01 87.02 87.03 87.04 87.05 87.06 87.07 87.08 87.09 87.10 Jean Flouriot, "Kinshasa 2005. Trente ans après la publication de l'Atlas de Kinshasa ", Les Cahiers d'Outre-Mer 261, January–March 2013; doi:10.4000/com.6770.
88. ↑ Matthieu Kayembe Wa Kayembe, Mathieu De Maeyer et Eléonore Wolff, "Cartographie de la croissance urbaine de Kinshasa (R.D. Congo) entre 1995 et 2005 par télédétection satellitaire à haute résolution ", Belgeo 3–4, 2009; doi:10.4000/belgeo.7349.
89. ↑ Luce Beeckmans & Liora Bigon, "The making of the central markets of Dakar and Kinshasa: from colonial origins to the post-colonial period"; Urban History 43(3), 2016; doi:10.1017/S0963926815000188.
90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Innocent Chirisa, Abraham Rajab Matamanda, & Liaison Mukarwi, "Desired and Achieved Urbanisation in Africa: In Search of Appropriate Tooling for a Sustainable Transformation"; in Umar Benna & Indo Benna, eds., Urbanization and Its Impact on Socio-Economic Growth in Developing Regions; IGI Global, 2017, ISBN 9781522526605; pp. 101–102.
91. ↑ Commission Électorale Nationale Indépendante. "La Cartographie Electorale des 26 Provinces—Kinshasa" (in fr). https://www.ceni.cd/cartographie-electorale/provinces/kinshasa.
92. ↑ "Climate: Kinshasa". AmbiWeb GmbH. http://en.climate-data.org/location/408/.
93. ↑ "KINSHASA, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO". Weatherbase. http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=1246&cityname=Kinshasa-Kinshasa-Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo.
94. ↑ "STATIONSNUMMER 64210". Danish Meteorological Institute. http://www.dmi.dk/dmi/tr01-17.pdf.
95. ↑ "LE PARC – Parc de la Vallée de la N'sele". https://parcdelavalleedelansele.com/le-parc/.
96. ↑ "Driving directions to Jardin Zoologique, 1 Avenue Kasa-Vubu, Kinshasa" (in en). https://www.waze.com/live-map/directions/cd/kinshasa/kinshasa/jardin-zoologique?to=place.ChIJeUljtPAzahoRXB-xC1Bfqws.
97. ↑ Abanda, Samuel (2020). "Tfc: inventaire dendrométrique et floristique des arbres du jardin botanique de Kinshasa" (in fr). University of Kinshasa. https://www.memoireonline.com/02/22/12699/m_Tfc-inventaire-dendrometrique-et-floristique-des-arbres-du-jardin-botanique-de-Kinshasa3.html.
98. ↑ "Friends of Bonobos | We save bonobos and their Congo rainforest home" (in en). https://www.bonobos.org/.
99. ↑ "Kinshasa Population 2025" (in en). https://worldpopulationreview.com/cities/dr-congo/kinshasa?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
100. ↑ "Le Congo à la recherche de partenaires belges pour un ambitieux projet d'extension de Kinshasa" (in fr). 18 April 2025. https://www.lesoir.be/670019/article/2025-04-18/le-congo-la-recherche-de-partenaires-belges-pour-un-ambitieux-projet-dextension.
101. ↑ Encyclopædia Universalis. "Kinshasa: La population et les activités" (in fr-FR). https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/kinshasa/3-la-population-et-les-activites/.
102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in French). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 37. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
103. ↑ Stewart, Gary (17 November 2003). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Verso. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-85984-368-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC&q=Belgium and the Congo once again unimpeded, a Belgian entrepreneur named Fernand Janssens had come to Léopoldville with a portable, direct-to-disc recording machine..
104. ↑ 104.0 104.1 Bukasa, Ismael (2015). "Entrepreneuriat et la lutte contre la pauvreté en république démocratique du Congo" (in fr). Université International Al-Mustafa. https://www.memoireonline.com/01/19/10556/m_Entrepreneuriat-et-la-lutte-contre-la-pauvrete-en-republique-democratique-du-Congo13.html.
105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 Bédécarrats, Florent; Lafuente-Sampietro, Oriane; Leménager, Martin; Lukono Sowa, Dominique (2019). "Building commons to cope with chaotic urbanization? Performance and sustainability of decentralized water services in the outskirts of Kinshasa". Journal of Hydrology 573: 1096–1108. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.07.023.
106. ↑ 106.0 106.1 106.2 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 40–41. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 Gianluca Iazzolino, "Kinshasa, megalopolis of 12 million souls, expanding furiously on super-charged growth "; Mail & Guardian Africa, 2 April 2016.
108. ↑ Hoornweg, Daniel; Pope, Kevin (2017). "Population predictions for the world's largest cities in the 21st century". Environment and Urbanization 29 (1): 195–216. doi:10.1177/0956247816663557. Bibcode: 2017EnUrb..29..195H.
109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in French). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 31–33. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
110. ↑ Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in French). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 33. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
111. ↑ 111.00 111.01 111.02 111.03 111.04 111.05 111.06 111.07 111.08 111.09 111.10 111.11 111.12 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in French). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 33–35. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
112. ↑ "Populations of 150 Largest Cities in the World". 7 March 2016. http://www.worldatlas.com/citypops.htm.
113. ↑ Nadeau, Jean-Benoit (2006). The Story of French. St. Martin's Press. p. 301; 483. ISBN 9780312341831.
114. ↑ Trefon, Theodore (2004). Reinventing Order in the Congo: How People Respond to State Failure in Kinshasa. London and New York: Zed Books. p. 7. ISBN 9781842774915. https://books.google.com/books?id=5VAAHi93y0sC&q=Kinshasa+second+largest+French+city&pg=PA7. Retrieved 31 May 2009. A third factor is simply a demographic one. At least one in ten Congolese live in Kinshasa. With its population exceeding eleven million, it is the second-largest city in sub-Saharan Africa (after Lagos). It is also the second-largest French-speaking city in the world, according to Paris (even though only a small percentage of Kinois speak French correctly),
115. ↑ Manning, Patrick (1998). Francophone sub-Saharan Africa: Democracy and Dependence, 1985–1995. London and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 9780521645195. https://books.google.com/books?id=LwzFF2FnbzMC&q=Kinshasa+second+largest+francophone+city&pg=PA189. Retrieved 31 May 2009. While the culture is dominated by the Francophonie, a complex multilingualism is present in Kinshasa. Many in the francophonie of the 1980s labelled Zaïre as the second-largest francophone country, and Kinshasa as the second-largest francophone city. Yet Zaïre seemed unlikely to escape a complex multilingualism. Lingala was the language of music, of presidential addresses, of daily life in government and in Kinshasa. But if Lingala was the spoken language of Kinshasa, it made little progress as a written language. French was the written language of the city, as seen in street signs, posters, newspapers and in government documents. French dominated plays and television as well as the press; French was the language of the national anthem and even for the doctrine of authenticity. Zairian researchers found French to be used in vertical relationships among people of uneven rank; people of equal rank, no matter how high, tended to speak Zairian languages among themselves. Given these limits, French might have lost its place to another of the leading languages of Zaïre – Lingala, Tshiluba, or Swahili – except that teaching of these languages also suffered from limitations on its growth.
116. ↑ "XIVe Sommet de la Francophonie". OIF. http://www.francophonie.org/XIVe-Sommet-de-la-Francophonie,36849.html.
117. ↑ 117.00 117.01 117.02 117.03 117.04 117.05 117.06 117.07 117.08 117.09 117.10 117.11 117.12 117.13 117.14 117.15 117.16 117.17 117.18 117.19 117.20 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 43–46. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
118. ↑ 118.0 118.1 118.2 118.3 "31 juillet 2008- Loi n°08/012 portant principes fondamentaux relatifs à la libre administration des provinces" (in fr). 31 July 2008. https://leganet.cd/Legislation/Droit Public/Administration.ter/LOI.31.07.2008.provinces.htm.
119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 "Arrêté n° SC/0178/BGV/MINPR/COJU/PLS/ 008 du 07 août 2008 portant création de la Régie d'Assainissement et de Travaux Publics de Kinshasa. "R.A.T.P.K." en sigle" (in fr). 7 August 2008. https://www.leganet.cd/Legislation/Provinces/Kinshasa/A.07.08.2008.htm.
120. ↑ Baku, Erlin Lokato (2018). "Évaluation d'un projet d'installation d'une entité de ramassage et de stockage des déchets ménagers dans la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). University of Kinshasa. https://www.memoireonline.com/11/21/12411/m_valuation-d-un-projet-d-installation-d-une-entit-de-ramassage-et-de-stockage-des-dchets22.html.
121. ↑ Mudiayi, Auguy (6 June 2019). "Kinshasa: Exclu de l'APK, une motion de Mukebayi sur le solde de 2.400.000 $ du contrat Retranskin-Van Vliet Trucks Holland BV reste lettre morte" (in fr). https://actualite.cd/index.php/2019/06/06/kinshasa-exclu-de-lapk-une-motion-de-mukebayi-sur-le-solde-de-2400000-du-contrat.
122. ↑ 122.00 122.01 122.02 122.03 122.04 122.05 122.06 122.07 122.08 122.09 122.10 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 48–50. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
123. ↑ "Kinshasa: Daniel Bumba a pris officiellement les commandes de la ville" (in fr). Actualite.cd. 21 June 2024. https://actualite.cd/2024/06/21/kinshasa-daniel-bumba-pris-officiellement-les-commandes-de-la-ville.
124. ↑ Nagel, Robert Ulrich; Fin, Kate; Maenza, Julia (May 2021). "United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO)". Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security. p. 6. https://giwps.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/MONUSCO-Case-Study.pdf.
125. ↑ "UN beefs up peacekeeping force in DR Congo capital ", East African / AFP, 19 October 2016.
126. ↑ Inge Wagemakers, Oracle Makangu Diki, & Tom De Herdt, "Lutte Foncière dans la Ville: Gouvernance de la terre agricole urbaine à Kinshasa "; L'Afrique des grands lacs: Annuaire 2009–2010.
127. ↑ Inge Wagemakers & Jean-Nicholas BCH, "Les Défis de l'Intervention: Programme d'aide internationale et dynamiques de gouvernance locale dans le Kinshasa périurbain "; Politique africaine 2013/1 no. 129; doi:10.3917/polaf.129.0113.
128. ↑ "Décret n° 23/35 du 10 octobre 2023 portant création, organisation et fonctionnement du Comité Stratégique pour la Supervision du Projet d'extension de la Ville de Kinshasa, "CSSPEVK" en sigle" (in fr). 10 October 2023. https://leganews.pro/articles/018c1799-6d32-7ea3-9e86-b9c08cc45490.
129. ↑ "DRC: Kinshasa woos US private sector as it plans to enlarge capital city" (in en). 10 July 2024. https://www.africaintelligence.com/central-africa/2024/07/10/kinshasa-woos-us-private-sector-as-it-plans-to-enlarge-capital-city,110256119-bre.
130. ↑ Mayenikini, Jordan (13 January 2024). "RDC: le gouvernement travaille sur un nouveau projet d'extension de la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). https://actualite.cd/2024/01/13/rdc-le-gouvernement-travaille-sur-un-nouveau-projet-dextension-de-la-ville-de-kinshasa.
131. ↑ 131.00 131.01 131.02 131.03 131.04 131.05 131.06 131.07 131.08 131.09 Kinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015). "Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" (in fr). Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 50–52. https://www.fsmtoolbox.com/assets/pdf/Monographie_de_la_ville_de_Kinshasa.pdf.
132. ↑ "IMF revises Congo's 2022 growth up to 8.5%, rebel conflict a concern" (in en). Reuters. 15 February 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congos-gdp-growth-revised-up-85-2022-imf-2023-02-15/.
133. ↑ 133.0 133.1 "IMF Staff Concludes Visit to the Democratic Republic of the Congo" (in en). https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2023/02/15/pr2341-imf-staff-concludes-visit-to-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo.
134. ↑ 134.0 134.1 "La situation économique de la RD Congo en 2022 – Perspectives 2023". Direction générale du Trésor. 27 April 2023. https://www.tresor.economie.gouv.fr/Pays/CD/l-economie-de-la-rd-congo.
135. ↑ "Kinshasa – national capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo". britannica.com. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
136. ↑ Emizet Francois Kisangani, Scott F. Bobb, "China, People's Republic of, Relations with"; Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2010; pp. 74 –75.
137. ↑ Nuah M. Makungo, "Is the Democratic Republic of Congo being Globalized by China? The Case of Small Commerce at Kinshasa Central Market ", Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies 2(1), 2012.
138. ↑ "Cefacongo.org". Cefacongo.org. http://www.cefacongo.org/index.html.
139. ↑ "Onze school". Prins van Luikschool Kinshasa. https://wordpress.pls-rdc.com/onze-school/.
140. ↑ "Collection_Congo_ Art: School Alhadeff". http://www.collectioncongo-art.nl/school_Alhadeff.html.
141. ↑ [1] UNESCO :The Congo Literacy Project (The Democratic Republic of Congo)
142. ↑ "Provincial Health Division of Kinshasa" African Development Information Services
143. ↑ Cybriwsky, Roman Adrian (23 May 2013) (in en). Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-248-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=qb6NAQAAQBAJ&dq=Kinshasa++National+Museum+and+the+Kinshasa+Fine+Arts+Academy&pg=PA145. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
144. ↑ Morgan, Andy (9 May 2013). "The scratch orchestra of Kinshasa". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/may/09/scratch-orchestra-of-kinshasa-congo.
145. ↑ Tutton, Mark (13 February 2012). "Dedicated followers of fashion: Congo's designer dandies". CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2012/02/13/world/africa/congo-dandy-sapeur/index.html.
146. ↑ Bill Freund, "City and Nation in an African Context: National Identity in Kinshasa"; Journal of Urban History 38(5), 2012; doi:10.1177/0096144212449141.
147. ↑ J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann, Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2010, p. 777
148. ↑ "Les travaux de construction de la Maison d'Adoration Nationale en bonne progression !". 20 May 2021. https://www.bahai-rdc.org/les-travaux-de-construction-de-la-maison-dadoration-nationale-en-bonne-progression/.
149. ↑ 149.0 149.1 149.2 149.3 149.4 149.5 149.6 149.7 Matanga, John Lungila (2007). "La construction imaginaire de la réalité du Congo à travers les médias congolais" (in fr). University of Kinshasa. https://www.memoireonline.com/12/07/732/m_construction-imaginaire-realite-congo-medias24.html.
150. ↑ [Statistica: Africa Press Freedom https://www.statista.com/statistics/1221101/press-freedom-index-in-africa-by-country/ ]
151. ↑ 151.0 151.1 151.2 151.3 Welo, Pancrace Koy (2016). "La place de la radio à Kinshasa" (in fr). University of Kinshasa. https://www.memoireonline.com/02/22/12670/m_La-place-de-la-radio--Kinshasa4.html.
152. ↑ "Democratic Republic of Congo country profile – Media". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13283212.
153. ↑ "Congo-Kinshasa: New RTKM Director Brought Before the Court". 13 November 2000. https://allafrica.com/stories/200011130306.html.
154. ↑ "Congo-Kinshasa: Three TV Stations Suspended for 24 Hours for 'Inciting Violence'; RSF Praises 'Restrained' Punishment". 21 August 2006. https://allafrica.com/stories/200608211523.html.
155. ↑ "Congo-Kinshasa: RTKM Staff Protest The Requisitioning Of Their Station". 21 March 2000. https://allafrica.com/stories/200003210030.html.
156. ↑ "Countries: Democatric Republic of the Congo: News" (Archive). [sic] Stanford University Libraries & Academic Information Resources. Retrieved on 28 April 2014.
157. ↑ Nzuzi (2008), p. 14.
158. ↑ Aurélie Fontaine, "Housing: Kinshasa is for the rich"; Africa Report 5 May 2015.
159. ↑ "Trans urbain kinshasa". https://transurbainkinshasa.wordpress.com.
160. ↑ "Request a ride in Kinshasa via the Yango app!". https://yango.com/en_cd/city/kinshasa/.
161. ↑ "Flightera.net". 21 August 2022. https://www.flightera.net/airport/Kinshasa/FZAA?mode=departure#flights.
162. ↑ "N'djili Airport website". https://www.aeroport-kinshasa.com/en/index_en.php.
163. ↑ "DRC Unveils $956 Million Plan to Modernize Matadi-Kinshasa Railway – Efficacy News". 21 February 2024. https://efficacynews.africa/2024/02/21/drc-unveils-956-million-plan-to-modernize-matadi-kinshasa-railway/.
164. ↑ Jonny Hong, "Gang crime threatens the future of Congo's capital", Reuters, 19 June 2013.
165. ↑ "U.S. Dept. of State – Congo, Democratic Republic of the Country Specific Information". United States Department of State. https://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1104.html.
166. ↑ Bruce Baker. "Nonstate Policing: Expanding the Scope for Tackling Africa's Urban Violence". http://africacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/AfricaBrief-7.pdf.
167. ↑ 167.0 167.1 O. Oko Elechi and Angela R. Morris, "Congo, Democratic Republic of the (Congo-Kinshasa)"; in Mahesh K. Nalla & Graeme R. Newman (eds.), Crime and Punishment around the World, Volume 1: Africa and the Middle East; Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2010; pp. 53–56.
168. ↑ [2] BBC News - 'Hell behind bars' - life in DR Congo's most notorious jail
169. ↑ Prisons in the Democratic Republic of Congo , ed. Ryan Nelson, Refugee Documentation Center, Ireland; May 2002.
170. ↑ Manson, Katrina (22 July 2010). "Congo's children battle witchcraft accusations". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE66L2TB20100722?sp=true.
171. ↑ "Street Children in Kinshasa". Africa Action. 8 July 2009. http://africaaction.typepad.com/justafrica/2009/07/african-street-children-kinshasa-drc.html.
172. ↑ "A night on the streets with Kinshasa's 'child witches'". War Child UK – Warchild.org.uk. http://www.warchild.org.uk/our_projects/democratic_republic_of_congo/blog/child-witches-in-kinshasa.
173. ↑ "Danballuff – Children of Congo: From War to Witches(video)". Gvnet.com. http://www.gvnet.com/streetchildren/Congo.htm.
174. ↑ "Africa Feature: Around 20,000 street children wander in Kinshasa". English.people.com.cn. 1 June 2007. http://english.people.com.cn/200706/01/eng20070601_379840.html.
175. ↑ "Prevalence, Abuse & Exploitation of Street Children". Gvnet.com. http://www.gvnet.com/streetchildren/Congo.htm.
176. ↑ "At the centre – Street Childrens". http://streetchildrenofkinshasa.com/whatwedo/meeting-the-street-children-2/.
177. ↑ Ross, Aaron (13 March 2016). "Beaten and discarded, Congo street children are strangers to mining boom". reuters.com. http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-congodemocratic-streetchildren-idUKKCN0WF09C.
178. ↑ "What Future? Street Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo: IV. Background". https://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/drc0406/4.htm.
179. ↑ Camille Dugrand, "Subvertir l'ordre? Les ambivalences de l'expression politique des Shégués de Kinshasa"; Revue Tiers Monde 4(228), 2016; doi:10.3917/rtm.228.0045. "Figures incontournables de l'urbanité kinoise, les Shégués ont fait l'objet de plusieurs travaux scientifiques (Biaya, 1997, 2000; De Boeck, 2000, 2005; Geenen, 2009)."
180. ↑ "Brussels". European Forum for Urban Security. 21 January 2012. https://efus.eu/about-us/brussels/.
181. ↑ "Sister Cities of Ankara". http://www.ankara.bel.tr/en/foreign-relations-department/sister-cities-of-ankara#.V649oGVvfxt.
182. ↑ "Congolese Culture" (in en-US). https://friendsofthecongo.org/congolese-culture/.
183. ↑ Ali, Muhammad (24 October 1999). "Muhammad Ali Remembers the Rumble in the Jungle" (in en). https://www.newsweek.com/muhammad-ali-remembers-rumble-jungle-167950.
184. ↑ Yocum, Thomas (15 October 2014). "Forty years on from the Rumble in the Jungle, Kinshasa is a city of chaos" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/oct/15/-sp-forty-years-rumble-in-the-jungle-kinshasa-muhammad-ali-george-foreman.
185. ↑ Erenberg, Lewis A. (22 May 2019) (in English). The Rumble in the Jungle: Muhammad Ali and George Foreman on the Global Stage. Chicago, United States: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226059570. https://books.google.com/books?id=i9SWDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
186. ↑ Catsoulis, Jeannette (9 June 2011). "'Viva Riva!'" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/10/movies/viva-riva.html.
187. ↑ Bradshaw, Peter (9 November 2017). "Félicité review – gritty story of Kinshasa bar singer" (in en-GB). the Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. http://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/nov/09/felicite-review-gritty-story-of-kinshasa-bar-singer.
188. ↑ [3] , Rotten Tomatoes Season 1 The Widow 8 July 2019
189. ↑ Mujula, Fiston Mwanza (7 January 2016). "Tram 83, the Congolese novel that's wowing the literary world – extract" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/07/tram-83-congolese-novel-wowing-literary-world-extract.
190. ↑ Bofane, In Koli Jean; De Jager, Marjolijn (2018). Congo Inc.: Bismarck's Testament. Indiana University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt2204p5d. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2204p5d. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
191. ↑ Deboick, Sophia (8 June 2020). "Heart of smartness – DR Congo's city united in music" (in en-GB). https://www.theneweuropean.co.uk/brexit-news-sophia-deboick-music-in-kinshasa-congo-81780/.
192. ↑ "Kinshasa" (in en). 6 July 2016. https://citiesofmusic.net/city/kinshasa/.
193. ↑ "the congolese musicians making music like you've never heard before" (in en). https://i-d.co/article/the-congolese-musicians-making-music-like-youve-never-heard-before/.
194. ↑ "On Hearing My Father's Legacy in Vampire Weekend" (in en-US). 1 February 2018. https://pitchfork.com/thepitch/on-hearing-my-fathers-legacy-in-vampire-weekend/.
195. ↑ 195.0 195.1 195.2 195.3 195.4 195.5 195.6 195.7 195.8 Sutter, Anne-Sophie de (19 July 2017). "Kinshasa en musiques" (in fr-BE). https://www.mediatheque.be/outils-de-mediations/mediagraphies/kinshasa-en-musiques/.
196. ↑ Gaitet, Richard (3 December 2017). "Jupiter Bokondji: "Sans littérature, il n'y a pas de cerveau"" (in fr-FR). Radio Nova. https://www.nova.fr/news/jupiter-bokondji-sil-ny-pas-de-litterature-il-ny-pas-de-cerveau-22228-03-12-2017/.
197. ↑ Stisi, Bastien (2 June 2017). "L'ode à la teuf pour le nouveau clip de Jupiter & Okwess" (in fr-FR). Radio Nova. https://www.nova.fr/news/l-ode-a-la-teuf-pour-le-nouveau-clip-de-jupiter-okwess-15112-02-06-2017/.
198. ↑ Bromwich, Kathryn (25 March 2023). "Rubbish fashion: street art costumes of Kinshasa – in pictures" (in en-GB). the Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2023/mar/25/rubbish-fashion-street-art-costumes-of-kinshasa-in-pictures.
199. ↑ "Kinshasa Street Artists" (in en). https://www.krispannecoucke.org/kinshasa-street-artists.
200. ↑ "Kinshasa Shines Brightly at Kin Graff 4: Part I" (in en-US). 29 June 2023. https://www.brooklynstreetart.com/2022/07/13/kinshasa-shines-brightly-at-kin-graff-4-part-i/.
201. ↑ 201.0 201.1 "Le Journal International – Archives". https://www.lejournalinternational.fr/La-Sape-an-elegance-that-brought-peace-in-the-midst-of-Congolese-chaos_a1871.html.
202. ↑ Tamagni, Daniele; Goodwin, Paul (2009) (in English). Gentlemen of Bacongo. Contributors: Paul Goodwin, Paul Smith. London, England: Trolley. ISBN 9781904563839. https://books.google.com/books?id=kcZOAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
203. ↑ Trebay, Guy (27 April 2016). "Papa Wemba's Influential, Cross-Cultural Chic" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/26/fashion/papa-wembas-influential-fashion-style.html.
204. ↑ Douniama, Victoire (25 June 2018). "The Art of La Sape: Fashion Tips from Congo's "Sapeurs"" (in en). https://theculturetrip.com/africa/congo/articles/the-art-of-la-sape-fashion-tips-from-congos-sapeurs/.
205. ↑ 205.0 205.1 "The story behind Shinsuke Nakamura's Bomaye becoming Kinshasa in WWE". 2 April 2016. https://www.cagesideseats.com/wwe/2016/4/2/11353328/the-story-behind-shinsuke-nakamuras-bomaye-becoming-kishasa-in-wwe.

### Bibliography

* Nzuzi, Francis Lelo (2008). Kinshasa: Ville et Environnement. Paris: L'Harmattan, September 2008. ISBN 978-2-296-06080-7.
* Pain, Marc (1984). Kinshasa: la ville et la cité. Paris: Orstom, Institut Français de Recherche Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération.

## External links

| Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Kinshasa.

|

* Official website of the city of Kinshasa
* Map of the Belgian Congo from 1896 includes a map of Kinshasa
* Slideshow of 21 photos of Kinshasa from 2013 to 2015 on Open Society Foundations website
* Kinshasa: a travers le centre ville, May 2015 – footage from streets of Kinshasa

Template:Kinshasa

Articles related to Kinshasa

Template:Communes of Kinshasa

25px Geographic locale

Lat. and long. [ ⚑ ] 04°19′30″S 15°19′20″E﻿ / ﻿4.325°S 15.32222°E﻿ / -4.325; 15.32222

Template:Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

* v
* t
* e

Capitals of African countries

Dependent territories and states with limited recognition are in italics

* Abuja, Nigeria
* Accra, Ghana
* Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
* Algiers, Algeria
* Antananarivo, Madagascar
* Asmara, Eritrea
* Bamako, Mali
* Bangui, Central African Republic
* Banjul, Gambia
* Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
* Brazzaville, Rep. of the Congo
* Cairo, Egypt
* Conakry, Guinea
* Dakar, Senegal
* Djibouti, Djibouti
* Dodoma, Tanzania
* El Aaiún (claimed)/Tifariti (factual), Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic1
* Freetown, Sierra Leone
* Gaborone, Botswana
* Garoowe, Puntland1
* Gitega, Burundi
* Harare, Zimbabwe
* Hargeisa, Somaliland1
* Jamestown, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha2
* Juba, South Sudan
* Kampala, Uganda
* Khartoum, Sudan
* Kigali, Rwanda
* Kinshasa, D.R. Congo
* Libreville, Gabon
* Lilongwe, Malawi
* Lomé, Togo
* Luanda, Angola
* Lusaka, Zambia
* Malabo, Equatorial Guinea
* Maputo, Mozambique
* Maseru, Lesotho
*     * Mbabane (executive)

* Lobamba (legislative), Eswatini

* Mogadishu, Somalia
* Monrovia, Liberia
* Moroni, Comoros
* Nairobi, Kenya
* N'Djamena, Chad
* Niamey, Niger
* Nouakchott, Mauritania
* Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
* Port Louis, Mauritius
* Porto-Novo, Benin
* Praia, Cape Verde
*     * Pretoria (executive)

* Cape Town (legislative)

* Bloemfontein (judicial), South Africa

* Rabat, Morocco
* São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe
* Tripoli, Libya
* Tunis, Tunisia
* Victoria, Seychelles
* Windhoek, Namibia
*     * Yamoussoukro (political)

* Abidjan (economic), Ivory Coast

* Yaoundé, Cameroon

* 1 An unrecognised or partially-recognised nation
* 2 British Overseas Territory

Template:World's most populated urban areas

Template:Megacities

0.00

(0 votes)

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Place:Kinshasa&oldid=4268074"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template