Luanda

Luanda is the capital and largest city of Angola. It is Angola's primary port, and its major industrial, cultural and urban centre. Located on Angola's northern Atlantic coast, Luanda is Angola's administrative centre, its chief seaport, and also the capital of the Luanda Province. Luanda and its metropolitan area is the most populous Portuguese-speaking national capital in the world and the most populous Lusophone city outside Brazil. In 2024 the population reached more than 8.8 million inhabitants (a third of Angola's population).

Among the oldest colonial cities of Africa, Luanda was founded in January 1576 as São Paulo da Assunção de Loanda by Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais, being occasionally called "Leonda" or "St Paul de Leonda" by non-Portuguese sources. The city served as the centre of the slave trade to Brazil before the institution was prohibited.

At the start of the Angolan Civil War in 1975, most of the white Portuguese left as refugees,[1] principally migrating to Portugal. Luanda's population increased greatly from internal refugees fleeing the war, but its infrastructure was inadequate to handle the increase. This also caused the exacerbation of slums, or musseques, around Luanda.

In the 21st century, the city has been undergoing a major reconstruction.[2] Many new large developments are taking place that will alter its cityscape significantly.

Industries present in the city include the processing of agricultural products, beverage production, textile, cement, new car assembly plants, construction materials, plastics, metallurgy, cigarettes and shoes. The city is also notable as an economic centre for oil,[3][4] and a refinery is located in the city.

Luanda has been ranked as one of the most expensive cities in the world for expatriates.[5][6] The inhabitants of Luanda are mostly members of the ethnic Ambundu people. In recent decades of the 21st century, the number of ethnic Bakongo and Ovimbundu have also increased. Ethnic Europeans are mainly Portuguese.

Luanda was the main host city for the matches of the 2010 African Cup of Nations.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Portuguese colonization
* 1.2 Estado Novo
* 1.3 Independence
* 1.4 21st century
* 2 Geography
* 2.1 Human geography
* 2.2 Metropolitan Luanda
* 2.2.1 Districts
* 2.3 Climate
* 2.3.1 Climate change
* 3 Demographics
* 3.1 Places of worship
* 4 Culture
* 5 Economy
* 6 Transport
* 6.1 Railway
* 6.2 Airports
* 6.3 Port
* 6.4 Road transport
* 6.5 Public transport
* 7 Education
* 7.1 Higher education
* 8 Sports
* 9 International relations
* 9.1 Twin towns – Sister cities
* 10 References
* 11 Bibliography
* 12 External links

## History

### Portuguese colonization

File:Museu Nacional de Historia Militar.jpgSão Miguel Fortress, founded in 1576 by Paulo Dias de Novais, today hosts the Armed Forces Museum. Depiction of São Paulo da Assunção de Luanda, 1755.

Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda on 25 January 1576[7] as "São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda". He had brought one hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Most of the Portuguese community lived within the fort.[8][8] Several sources from as early as the 17th century called the city "St. Paul de Leonda".[9][10][11]

In 1618, the Portuguese built the fortress called Fortaleza São Pedro da Barra, and they subsequently built two more: Fortaleza de São Miguel (1634) and Forte de São Francisco do Penedo (1765–66). Of these, the Fortaleza de São Miguel is the best preserved.[12]

Luanda was Portugal's bridgehead from 1627, except during the Dutch rule of Luanda, from 1640 to 1648, as Fort Aardenburgh. The city served as the centre of slave trade to Brazil from c. 1550 to 1836.[13] The slave trade was conducted mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the port of Luanda. This slave trade also involved local merchants and warriors who profited from the trade.[14] During this period, no large scale territorial conquest was intended by the Portuguese; only a few minor settlements were established in the immediate hinterland of Luanda, some on the last stretch of the Kwanza River.

In the 17th century, the Imbangala became the main rivals of the Mbundu in supplying slaves to the Luanda market. In the 1751, between 5,000 and 10,000 slaves were annually sold.[15] By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong degree of Brazilian influence was noted in Luanda until the independence of Brazil in 1822.

In the 19th century, still under Portuguese rule, Luanda experienced a major economic revolution. The slave trade was abolished in 1836, and in 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast Portuguese Empire outside continental Portugal, full of trading companies, exporting (together with Benguela) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products. Maize, tobacco, dried meat, and cassava flour are also produced locally. The Angolan bourgeoisie was born by this time.[16]

In 1889, Governor Brito Capelo opened the gates of an aqueduct which supplied the city with water, a formerly scarce resource, laying the foundation for major growth.

### Estado Novo

Portuguese Armed Forces marching in Luanda during the Portuguese Colonial Wars (1961–74).

Main article: Place:Estado Novo (Portugal)

Throughout Portugal's dictatorship, known as the Estado Novo, Luanda grew from a town of 61,208 with 14.6% of those inhabitants being white in 1940, to a wealthy cosmopolitan major city of 475,328 in 1970 with 124,814 Europeans (26.3%) and around 50,000 mixed race inhabitants (10.5%).[17]

Like most of Portuguese Angola, the cosmopolitan[18] city of Luanda was not affected by the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974); economic growth and development in the entire region reached record highs during this period. In 1982, a report called Luanda the "Paris of Africa".[19][19]

### Independence

President José Eduardo dos Santos with President of Brazil Dilma Rousseff at the Presidential Palace in 2011.

By the time of Angolan independence in 1975, Luanda was a modern city with the majority of its population being African, but also dominated by a strong minority of white Portuguese origin.[20]

After the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon on April 25, 1974, with the advent of independence and the start of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), most of the white Portuguese Luandans left as refugees,[1] principally for Portugal; however, many travelled over land to South Africa.

Luanda is experiencing widespread urban renewal and redevelopment in the 21st century, backed largely by profits from oil and diamond industries.

The large numbers of skilled technicians among the force of Cuban soldiers sent in to support the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) government in the Angolan Civil War were able to make a valuable contribution to restoring and maintaining basic services in the city.

In the following years, however, slums called musseques—which had existed for decades—began to grow out of proportion and stretched several kilometres beyond Luanda's former city limits as a result of the decades-long civil war, and because of the rise of deep social inequalities due to large-scale migration of civil war refugees from other Angolan regions. For decades, Luanda's facilities were not adequately expanded to handle this huge increase in the city's population.

### 21st century

The National Assembly of Angola

In 2001 the provisional Angolan governments cleared the Boavista slum in Luanda Bay so that a luxury housing redevelopment was possible.[21] Luanda has since become one of the world's most expensive cities.[22]

Following the Luanda Agreement in 2002, with the end of the Angolan Civil War and high economic growth rates fuelled by the wealth provided by the increasing oil and diamond production, major reconstruction started.[23] Luanda has been of major concern because its population had multiplied and had far outgrown the capacity of the city, especially because much of its infrastructure including water, electricity, and roads had become obsolete and degraded.

Luanda has been undergoing major road reconstruction in the 21st century, and new highways are planned to improve connections to Cacuaco, Viana, Samba, and the new airport.[24] Major social housing is also being constructed to house those who reside in slums, which dominate the landscape of Luanda. A large Chinese firm has been given a contract to construct the majority of replacement housing in Luanda.[25] The Angolan minister of health recently stated poverty in Angola will be overcome by an increase in jobs and the housing of every citizen.[26]

## Geography

Satellite view of the City of Luanda and the Ilha de Luanda. The Bay of Luanda Beach cabanas on Ilha de Luanda

### Human geography

Luanda is divided into two parts, the Baixa de Luanda (lower Luanda, the old city) and the Cidade Alta (upper city or the new part). The Baixa de Luanda is situated next to the port, and has narrow streets and old colonial buildings.[27] However, new constructions have by now covered large areas beyond these traditional limits, and a number of previously independent nuclei — like Viana — were incorporated into the city.

### Metropolitan Luanda

Until 2011, the former Luanda Province comprised five municipalities. In 2011 the province was enlarged by the addition of two additional municipalities transferred from Bengo Province, namely Icolo e Bengo, and Quiçama. Excluding these additions, the five municipalities composed Greater Luanda. Two new municipalities have been created within Greater Luanda since 2017: Talatona and Kilamba-Kiaxi. Since 2024, the Luanda Province has 17 municipalities and Luanda municipality has been dissolved. Icolo e Bengo became a separate province from Luanda.

Name | Area in
km2 | Population
Census
2014 | Population
Census
2024[28]

|
|
|

Belas | 614.3 | 309,229 | 381,861
Cacuaco  | 87.18  | 860,760  | 1,025,859
Camama  | 74.64  | ...  | 667,094
Cazenga  | 33.13  | 582,786  | 823,025
Hoji Ya Henda  | 25.34  | 309,615  | 642,050
Ingombota  | 14.57  | 103,260  | 144,911
Kilamba  | 419.2  | ...  | 493,593
Quilamba Quiaxi  | 51.52  | 841,411  | 1,120,781
Maianga  | 26.34  | 598,613  | 727,681
Mulenvos  | 70.97  | ...  | 882,014
Mussulo  | 43.03  | 7,798  | 15,283
Rangel  | 6.22  | 136,453  | 190,569
Samba  | 20.32  | ...  | 364,986
Sambizanga  | 4.71  | ...  | 177,808
Talatona  | 50.38  | ...  | 292,919
Viana | 104.5 | ... | 865,863
Totals | 1,645 | 6,405,870 | 8,816,297

#### Districts

Miradouro da Lua in Samba district

The city of Luanda is divided in six urban districts: Ingombota, Angola Quiluanje, Maianga, Rangel, Samba and Sambizanga.

In Samba and Sambizanga, more high-rise developments are to be built. The capital Luanda is growing constantly - and in addition, increasingly beyond the official city limits and even provincial boundaries.

Luanda is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop.[29] It is also the location of most of Angola's educational institutions, including the private Catholic University of Angola and the public University of Agostinho Neto. It is also the home of the colonial Governor's Palace and the Estádio da Cidadela (the "Citadel Stadium"), Angola's main stadium, with a total seating capacity of 60,000.[30]

### Climate

Luanda has a hot semi-desert climate (Köppen: BSh), bordering upon a hot desert climate (BWh). The climate is warm to hot but surprisingly dry, owing to the cool Benguela Current, which prevents moisture from easily condensing into rain. Frequent fog prevents temperatures from falling at night even during the completely dry months from May to October. Luanda has an annual rainfall of 405 millimetres (15.9 in), but the variability is among the highest in the world, with a co-efficient of variation above 40 percent.[31] The climate is largely influenced by the offshore Benguela current. The current gives the city a surprisingly low humidity despite its tropical latitude, which makes the hotter months considerably more bearable than similar cities in Western/Central Africa.[32] Observed records since 1858 range from 55 millimetres (2.2 in) in 1958 to 851 millimetres (33.5 in) in 1916. The short rainy season in March and April depends on a northerly counter current bringing moisture to the city: it has been shown clearly that weakness in the Benguela Current can increase rainfall about sixfold compared with years when that current is strong.[33]

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#### Climate change

A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~2.5–3 °C (4.5–5.4 °F) by 2100, the climate of Luanda in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Guatemala City. The annual temperature would increase by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F), the temperature of the coldest month by 0.4 °C (0.72 °F), and the temperature of the warmest month by 0.1 °C (0.18 °F).[36][37] According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which closely matches RCP 4.5.[38]

Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Luanda is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by the future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario.[39] Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.[40]

## Demographics

Year  | Population

|

1970 (Census) | 475,328[41]
2014 (Census) | 6,760,439[41]
2024 (Census) | 8,816,297[41]
Luanda Cathedral was built in 1628

The inhabitants of Luanda are primarily members of African ethnic groups, mainly Ambundu, Ovimbundu, and Bakongo. The official and the most widely used language is Portuguese, although several Bantu languages are also used, chiefly Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo.[42]

The population of Luanda has grown dramatically in recent years, due in large part to war-time migration to the city, which is safe compared to the rest of the country.[43] In 2006, however, Luanda saw an increase in violent crime, particularly in the shanty towns that surround the colonial urban core.[44]

There is a sizable minority population of European origin, especially Portuguese (about 260,000), as well as Brazilians. In recent years, mainly since the mid-2000s, immigration from Portugal has increased due to greater opportunities present in Angola's booming economy.[45][46] There is a sprinkling of immigrants from other African countries as well, including a small expatriate South African community. A small number of people of Luanda are of mixed race — European/Portuguese and native African. Over the last decades, a significant Chinese community has formed,[47] as has a much smaller Vietnamese community.[48]

N. Sra. da Nazaré Church, b. 1664

### Places of worship

Among the places of worship, several are predominantly Christian churches and congregations:[42]

* Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Luanda (Catholic Church)
* Evangelical Congregational Church in Angola (World Communion of Reformed Churches)
* Evangelical Reformed Church in Angola (World Communion of Reformed Churches)
* Baptist Convention of Angola (Baptist World Alliance)
* Universal Church of the Kingdom of God
* Assemblies of God.
* Jehovah's Witnesses.

## Culture

Statue of Queen Nzinga National Museum of Anthropology National Museum of Slavery

As the economic and political center of Angola, Luanda is similarly the epicenter of Angolan culture. The city is home to numerous cultural institutions, including the Sindika Dokolo Foundation.

The city hosts the annual Luanda International Jazz Festival, since 2009, and houses the Clube Náutico da Ilha de Luanda (CNIL), translated as the "Nautical Club of Luanda Island". CNIL is a sports club founded on February 28, 1924, under the name "Nun'Alvares Sports Club" (Clube Desportivo Nun'Alvares), a name it kept until April 11, 1979, when following the order of the secretary of the National Council of Physical Education and Sport of Angola, which stated, that clubs with names related to colonialism should proceed to its replacement, the club had to change his name.[49] Since its foundation it is the yacht club with most titles in Angola to date.[49]

The city is home to numerous museums, including:

* National Museum of Anthropology
* National Museum of Natural History
* Museum of the Armed Forces
* National Museum of Slavery
* Museum of Science (Angola)

Other monuments in the city include:

* Palácio de Ferro
* Fortress of São Miguel
* Fortress of São Francisco do Penedo
* Luanda Cathedral
* Igreja de Jesus
* Igreja da Nossa Senhora do Cabo
* Igreja da Nossa Senhora da Conceição
* Igreja da Nossa Senhora da Nazaré
* Igreja da Nossa Senhora do Carmo
* Arquivo Histórico Nacional

## Economy

Cidade Financeira de Luanda High rises in downtown Luanda

Around one-third of Angolans live in Luanda, 53% of whom live in poverty. Living conditions in Luanda are poor for most of the people, with essential services such as safe drinking water and electricity still in short supply, and severe shortcomings in traffic conditions.[50]

Luanda is one of the world's most expensive cities for resident foreigners.[51] In Mercer's cost of living index, Luanda was ranked as top of the list due to the extremely high costs of goods and security. Luanda sits above Seoul, Geneva and Shanghai in the rankings. These costs have fueled rampant inequality in the city. Skyscrapers are left barren as the price of oil drops.[52]

Marginal promenade along the bay Tower on Rua Kwame Nkrumah

New import tariffs imposed in March 2014 made Luanda even more expensive. As an example, a half-litre tub of vanilla ice cream at the supermarket was reported to cost US$31. The higher import tariffs applied to hundreds of items, from garlic to cars. The stated aim was to try to diversify the heavily oil-dependent economy and nurture farming and industry, sectors that have remained weak. These tariffs have caused much hardship in a country where the average salary was US$260 per month in 2010, the latest year for which data was available. However, the average salary in the booming oil industry was over 20 times higher at US$5,400 per month.[53]

Manufacturing includes processed foods, beverages, textiles, cement and other building materials, plastic products, metalware, cigarettes, and shoes/clothes. Petroleum (found in nearby off-shore deposits) is refined in the city, although this facility was repeatedly damaged during the Angolan Civil War of 1975–2002. Luanda has an excellent natural harbour; the chief exports are coffee, cotton, sugar, diamonds, iron, and salt.[54]

The city also has a thriving building industry, an effect of the nationwide economic boom experienced since 2002, when political stability returned with the end of the civil war. Economic growth is largely supported by oil extraction activities, although great diversification is taking place. Large investment (domestic and international), along with strong economic growth, has dramatically increased construction of all economic sectors in the city of Luanda.[55] In 2007, the first modern shopping mall in Angola was established in the city at Belas Shopping mall.[56]

## Transport

The Port of Luanda administration

### Railway

Luanda is the starting point of the Luanda railway that goes due east to Malanje. The civil war left the railway non-functional, but the railway has been restored up to Dondo and Malanje.[57]

### Airports

File:NAIL Airside View of Terminal.jpgDr. António Agostinho Neto International Airport, Luanda

The main airport of Luanda was Quatro de Fevereiro Airport. A new international airport, Dr. António Agostinho Neto International Airport was constructed southeast of the city, a few kilometres from Viana, and was expected to be opened in 2011.[58] However, as the Angolan government did not continue to make the payments due to the Chinese enterprise in charge of the construction, the firm suspended its work in 2010. The airport finally opened in November 2023. The new airport will gradually replace the old airport.[59][60]

### Port

The Port of Luanda serves as the largest port of Angola and is one of the busiest ports in Africa.[61] Major expansion of this port is also taking place.[62] In 2014, a new port is being developed at Dande, about 30 km to the north.

The Port of Luanda is one of the busiest ports in Africa.[61]

### Road transport

Luanda's roads are in a poor state of repair, but are undergoing an extensive reconstruction process by the government in order to relieve traffic congestion in the city. Major road repairs can be found taking place in nearly every neighbourhood, including a major 6-lane highway connected Luanda to Viana.[63]

### Public transport

Public transit is provided by the suburban services of the Luanda Railway, by the public company TCUL, and by a large fleet of privately owned collective taxis as white-blue painted minibuses called Candongueiro. Candongueiros are usually Toyota Hiace vans, that are built to carry 12 people, although the candongueiros usually carry at least 15 people. They charge from 100 to 200 kwanzas per trip. They are known to disobey traffic rules, for example not stopping at signs and driving over pavements and aisles.

In 2019, the Luanda Light Rail network with an estimated cost of US $3 billion was announced to begin construction in 2020.[64]

## Education

Mutu-ya Kevela Prep. School Agostinho Neto University

International schools:

* Escola Portuguesa de Luanda
* Colégio Português de Luanda
* Colégio São Francisco de Assis
* Luanda International School
* English School Community of Luanda

### Higher education

Universities:

* Agostinho Neto University
* Lusíada University
* Catholic University of Angola
* Technical University of Angola
* Methodist University of Angola
* Private University of Angola
* Jean Piaget University of Angola
* University of Luanda
* Universidade Indepedente de Angola
* Higher Institute of Education Sciences of the Luanda

## Sports

Estádio 11 de Novembro

Luanda's Pavilhão Multiusos do Kilamba hosted games for Angola's national basketball team on many occasions.[65]

In 2013 Luanda together with Namibe, today's Moçâmedes, hosted the 2013 FIRS Men's Roller Hockey World Cup, the first time that a World Cup of roller hockey was held in Africa. The city is home to the Desportivo do Bengo football club.

## International relations

### Twin towns – Sister cities

Luanda is twinned with:

* Houston, United States[66]
* São Paulo, Brazil[67][68]
* Portugal Lisbon, Portugal[69][70]
* Oaxaca, Mexico
* Praia, Cape Verde
* Beira, Mozambique
* Windhoek, Namibia
* Template:Country data GNB Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
* Beijing, China
* Macau, Macau
* Maputo, Mozambique
* Template:Country data NER Tahoua, Niger
* Template:Country data STP São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe
* Johannesburg, South Africa
* Cairo, Egypt
* Portugal Porto, Portugal[71][72][73]
* Template:Country data ANG Huambo, Angola
* Toulon, France
* Asunción, Paraguay
* Cape Town, South Africa

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Flight from Angola , The Economist (August 16, 1975).
2. ↑ "Luanda - Angola Today" (in en-US). Angola Today. http://www.angola-today.com/tourism/destinations/luanda/.
3. ↑ Guardian Staff (2019-01-22). "After the oil boom: Luanda faces stark inequality – photo essay" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/jan/22/after-the-oil-boom-luanda-faces-stark-inequality-photo-essay.
4. ↑ Specter, Michael (2015-05-25). "Luxury Living in a Failed State" (in en). The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/06/01/extreme-city-specter. Retrieved 2019-06-15.
5. ↑ "Luanda most expensive city for expats" (in en-GB). 2017-06-21. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40346559.
6. ↑ Neild, Barry (2018-06-26). "Most expensive city for expats revealed" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/most-expensive-cities-expats-2018/index.html.
7. ↑ Leitão, José. "A Missão no Reino de Angola". https://repositorio.ucp.pt/bitstream/10400.14/4910/1/LS_S2_05_JoseADLeitao.pdf.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Disney, Anthony (2009) (in English). A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire: From Beginnings- Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-1139057332.
9. ↑ "Carta particolare che comincia con l'Isola di S:Tomaso ò Tome è c:d'S:Clara è finisce con il c:d'Aldeas: la longitudine comincia da i'isola di Pico d'Asores di Europa Carta VIII. Lº6º". https://almamater.uc.pt/bib-geral/nabaisconde/item/44369.
10. ↑ "BY ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. (FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.)". National Library of New Zealand. https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NOT18670409.2.10.
11. ↑ "Daily British Columbian". https://open.library.ubc.ca/viewer/dbc/1.0346007#p0z-1r0f:leonda.
12. ↑ "Portuguese Colonial Remains". Colonialvoyage.com. http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainP.html.
13. ↑ See Joseph Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, London & Madison/Wis, : James Currey & University of Wisconsin Press, 1988
14. ↑ João C. Curto. Álcool e Escravos: O Comércio Luso-Brasileiro do Álcool em Mpinda, Luanda e Benguela durante o Tráfico Atlântico de Escravos (c. 1480-1830) e o Seu Impacto nas Sociedades da África Central Ocidental. Translated by Márcia Lameirinhas. Tempos e Espaços Africanos Series, vol. 3. Lisbon: Editora Vulgata. H-net.org. 2002. ISBN 978-972-8427-24-5. http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=13661080113274. Retrieved 2009-05-14.
15. ↑ Njoku, Onwuka N. (1997). Mbundu. Rosen Pub.. pp. 38–39. ISBN 9780823920044. https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok.
16. ↑ "Angola Embassy in Cairo". https://www.angolaeg.net/.
17. ↑ angolaPT (3 December 2008). "Angola antes da Guerra (Parte 2)". https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsD7bjz6ILY.
18. ↑ "Mayor's International Council Sister Cities Program". Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais. http://www.pbh.gov.br/bh-internacional/bhz-acordos_irmas.htm.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Croese, Sylvia (2013-11-21). "Post-war State-Led Development at Work in Angola: The Zango Housing Project in Luanda as a Case Study.". p. 68. https://dw.angonet.org/wp-content/uploads/sylvia_croese_2013_zango_housing_phd_thesis.pdf.
20. ↑ Onyeifulu, T. Obi. "The Portuguese in Angola: Colonial Theory and the Policy of Assimilation". The Nigerian Academic Forum 1 (1): 12. //www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/the nigerian academic forum/Obi44.pdf.
21. ↑ Mike Davis (2007). Planet of Slums. Verso. p. 103. ISBN 9781844671601.
22. ↑ "Tokyo falls out of top 10 most expensive cities - FT.com". Financial Times (ft.com). 16 June 2015. http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/505424e6-1455-11e5-9bc5-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3d7FKVaI7.
23. ↑ The Economist: Marching towards riches and democracy? August 28, 2008
24. ↑ "OT Africa Line - Angola". Otal.com. 2004-07-01. http://www.otal.com/angola/.
25. ↑ "China International Fund Limited". Chinainternationalfund.com. http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=287.
26. ↑ "Angola Press - Economia - Pobreza será combatida com emprego e habitações sociais, diz ministro-adjunto do PM". Portalangop.co.ao. 2010-05-25. http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/economia/Pobreza-sera-combatida-com-emprego-habitacoes-sociais-diz-ministro-adjunto,d4542ae2-820b-4c6b-bdee-85dc280983b5.html.
27. ↑ MBRO de 2010.pdf Streets of Luanda from the Luanda Provincial Government website new pictures from Luanda City (Portuguese)
28. ↑ "Luanda (Province, Angola) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map and Location". https://www.citypopulation.de/en/angola/admin/05__luanda/.
29. ↑ "Luanda (Archdiocese) [Catholic-Hierarchy"]. https://catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dlund.html.
30. ↑ Lusa, VerAngola (2022-02-17). "Government announces rehabilitation and privatization of Cidadela stadium". VerAngola. https://www.verangola.net/va/en/022022/Sports/29517/Government-announces-rehabilitation-and-privatization-of-Cidadela-stadium.htm.
31. ↑ Dewar, Robert E. and Wallis, James R; "Geographical patterning in interannual rainfall variability in the tropics and near tropics: An L-moments approach"; in Journal of Climate, 12; pp. 3457–3466
32. ↑ "Visit Luanda, Angola" (in en-GB). https://visitafrica.site/cities/experience-luanda/.
33. ↑ Video from heavy rain falls in Luanda December 28, 2010
34. ↑ "Klimatafel von Luanda, Prov. Luanda / Angola" (in de). Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world. Deutscher Wetterdienst. http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_661600_kt.pdf.
35. ↑ "Station Luanda" (in fr). Meteo Climat. http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=1479.
36. ↑ Bastin, Jean-Francois; Clark, Emily; Elliott, Thomas; Hart, Simon; van den Hoogen, Johan; Hordijk, Iris; Ma, Haozhi; Majumder, Sabiha et al. (10 July 2019). "Understanding climate change from a global analysis of city analogues". PLOS ONE 14 (7): S2 Table. Summary statistics of the global analysis of city analogues.. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217592. PMID 31291249. Bibcode: 2019PLoSO..1417592B.
37. ↑ "Cities of the future: visualizing climate change to inspire action". Current vs. future cities. https://crowtherlab.pageflow.io/cities-of-the-future-visualizing-climate-change-to-inspire-action.
38. ↑ "The CAT Thermometer". https://climateactiontracker.org/global/cat-thermometer/.
39. ↑ Trisos, C.H., I.O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N.P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: Chapter 9: Africa . In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2043–2121
40. ↑ Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC. August 2021. p. TS14. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 "Angola: Provinces, Major Cities, Urban Localities & Urban Agglomerations - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information". http://citypopulation.de/Angola-Cities.html.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Britannica, Angola , britannica.com, USA, accessed on July 7, 2019
43. ↑ "International Spotlight: Angola". Washingtonpost.com. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-adv/specialsales/spotlight/angola/article8.html.
44. ↑ "Angola: Easy access to guns concern as election nears - Angola | ReliefWeb" (in en). reliefweb.int. The New Humanitarian. 13 March 2006. https://reliefweb.int/report/angola/angola-easy-access-guns-concern-election-nears.
45. ↑ Zuber, Helene (17 May 2012). "Tens of Thousands of Portuguese Emigrate to Fast-Growing Angola - SPIEGEL ONLINE". Der Spiegel (spiegel.de). http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/tens-of-thousands-of-portuguese-emigrate-to-fast-growing-angola-a-833360.html.
46. ↑ Smith, David (2012-09-16). "Portuguese escape austerity and find a new El Dorado in Angola". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/16/portuguese-exodus-angola-el-dorado.
47. ↑ Mei-ting Schmitz, Cheryl (March 1, 2014). "Significant Others: Security and Suspicion in Chinese-Angolan Encounters". Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 43 (1). doi:10.1177/18681026140430010. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/186810261404300103. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
48. ↑ VNA / VLLF (2025-11-12). "Vietnam, Angola mark 50 years of enduring friendship, cooperation". Vietnam News Agency. https://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/vietnam-angola-mark-50-years-of-enduring-friendship-cooperation-75.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "CNIL history" (in Portuguese). CNIL. http://clubenautico.org/historia.aspx. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
50. ↑ Keeping the flow in Angola's slums , Department for International Development (DFID), United Kingdom (February 13, 2009)
51. ↑ "Worldwide Cost of Living survey 2015 - City rankings". www.mercer.com. http://www.mercer.com/newsroom/cost-of-living-survey.html.
52. ↑ Mayda, Matteo de (2017-07-07). "Divided Luanda: life inside a city fueled by inequality – in pictures" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/jul/07/luanda-angola-expensive-city-divided-oil-in-pictures.
53. ↑ "Angola's new import tariffs putting the squeeze on the poorest residents in one of the world's most expensive cities". The Independent. 2014-04-23. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/angolas-new-import-tariffs-putting-the-squeeze-on-the-poorest-residents-in-one-of-the-worlds-most-expensive-cities-9278530.html.
54. ↑ Bryan, Bethany; Sheehan, Sean; Lin, Yong Jui (2018-12-15) (in en). Angola. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-5026-4019-2. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Angola/HPKCDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=luanda+harbor+exports+diamonds&pg=PA49&printsec=frontcover.
55. ↑ "GDP growth: A look ahead". The Economist. 2007-12-19. http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10316212.
56. ↑ "Belas shopping inaugurado em Luanda" (in pt). Angonoticias.com. 28 March 2007. http://www.angonoticias.com/Artigos/item/12911.
57. ↑ "China International Fund Limited". Chinainternationalfund.com. http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=284.
58. ↑ "China International Fund Limited". Chinainternationalfund.com. http://www.chinainternationalfund.com/projects1.asp?Id=283.
59. ↑ "Angola Delays Opening of $5 Billion Airport for the Fourth Time" (in en). Bloomberg.com. 2022-06-17. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-17/angola-delays-opening-of-5-billion-airport-for-the-fourth-time.
60. ↑ Orban, André (10 November 2023). "New Luanda International Airport opens in Angola after long delay". Aviation24. https://www.aviation24.be/airports/luanda-airport-lad/new-luanda-international-airport-opens-in-angola-after-long-delay/.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 "The top eight busiest ports in Africa (Photos and Infographic)". June 20, 2015. https://www.africanbusinesscentral.com/2015/06/20/the-top-eight-busiest-ports-in-africa-photos-and-infographic/.
62. ↑ Scott Wilson projects
63. ↑ "Angola: Part of Luanda's Highway Complete By December". allAfrica.com. 2008-08-15. http://allafrica.com/stories/200808180008.html.
64. ↑ "Luanda surface light rail system will cost US$3 billion – Macauhub". 6 November 2019. https://macauhub.com.mo/en/2019/11/06/pt-metro-de-superficie-de-luanda-vai-custar-3000-milhoes-de-dolares/.
65. ↑ "Getting to know Africa's flashy basketball arenas". FIBA. 2 September 2019. https://www.fiba.basketball/news/getting-to-know-africas-flashy-basketball-arenas.
66. ↑ "Sister Cities". http://www.houstontx.gov/abouthouston/sistercities.html.
67. ↑ "Pesquisa de Legislação Municipal - No 14471" (in pt). Prefeitura da Cidade de São Paulo [Municipality of the City of São Paulo]. http://www3.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cadlem/secretarias/negocios_juridicos/cadlem/integra.asp?alt=11072007L 144710000.
68. ↑ Lei Municipal de São Paulo 14471 de 2007 WikiSource Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist.
69. ↑ "Lisboa - Geminações de Cidades e Vilas" (in pt). Associação Nacional de Municípios Portugueses [National Association of Portuguese Municipalities]. http://www.anmp.pt/anmp/pro/mun1/gem101l0.php?cod_ent=M1100.
70. ↑ "Acordos de Geminação, de Cooperação e/ou Amizade da Cidade de Lisboa" (in pt). Camara Municipal de Lisboa. http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/municipio/relacoes-internacionais.
71. ↑ "Geminações de Cidades e Vilas". https://www.anmp.pt/anmp/pro/mun1/gem101l0.php?cod_ent=M4000.
72. ↑ "International Relations of the City of Porto". © 2006–2009 Municipal Directorateofthe PresidencyServices InternationalRelationsOffice. http://www.cm-porto.pt/document/449218/481584.pdf.
73. ↑ Associação Porto Digital. "C.M. Porto". Cm-porto.pt. http://www.cm-porto.pt/gen.pl?sid=cmp.sections/521.

## Bibliography

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