Sukhumi

Sukhumi or Sokhumi is a city in a wide bay on the Black Sea's eastern coast. It is both the capital and largest city of Abkhazia, a partially recognized state that most countries consider a part of Georgia. The city has been controlled by Abkhazia since the Abkhazian war in 1992–93. The city, which has an airport, is a port, major rail junction and a holiday resort because of its beaches, sanatoriums, mineral-water spas and semitropical climate. It is also a member of the International Black Sea Club.[1]

Sukhumi's history can be traced to the 6th century BC, when it was settled by Greeks, who named it Dioscurias. During this time and the subsequent Roman period, much of the city disappeared under the Black Sea. The city was named Tskhumi when it became part of the Kingdom of Abkhazia and then the Kingdom of Georgia. Contested by local princes, it became part of the Ottoman Empire in the 1570s, where it remained disputed until it was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1810.

After a period of conflict during the Russian Civil War, it briefly became part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia,[2] until it was again taken by the Bolsheviks. Within the Soviet Union, Sukhumi served as the capital of the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia and then the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the Georgian SSR. It was also a popular holiday destination. As the Soviet Union dissolved in the early 1990s, the city suffered significant damage during the Abkhaz–Georgian conflict. The present-day population of 60,000 is only half of the population living there toward the end of Soviet rule.[3]

## Contents

* 1 Toponym
* 2 History
* 2.1 Ancient history
* 2.2 Medieval and early modern history
* 2.3 19-21st centuries
* 3 Population
* 3.1 Demographics
* 3.2 Religion
* 4 Culture
* 4.1 Main sights
* 4.2 Education
* 5 Climate
* 6 Administration
* 6.1 List of mayors
* 7 Transport
* 8 Notable people
* 9 International relations
* 9.1 Twin towns — Sister cities
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References
* 13 Sources and external links

## Toponym

In Georgian, the city is known as Sokhumi (სოხუმი), amongst Samurzakanians in Megrelian the city is sometimes referred to as Aqujikha (აყუჯიხა),[4][5] and in Russian as Сухум (Sukhum) or Сухуми (Sukhumi). The toponym Sokhumi derives from the Georgian word Tskhomi/Tskhumi (ცხომი/ცხუმი), which in turn is supposed to be derived from Svan tskhum (ცხუმ) meaning "hornbeam tree".[6] In Abkhaz, the city is known as Aqwa (Аҟәа) which is believed to derive from a-qwara (а-ҟәара), meaning "stony seashore".[5] According to Abkhaz tradition Aqwa (Аҟәа) signifies water.[7]

Medieval Georgian sources knew the town as Tskhumi (ცხუმი).[8][9][10] Later, under Ottoman control, the town was known in Turkish as Suhum-Kale (Ottoman Turkish: صخوم قلعه), which was derived from the earlier Georgian form Tskhumi or read to mean "Tskhumi fortress".[11][12]

The ending -i in the above forms represents the Georgian nominative suffix. The town was officially called Сухум (Sukhum) in Russian until 16 August 1936, when this was changed to Sukhumi (Сухуми).[13] This remained so until 4 December 1992, when the Supreme Council of Abkhazia restored the previous version.[14] Russia also readopted its official spelling in 2008.[15]

In English, the most common form today is Sukhumi,[16] although Sokhumi is increasing in usage and has been adopted by sources including United Nations,[17] Encyclopædia Britannica,[18] Esri[19] and Google Maps.[20]

## History

Coin of Dioscurias, late 2nd century BC. Obverse: The caps (pilei) of Dioscuri surmounted by stars; reverse: Thyrsos, ΔΙΟΣΚΟΥΡΙΑΔΟΣ

### Ancient history

The history of the city began in the mid-6th century BC when an earlier settlement of the second and early first millennia BC, frequented by local Colchian tribes, was replaced by the Milesian Greek colony of Dioscurias (Greek: Διοσκουριάς).[21][22] The city is said to have been founded[23][24] and named by the Dioscuri, the twins Castor and Pollux of classical mythology. According to another legend it was founded by Amphitus and Cercius of Sparta, the charioteers of the Dioscuri.[25][26] The Greek pottery found in Eshera, further north along the coast, predates findings in the area of Sukhumi bay by a century suggesting that the centre of the original Greek settlement could have been there.[27]

It became busily engaged in the commerce between Greece and the indigenous tribes, importing salt[28] and wares from many parts of Greece, and exporting local timber, linen, and hemp. It was also a prime center of slave trade in Colchis.[29] The city and its surroundings were remarkable for the multitude of languages spoken in its bazaars.[30]

Although the sea made serious inroads upon the territory of Dioscurias, it continued to flourish and became one of the key cities in the realm of Mithridates VI of Pontus in the 2nd century BC and supported his cause until the end. Dioscurias issued bronze coinage around 100 BC featuring the symbols of the Dioskuri and Dionysus.[31] Under the Roman emperor Augustus the city assumed the name of Sebastopolis (Greek: Σεβαστούπολις).[32] But its prosperity was past, and in the 1st century Pliny the Elder described the place as virtually deserted though the town still continued to exist during the times of Arrian in the 130s.[33] The remains of towers and walls of Sebastopolis have been found underwater; on land the lowest levels so far reached by archaeologists are of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. According to Gregory of Nyssa there were Christians in the city in the late 4th century.[34] In 542 the Romans evacuated the town and demolished its citadel to prevent it from being captured by Sasanian Empire. In 565, however, the emperor Justinian I restored the city wall and adorned Sebastopolis with streets and buildings.[35][36] The city was sacked by the Arab conqueror Marwan II in 736 according to Juansher Juansheriani.[37]

### Medieval and early modern history

Afterwards, the town came to be known as Tskhumi.[38] Restored by the kings of Abkhazia from the Arab devastation, it particularly flourished during the Georgian Golden Age in the 11th–12th centuries, when Tskhumi became the summer residence of the Georgian kings and an important cultural and administrative center of the Georgian state.[39] The city also became a major trade center after the Genoese established their trading port in Tskhumi in the end of 13th century.[40] A Catholic bishopric existed there which is now a titular see.[41] A Genoese consulate was established in 1354 with the consul dispatched from Caffa. In spite of occasional conflicts with the locals, the consulate functioned until 1456.[40] In addition to the Genoese, the city was the home to Armenian, Muslim and Jewish merchants.[42] The city was a major centre of Black Sea slave trade. Wax, wine and grain were exported to Europe via Sukhumi while cloth, luxury goods and salt were imported.[43] Tskhumi served as capital of the Odishi — Megrelian rulers, it was in this city that Vamek I (c. 1384–1396), the most influential Dadiani, minted his coins.[39]

The Sohum-Kale fort in the early 19th century.

Documents of the 15th century clearly distinguished Tskhumi from Principality of Abkhazia.[44] The Ottoman navy occupied the town in 1451, but for a short time. Later contested between the princes of Abkhazia and Mingrelia, Tskhumi finally fell to the Turks in the 1570s. The new masters heavily fortified the town and called it Sohumkale, with kale meaning "fort" but the first part of the name of disputed origin. It may represent Turkish su (Ottoman Turkish: صو), "water", and kum (Ottoman Turkish: قوم), "sand", but is more likely to be an alteration of its earlier Georgian name.[38]

### 19-21st centuries

Sukhumi Botanical Garden

At the request of the pro-Russian Abkhazian prince, the town was stormed by the Russian Marines in 1810 and turned, subsequently, into a major outpost in the North West Caucasus. (See Russian conquest of the Caucasus). Sukhumi was declared the seaport in 1847 and was directly annexed to the Russian Empire after the ruling Shervashidze princely dynasty was ousted by the Russian authorities in 1864. During the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878, the town was temporarily controlled by the Ottoman forces and Abkhaz-Adyghe rebels. After its annexation, Sukhumi became the administrative center of the Sukhumi Okrug.[45]

Sukhumi quay

Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the town and Abkhazia in general were engulfed in the chaos of the Russian Civil War. A short-lived Bolshevik government was suppressed in May 1918 and Sukhumi was incorporated into the Democratic Republic of Georgia as a residence of the autonomous People's Council of Abkhazia and the headquarters of the Georgian governor-general. The Red Army and the local revolutionaries took the city from the Georgian forces on 4 March 1921, and declared Soviet rule. Sukhumi functioned as the capital of the "Union treaty" Abkhaz Soviet Socialist Republic associated with the Georgian SSR from 1921 until 1931, when it became the capital of the Abkhazian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the Georgian SSR. By 1989, Sukhumi had 120,000 inhabitants and was one of the most prosperous cities of Georgia.

Sukhumi in 1912. Early color photo by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii

Beginning with the 1989 riots, Sukhumi was a centre of the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict, and the city was severely damaged during the 1992–1993 War. During the war, the city and its environs suffered almost daily air strikes and artillery shelling, with heavy civilian casualties.[46] On 27 September 1993 the battle for Sukhumi was concluded by a full-scale campaign of ethnic cleansing against its majority Georgian population (see Sukhumi Massacre), including members of the pro-Georgian Abkhazian government (Zhiuli Shartava, Raul Eshba and others) and mayor of Sukhumi Guram Gabiskiria. Although the city has been relatively peaceful and partially rebuilt, it is still suffering the after-effects of the war, and it has not regained its earlier ethnic diversity. Its population in 2017 was 65,716, compared to about 120,000 in 1989. During summer holidays season its population usually doubles and triples with a large inflow of international tourists.[3]

In 2021, there was unrest in the city leading to the resignation of President Aslan Bzhani.[47]

## Population

### Demographics

Historic population figures for Sukhumi, split out by ethnicity, based on population censuses:[3]

Year  | Abkhaz  | Armenians  | Estonians  | Georgians  | Greeks  | Russians  | Turkish  | Ukrainians  | Total

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

1886 Census*  | 0.1%
(3) | 12.9%
(53) | –  | 27.9%
(115) | 22.6%
(93) | 28.9%
(119) | –  | –  | 412
1897 Census*  | 1.8%
(144) | 13.5%
(1,083) | 0.4%
(32) | 30.9%
(2,565) | 14.3%
(1,143) | 21.1%
(1,685) | 2.7%
(216) | –  | 7,998
1916 almanac**[48] | n/a  | 13.3%
(8,250) | n/a  | 40.6%
(25,156) | n/a  | 30.5%
(18,890) | n/a  | n/a  | 61,974
1926 Census  | 3.1%
(658) | 9.4%
(2,023) | 0.3%
(63) | 23.3%
(5,036) | 10.7%
(2,298) | 23.7%
(5,104) | –  | 10.4%
(2,234) | 21,568
1939 Census  | 5.5%
(2,415) | 9.8%
(4,322) | 0.5%
(206) | 19.9%
(8,813) | 11.3%
(4,990) | 41.9%
(18,580) | –  | 4.6%
(2,033) | 44,299
1959 Census  | 5.6%
(3,647) | 10.5%
(6,783) | –  | 31.1%
(20,110) | 4.9%
(3,141) | 36.8%
(23,819) | –  | 4.3%
(2,756) | 64,730
1979 Census  | 9.9%
(10,766) | 10.9%
(11,823) | –  | 38.3%
(41,507) | 6.5%
(7,069) | 26.4%
(28,556) | –  | 3.4%
(3,733) | 108,337
1989 Census  | 12.5%
(14,922) | 10.3%
(12,242) | –  | 41.5%
(49,460) | –  | 21.6%
(25,739) | –  | –  | 119,150
2003 Census  | 56.3%
(24,603) | 12.7%
(5,565) | 0.1%
(65) | 4.0%
(1,761) | 1.5%
(677) | 16.9%
(8,902) | –  | 1.6%
(712) | 43,716
2011 Census  | 67.3%
(42,603) | 9.8%
(6,192) | –  | 2.8%
(1,755) | 1.0%
(645) | 14.8%
(9,288) | –  | –  | 62,914

* The Abkhazians were collectively deemed guilty of the 1877 insurrection, leading to restrictions that forbade them from settling near the coast (except for members of the upper classes) or living in Sukhumi. The devastated central part of Abkhazia, modern-day Sukhumi and Gulripshi districts, between the rivers Psyrtskha and Kodori became a colonized land-fund of the imperial administration. A buffer-zone was thus established between the Gudauta and Ochamchira Abkhazians. Abkhazians had no right to settle in this part of their own country. Meanwhile, thousands of Armenians, Mingrelians, Greeks, Russians, Estonians, Germans, and Moldovans were resettled there starting from 1879.[49]

** The 1916 almanac gives separate figures only for Russians, Kartvelians and Armenians.[48]

### Religion

## Culture

### Main sights

Sukhumi theatres which offer classical and modern performances, with the theatre season lasting from September to June. Several galleries and museums exhibit modern and historical Abkhaz visual art. Sukhumi Botanical Garden was established in 1840 to introduce new plants to the Caucasus.[50]

Medieval bridge over the Besletka river known as the Queen Tamar Bridge.

Sukhumi houses a number of historical monuments, notably the Besleti Bridge built during the reign of queen Tamar of Georgia in the 12th century. It also retains visible vestiges of the defunct monuments, including the Roman walls, the medieval Castle of Bagrat, several towers of the Kelasuri Wall, also known as Great Abkhazian Wall, constructed between 1628 and 1653 by Levan II Dadiani to protect his fiefdom from the Abkhaz tribes;[51] the 14th-century Genoese fort and the 18th-century Ottoman fortress. The 11th century Kamani Monastery (12 kilometres (7 miles) from Sukhumi) is erected, according to tradition, over the tomb of Saint John Chrysostom.

Northward in the mountains is the Krubera Cave, one of the deepest in the world, with a depth of 2,140 meters.[52]

### Education

According to the official statistical data, Abkhazia has 12 TVET colleges (as of 2019, est.) providing education and vocational training to youth mostly in the capital city, though there are several colleges in all major district centers. Independent international assessments suggest that these colleges train in about 20 different specialties attracting between 1200 and 1500 young people annually (aged between 16 and 29) (as of 2019, est.).[53] The largest colleges are as follows:

* Abkhaz Multiindustrial College (1959) (from 1959 to 1999 – Sukhumi Trade and Culinary School),
* Sukhumi State College (1904) (from 1904 to 1921 – Sukhumi Real School; from 1921 to 1999 – Sukhumi Industrial Technical School),
* Sukhumi Art College (1934) (from 1934 to 1966 – Sukhumi Art Studio). This college is also a home for a relatively large collection of local paintings and sculptures accumulated mainly during past 60 years.
* Sukhumi Medical College (1931)

Higher education in Sukhumi currently is represented by one university, Abkhazian State University,[54] which has a special status in the education system in Abkhazia and it manages its own budget.[55]

Abkhaz State University (1979), has its own campus which is a home for 42 departments organized into 8 faculties providing education to about 3300 students (as of 2019, est.).[53]

## Climate

Sukhumi has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), that is almost cool enough in summer to be an oceanic climate (Cfb). Script error: No such module "weather box".

## Administration

On 2 February 2000, President Ardzinba dismissed temporary Mayor Leonid Osia and appointed Leonid Lolua in his stead.[58] Lolua was reappointed on 10 May 2001 following the March 2001 local elections.[59]

On 5 November 2004, in the heated aftermath of the 2004 presidential election, president Vladislav Ardzinba appointed head of the Gulripshi District assembly Adgur Kharazia as acting mayor. During his first speech he called upon the two leading candidates, Sergei Bagapsh and Raul Khadjimba, to both withdraw.[60]

On 16 February 2005, after his election as president, Bagapsh replaced Kharazia with Astamur Adleiba, who had been Minister for Youth, Sports, Resorts and Tourism until December 2004.[61] In the 11 February 2007 local elections, Adleiba successfully defended his seat in the Sukhumi city assembly and was thereupon reappointed mayor by Bagapsh on 20 March.[62]

In April 2007, while President Bagapsh was in Moscow for medical treatment, the results of an investigation into corruption within the Sukhumi city administration were made public. The investigation found that large sums had been embezzled and upon his return, on 2 May, Bagapsh fired Adleiba along with his deputy Boris Achba, the head of the Sukhumi's finance department Konstantin Tuzhba and the head of the housing department David Jinjolia.[63] On 4 June Adleiba paid back to the municipal budget 200,000 rubels.[64] and on 23 July, he resigned from the Sukhumi city council, citing health reasons and the need to travel abroad for medical treatment.[65]

On 15 May 2007, president Bagapsh released Alias Labakhua as First Deputy Chairman of the State Customs Committee and appointed him acting Mayor of Sukhumi, a post temporarily fulfilled by former Vice-Mayor Anzor Kortua. On 27 May Labakhua appointed Vadim Cherkezia as Deputy Chief of staff.[66] On 2 September, Labakhua won the by-election in constituency No. 21, which had become necessary after Adleiba relinquished his seat. Adleiba was the only candidate and voter turnout was 34%, higher than the 25% required.[67] Since Adleiba was now a member of the city assembly, president Bagapsh could permanently appoint him Mayor of Sukhumi on 18 September.[68]

Following the May 2014 Revolution and the election of Raul Khajimba as president, he on 22 October dismissed Labakhua and again appointed (as acting Mayor) Adgur Kharazia, who at that point was Vice Speaker of the People's Assembly.[69] Kharazia won the 4 April 2015 by-election to the City Council in constituency no. 3 unopposed,[70] and was confirmed as mayor by Khajimba on 4 May.[71] The 6th convocation of the Sukhumi City Council was elected 13 April 2016.

### List of mayors

#  | Name  | From  |  | Until  |  | President  | Comments

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Chairmen of the (executive committee of the) City Soviet:
| Vladimir Mikanba  | 1975  | [72] | 1985  | [72] |  |
| D. Gubaz  | <=1989  |  | >=1989  |  |  |
| Nodar Khashba  | 1991  |  |  |  | First time
| Guram Gabiskiria  | 1992  |  | 27 September 1993  |  |  |
Heads of the City Administration:
| Nodar Khashba  | 1993  | [72] | 26 November 1994  |  |  | Second time
26 November 1994  |  | 1995  | [72] | Vladislav Ardzinba
| Garri Aiba  | 1995  |  | 2000  |  |
| Leonid Osia |  |  | 2 February 2000  | [58] | Acting Mayor
| Leonid Lolua  | 2 February 2000  | [58] | 5 November 2004  | [60] |
| Adgur Kharazia | 5 November 2004  | [60] | 16 February 2005  | [61] | Acting Mayor, first time
| Astamur Adleiba  | 16 February 2005  | [61] | 2 May 2007  | [63] | Sergei Bagapsh  |
| Anzor Kortua | May 2007  |  | 15 May 2007  |  | Acting Mayor
| Alias Labakhua  | 15 May 2007  |  | 29 May 2011  |  |
29 May 2011  |  | 1 June 2014  |  | Alexander Ankvab  |
1 June 2014  |  | 22 October 2014  |  | Valeri Bganba |
| Adgur Kharazia  | 22 October 2014  |  | Present  |  | Raul Khajimba  | Second time

## Transport

Railway station

Sukhumi is served by a network of 3 trolleybus lines.[73]

There is a railway station in Sukhumi, that has a daily train to Moscow via Sochi.[74]

Sukhumi Babushara Airport received its first scheduled international flight on 1 May 2025.[75]

## Notable people

Notable people who are from or have resided in Sukhumi:

* Anton Alikhanov (1986), Russian politician, governor of Kaliningrad Oblast[76]
* Alexander Ankvab (1952), Abkhaz politician and businessman, Prime Minister of Abkhazia.[77]
* Otari Arshba (1955), Russian politician and member of the State Duma of the Russian Federation.[78]
* Verdicenan Achba (1825–1889), seventh wife of Sultan Abdulmejid I of the Ottoman Empire.[79]
* Sergei Bagapsh (1949–2011), Second President of the Republic of Abkhazia[80]
* Fazil Iskander (1929–2016), Russian writer and poet.[81][82]
* Irma Khetsuriani (1985), Georgian wheelchair fencing world champion.[83][84]
* Sergey Kiriyenko (1962), Russian politician, First Deputy Chief of Staff of the Presidential Administration of Russia.[85]
* Vera Kobalia (1981), Georgian politician.[86]
* Daur Kove (1979), current Minister for Foreign Affairs of Abkhazia.[87]

## International relations

### Twin towns — Sister cities

Sukhumi is twinned with the following cities:

* Podolsk, Russia[88]
* Arkhangelsk, Russia[89]
* Sant'Antioco, Italy[90][91]
* Side, Turkey[92]
* Managua, Nicaragua[93]

## See also

* Sokhumi Municipality
* Sukhumi District
* List of twin towns and sister cities in Georgia

## Notes

## References

1. ↑ "International Black Sea Club, members". http://www.i-bsc.info/emember.php.
2. ↑ Hoiberg, Dale H., ed (2010). "Abkhazia". Encyclopedia Britannica. I: A-ak Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.. pp. 33. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8. https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/33.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "население абхазии". http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/rnabkhazia.html.
4. ↑ Otar Kajaia, 2001–2004, Megrelian-Georgian Dictionary (entry aq'ujixa).
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Abkhaz Loans in Megrelian, p. 65
6. ↑ (in en) Assays from the history of Georgia. Abkhazia from ancient times to the present day. Tbilisi, Georgia: Intelect. 2011. ISBN 978-9941-410-69-7. https://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/handle/1234/10253.
7. ↑ Colarusso, John. "More Pontic: Further Etymologies between Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian". p. 54. http://www.safarmer.com/Indo-Eurasian/Pontic-horse.pdf.
8. ↑ Vita Sanctae Ninonis . TITUS Old Georgian hagiographical and homiletic texts: Part No. 39
9. ↑ Martyrium David et Constantini . TITUS Old Georgian hagiographical and homiletic texts: Part No. 41
10. ↑ Kartlis Cxovreba: Part No. 233. TITUS
11. ↑ Goltz, Thomas (2009). "4. An Abkhazian Interlude". Georgia Diary (Expanded ed.). Armonk, New York / London, England: M.E. Sharpe. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-7656-2416-1.
12. ↑ "Путеводитель по городу Сухуму и Сухумскому Округу с историко-этнографическим очерком". https://abkhazeti.info/ethno/EkplpAVElyHNzaIaLX2.php.
13. ↑ Заяц, Д.В. (2001). "Изменение административно-территориального деления союзных республик" (in ru). География 28. https://geo.1sept.ru/article.php?ID=200102809. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
14. ↑ Сборник законодательных актов Республики Абхазия, выпуск 3. Сухум: www.rrc.ge. 1995. pp. 94–95. http://www.rrc.ge/law/dadg_1992_12_04_R.htm?lawid=719&lng_3=ru.
15. ↑ "Абхазию и Южную Осетию на картах в РФ выкрасят в "негрузинские" цвета". 13 November 2008. https://www.newsru.com/russia/13nov2008/colors.html.
16. ↑ "Google Books Ngram Viewer" (in en). https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Sukhumi,Sokhumi&year_start=1800&year_end=2022&corpus=en&smoothing=3.
17. ↑ "Geospatial, location information for a better world". UN Geospatial. https://www.un.org/geospatial/content/georgia.
18. ↑ "Sokhumi". (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 November 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Britannica.com
19. ↑ "Esri ArcGis WebMap". Esri. http://www.arcgis.com/home/webmap/viewer.html.
20. ↑ "Google Maps changes Sukhumi to Sokhumi following Georgia's request". Agenda.ge. 10 February 2015. http://agenda.ge/news/29597/eng.
21. ↑ "Περίπλους Ευξείνου Πόντου – Βικιθήκη". https://el.wikisource.ecnu.cf/wiki/Περίπλους_Ευξείνου_Πόντου.
22. ↑ King, Charles (2004). "The Expedition of Flavius Arrianus". The Black Sea. A history.. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924161-3.
23. ↑ "ToposText 206#275". https://topostext.org/work/206#275.
24. ↑ "ToposText 145#1.111". https://topostext.org/work/145#1.111.
25. ↑ "ToposText 493#22.8.24". https://topostext.org/work/493#22.8.24.
26. ↑ "ToposText 747#15.17". https://topostext.org/work/747#15.17.
27. ↑ David, Braund (1994). Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC AD 562. Calendon Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 0-19-814473-3.
28. ↑ David, Braund (1994). Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC AD 562. Calendon Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-19-814473-3.
29. ↑ Blair, William (1833). An inquiry into the state of slavery amongst the Romans. T. Clark. p. 25.
30. ↑ "The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Geography of Strabo Vol. II., translated By H. C. Hamilton.". https://www.gutenberg.org/files/44885/44885-h/44885-h.htm.
31. ↑ David, Braund (1994). Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC AD 562. Calendon Press. pp. 158–159. ISBN 0-19-814473-3.
32. ↑ Hewitt, George (1998) The Abkhazians: a handbook St. Martin's Press, New York, p. 62, ISBN 0-312-21975-X
33. ↑ Dioscurias. A Guide to the Ancient World, H.W. Wilson (1986). Retrieved 20 July 2006, from Xreferplus.com
34. ↑ Vinogradov, Andrey (2014). "Some Notes On The Topography Of Eastern Pontos Euxeinos In Late Antiquity And Early Byzantium". SSRN 2543458.
35. ↑ Evans, James Allan Stewart (1996). The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power. Routledge. p. 92. ISBN 9780415022095.
36. ↑ Лакоба, С. З., ed (1991). История Абхазии. Алашара. p. 137.
37. ↑ Джуаншериани, Джуаншер (1986). "235" (in ru). Жизнь Вахтанга Горгасала. Мецниереба.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Room, A. (2005), Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features and Historic Sites. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, North Carolina, and London, ISBN 0-7864-2248-3, p. 361
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "• Papaskiri- ABKHAZIA – UNFALSIFIED HISTORY". 18 April 2010. https://iberiana.wordpress.com/afxazeti/unfalsified-history/.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Comai, Georgio. "The Genoese in Abkhazia". https://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Abkhazia/The-Italian-maritime-republics-and-slave-trade-from-the-Caucasus-213053.
41. ↑ Alasania, Giuli (August 2016). "Level of Independence in Georgia Throughout the 14th Century". Journal of Literature and Art Studies 6 (8): 974. http://www.academia.edu/download/47689003/Journal_of_Literature_and_Art_Studies_Vol.6_Issue_8_August_2016.pdf. "As it is known, a Catholic bishopric existed in Sukhumi as early as in 1318 and Bernard Morre was appointed as the bishop. Peter Gerald was appointed to the same position in 1330".
42. ↑ Чирикба, В. А. (2020) (in Russian). Абхазия и итальянские города-государства (XIII–XV вв.). Очерки взаимоотношений. Алетейя. pp. 26. ISBN 978-5-00165-119-2.
43. ↑ Чирикба, В. А. (2020) (in Russian). Абхазия и итальянские города-государства (XIII–XV вв.). Очерки взаимоотношений. Алетейя. pp. 22-23. ISBN 978-5-00165-119-2.
44. ↑ "მარიამ ლორთქიფანიძე – აფხაზები და აფხაზეთი". http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/div/m.lordkiPaniZe_abkh.html.
45. ↑ Template:Cite Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus
46. ↑ "The Human Rights Watch report, March 1995 Vol. 7, No. 7". Hrw.org. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Georgia2.htm.
47. ↑ "Opposition Protests In Georgia's Breakaway Abkhazia Turn Violent" (in en). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 21 December 2021. https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-abkhazia-opposition-protests/31620013.html.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 (in Russian) Кавказский календарь на 1917 год (72nd ed.). Tiflis: Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom. 1917. pp. 363–364. https://www.prlib.ru/item/417322.
49. ↑ World, Abkhaz (14 March 2013). "Thirty years of "guilt" (1877–1907), by Stanislav Lakoba". https://abkhazworld.com/aw/history/617-thirty-years-of-guilt-1877-1907-by-stanislav-lakoba.
50. ↑ "Abkhazia, Once Called the "Russian Riveria"". VoA. 11 April 2023. https://www.voanews.com/a/abkhazia-once-called-the-russian-riveria/1639195/p2.html.
51. ↑ Ю.Н. Воронов (Yury Voronov), "Келасурская стена" (Kelasuri wall). Советская археология 1973, 3. Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist.
52. ↑ Voronya Peshchera. Show Caves of the World. Retrieved on 29 July 2008.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Государственный комитет Республики Абхазия по статистике". https://ugsra.org/ofitsialnaya-statistika.php?ELEMENT_ID=409.
54. ↑ "The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Republic of Abkhazia". https://www.tppra.org/en/news/abkhazian-state-university-6206.html.
55. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru). http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/state/culture/university.php.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/state/culture/university.php&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Place:Sukhumi">
56. ↑ "Sukhumi". climatebase.ru. http://climatebase.ru/station/37260.
57. ↑ "Georgia, Sukhumi climate information". Travel-climate.com. http://www.travel-climate.com/georgia/data.php?cit=37260.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 "СООБЩЕНИЯ АПСНЫПРЕСС". Apsnypress. 2 February 2000. http://abkhazia-gov.narod.ru/apsnypress.html.
59. ↑ "Выпуск № 92". 10 May 2001. http://abkhazia.narod.ru/gb/1579.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 "MAYOR SUGGESTS ABKHAZ PRESIDENTIAL RIVALS SHOULD WITHDRAW". RFE/RL. 10 November 2004. http://www.hri.org/cgi-bin/brief?/news/balkans/rferl/2004/04-11-10.rferl.html#21.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 "Указ Президента Абхазии №5 от 16.02.2005". Администрация Президента Республики Абхазия. 16 February 2005. http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/president/activities/decree/detail.php?ID=1498.
62. ↑ "Президент Сергей Багапш подписал указы о назначении глав городских и районных администраций". Апсныпресс. 20 March 2007. http://www.apsnypress.info/news2007/march/20.htm.
63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "Abkhazia's anti-corruption drive". Institute for War & Peace Reporting. 20 March 2007. http://iwpr.net/report-news/abkhazias-anti-corruption-drive.
64. ↑ "Экс-мэр Сухуми вернул в бюджет двести тысяч рублей". REGNUM. 5 June 2007. http://www.regnum.ru/news/838958.html&tbb=1.
65. ↑ "Экс-мэр Сухума намерен покинуть Столичное городское Собрание". Администрация Президента Республики Абхазия. 23 July 2007. http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/president/press/news/detail.php?ID=7220.
66. ↑ "Заместителем главы администрации столицы Абхазии назначен Вадим Черкезия". Caucasian Knot. 27 May 2007. http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/115078/.
67. ↑ "АЛИАС ЛАБАХУА ИЗБРАН ДЕПУТАТОМ ГОРОДСКОГО СОБРАНИЯ СУХУМА". Апсныпресс. 3 September 2007. http://www.apsnypress.info/news2007/september/3.htm.
68. ↑ "СЕРГЕЙ БАГАПШ ПОДПИСАЛ УКАЗ О НАЗНАЧЕНИИ АЛИАСА ЛАБАХУА ГЛАВОЙ АДМИНИСТРАЦИИ ГОРОДА СУХУМ". Апсныпресс. 18 September 2007. http://www.apsnypress.info/news2007/september/18.htm.
69. ↑ "Адгур Харазия назначен исполняющим обязанности главы администрации г. Сухум". Apsnypress. 22 October 2014. http://apsnypress.info/news/13326.html.
70. ↑ "Итоги выборов". Избирательная комиссия по выборам в органы местного самоуправления г.Сухум. http://alhra.org/index.php/30-sostoyanie-vybornogo-protsessa-na-12-00-04-04-2015g.
71. ↑ Khajimba, Raul. "УКАЗ О главе администрации города Сухум". http://presidentofabkhazia.org/upload/iblock/ab8/Указ О главе Администрации г. Сухум.pdf.
72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 72.3 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `lakoba`
73. ↑ "Where does the Sukhumi Trolleybus go to?" (in ru-RU). 2019-07-18. https://abh-n.ru/kuda-vezet-suxumskij-trollejbus/.
74. ↑ RZD, [1] , 14.08.2020
75. ↑ "Из Москвы в Абхазию вылетел первый рейс после 30-летнего перерыва" (in ru). Kommersant. 2025-05-01. https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/7694732.
76. ↑ "Что самый молодой глава региона РФ А. Алиханов рассказал о своих предках?". AiF. 30 November 2016. http://www.klg.aif.ru/politic/chto_samyy_molodoy_glava_regiona_rf_a_alihanov_rasskazal_o_svoih_predkah.
77. ↑ "Alexander Ankvab šeimos istorija ir istoriniai įrašai". https://www.myheritage.lt/names/alexander_ankvab.
78. ↑ "Аршба Отари" (in en-US). 2014-06-04. https://www.forbes.ru//profile/259273-arshba.
79. ↑ Tuna, Mahinur (2007). İlk Türk kadın ressam: Mihri Rasim (Müşfik) Açba : 1886. P23, 25. İstanbul-1954 New-York. As Yayın. ISBN 978-9-750-17250-2.
80. ↑ "Sergueï Bagapsh". Caucaz.com. 11 January 2005. http://www.caucaz.com/home/breve_contenu.php?id=147.
81. ↑ Christine Rydel. Russian Prose Writers After World War II, Volume 302. p 122. Thomson Gale, 2005 ISBN 0787668397
82. ↑ Coalson, Robert (August 2016). "A Remembrance Of Fazil Iskander: 'We Have All Lost A Close Relative'". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFERL). https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-fazil-iskander-remembrance/27893385.html.
83. ↑ "Georgian Female Fencer Takes World Championship Gold". Caucasus Business Week. 23 October 2015. http://cbw.ge/georgia/georgian-female-fencer-takes-world-championship-gold/. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
84. ↑ Akhalaia, Ana (24 October 2015). "Georgian Fencer Wins Gold Medal at World Cup Competition". Georgia Today. http://georgiatoday.ge/news/1674/Georgian-Fencer-Wins-Gold-Medal-at-World-Cup-Competition. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
85. ↑ "Oil and banking fuel the rise of Russian risk-taker". The Irish Times. 18 April 1998.
86. ↑ "Official biography". Government of Georgia website. http://www.economy.ge/?category=16&lang=eng&item=135.
87. ↑ "Даур Кове назначен министром иностранных дел Абхазии". Apsnypress. 4 October 2016. http://apsnypress.info/news/daur-kove-naznachen-ministrom-inostrannykh-del-abkhazii/. Retrieved 15 November 2016.
88. ↑ "Сайт Администрации г.Подольска – Побратимы". Admpodolsk.ru. 2016-06-15. http://www.admpodolsk.ru/index.php?categoryid=126&p2_articleid=286.
89. ↑ "Новости". Apsnypress.info. http://apsnypress.info/news/3422.html.
90. ↑ "12 мая между городами Абхазии и Италии были подписаны Протоколы о дружбе и сотрудничестве". Mfaapsny.org. http://www.mfaapsny.org/news/index.php?ID=2314.
91. ↑ "Il Sulcis rafforza il legame con i paesi dell'Est europeo, sottoscritto questa sera un protocollo d'amicizia con l'Abkhcazia". Laprovinciadelsulcisiglesiente.com. 2013-04-09. http://www.laprovinciadelsulcisiglesiente.com/wordpress/2014/05/il-sulcis-rafforza-il-legame-con-i-paesi-dellest-europeo-sottoscritto-questa-sera-un-protocollo-damicizia-con-labkhcazia/.
92. ↑ "Viacheslav Chirikba: Our goal is to remove Abkhazia from international isolation". Abkhaz World. 2012-11-25. https://abkhazworld.com/aw/diaspora/138-viacheslav-chirikba-our-goal-is-to-remove-abkhazia-from-international-isolation.
93. ↑ "Managua mit neuer Städtepartnerschaft". amerika21.de. 2021-11-12. https://amerika21.de/2021/11/255388/managua-suchum-staedtepartnerschaft.

## Sources and external links

| Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Sukhumi.

|

[ ⚑ ]  43°00′N 41°01′E﻿ / ﻿43°N 41.017°E﻿ / 43; 41.017

Template:Administrative divisions of Abkhazia Template:Cities and towns in Georgia (country)

* v
* t
* e

Capitals of Asia

Dependent territories and states with limited recognition are in italics

| Central Asia| South Asia| Southeast Asia| West Asia

|
|
|

* Ashgabat, Turkmenistan
* Astana, Kazakhstan
* Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
* Dushanbe, Tajikistan
* Tashkent, Uzbekistan

East Asia

* Beijing, China
* Pyongyang, North Korea
* Seoul, South Korea
* Taipei, Taiwan
* Tokyo, Japan
* Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

North Asia

* Moscow, Russia

* Camp Thunder Cove, BIOT (UK) *
* Dhaka, Bangladesh
* Islamabad, Pakistan
* Kabul, Afghanistan
* Kathmandu, Nepal
* Malé, Maldives
* New Delhi, India
* Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Sri Lanka
* Thimphu, Bhutan

* Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
* Bangkok, Thailand
* Dili, East Timor
* Flying Fish Cove, Christmas Island (Australia)
* Hanoi, Vietnam
* Jakarta, Indonesia
* Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
* Manila, Philippines
* Naypyidaw, Myanmar
* Phnom Penh, Cambodia
* Singapore
* Vientiane, Laos
* West Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia)

* Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
* Amman, Jordan
* Ankara, Turkey
* Baghdad, Iraq
* Baku, Azerbaijan
* Beirut, Lebanon
* Damascus, Syria
* Doha, Qatar
* Episkopi Cantonment, Akrotiri and Dhekelia (UK)
* Jerusalem, Israel *
* Kuwait City, Kuwait
* Manama, Bahrain

* Muscat, Oman
* Nicosia, Cyprus
* North Nicosia, Northern Cyprus *
* Ramallah, Palestine (de facto) *
* Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
* Sanaa, Yemen
* Sokhumi, Abkhazia *
* Tbilisi, Georgia
* Tehran, Iran
* Tskhinvali, South Ossetia *
* Yerevan, Armenia

* Disputed. See: Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute, Cyprus dispute, Status of Jerusalem, Abkhaz-Georgian conflict and Georgian-Ossetian conflict

* v
* t
* e

Capitals of Europe

Capitals of dependent territories and states whose sovereignty is disputed shown in italics.

Sovereign states|

* Amsterdam, Netherlands1
* Andorra la Vella, Andorra
* Ankara, Turkey2
* Astana, Kazakhstan2
* Athens, Greece
* Baku, Azerbaijan2
* Belgrade, Serbia
* Berlin, Germany
* Bern, Switzerland
* Bratislava, Slovakia
* Brussels, Belgium3
* Bucharest, Romania
* Budapest, Hungary
* Chișinău, Moldova
* Copenhagen, Denmark
* Dublin, Ireland
* Helsinki, Finland
* Kyiv, Ukraine
* Lisbon, Portugal
* Ljubljana, Slovenia
* London, United Kingdom
* Luxembourg, Luxembourg
* Madrid, Spain
* Minsk, Belarus
* Monaco4
* Moscow, Russia
* Nicosia, Cyprus2
* Oslo, Norway
* Paris, France
* Podgorica, Montenegro
* Prague, Czech Republic
* Reykjavík, Iceland
* Riga, Latvia
* Rome, Italy
* San Marino, San Marino
* Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Skopje, North Macedonia
* Sofia, Bulgaria
* Stockholm, Sweden
* Tallinn, Estonia
* Tbilisi, Georgia2
* Tirana, Albania
* Vaduz, Liechtenstein
* Valletta, Malta
* Vatican City4
* Vienna, Austria
* Vilnius, Lithuania
* Warsaw, Poland
* Yerevan, Armenia2
* Zagreb, Croatia

States with
limited recognition|

* North Nicosia, Northern Cyprus2
* Pristina, Kosovo
* Sokhumi, Abkhazia2
* Tiraspol, Transnistria
* Tskhinvali, South Ossetia2

Dependencies|

| United Kingdom|

| Constituent countries|

* London, England
* Edinburgh, Scotland
* Cardiff, Wales
* Belfast, Northern Ireland

|

Crown Dependencies and
Overseas Territories|

* Douglas, Isle of Man
* Episkopi Cantonment, Akrotiri and Dhekelia
* Gibraltar, Gibraltar
* St Helier, Jersey
* Saint Peter Port, Guernsey

Other|

* Longyearbyen, Svalbard (Norway)
* Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Denmark)

Federal states|

| Austria|

* Bregenz, Vorarlberg
* Eisenstadt, Burgenland
* Graz, Styria
* Innsbruck, Tyrol
* Klagenfurt, Carinthia
* Linz, Upper Austria
* Salzburg, Salzburg
* Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria
* Vienna, Vienna

|

Belgium|

| Communities|

* Brussels, Flemish Community and French Community
* Eupen, German-speaking Community

|

Regions|

* Brussels, Brussels-Capital Region and Flanders
* Namur, Wallonia

Bosnia and Herzegovina|

* Banja Luka (de facto), Republika Srpska
* Brčko, Brčko District
* Sarajevo, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Germany|

* Berlin, Berlin
* Bremen, Bremen
* Dresden, Saxony
* Düsseldorf, North Rhine-Westphalia
* Erfurt, Thuringia
* Hamburg, Hamburg
* Hanover, Lower Saxony
* Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein
* Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt
* Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate
* Munich, Bavaria
* Potsdam, Brandenburg
* Saarbrücken, Saarland
* Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
* Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg
* Wiesbaden, Hesse

Russia|

| Republics|

* Cheboksary, Chuvashia
* Cherkessk, Karachay-Cherkessia
* Elista, Kalmykia
* Grozny, Chechnya
* Izhevsk, Udmurtia
* Kazan, Tatarstan
* Magas, Ingushetia
* Makhachkala, Dagestan
* Maykop, Adygea
* Nalchik, Kabardino-Balkaria
* Petrozavodsk, Karelia
* Saransk, Mordovia
* Simferopol, Crimea (disputed)
* Syktyvkar, Komi
* Ufa, Bashkortostan
* Vladikavkaz, North Ossetia–Alania
* Yoshkar-Ola, Mari El

|

Autonomous okrugs|

* Naryan-Mar, Nenets

Krais|

* Krasnodar, Krasnodar Krai
* Perm, Perm Krai
* Stavropol, Stavropol Krai

Oblasts|

* Arkhangelsk, Arkhangelsk Oblast
* Astrakhan, Astrakhan Oblast
* Belgorod, Belgorod Oblast
* Bryansk, Bryansk Oblast
* Ivanovo, Ivanovo Oblast
* Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast
* Kaluga, Kaluga Oblast
* Kirov, Kirov Oblast
* Kostroma, Kostroma Oblast
* Krasnogorsk and Moscow, Moscow Oblast (de facto)
* Kursk, Kursk Oblast
* Lipetsk, Lipetsk Oblast
* Murmansk, Murmansk Oblast
* Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
* Orenburg, Orenburg Oblast
* Oryol, Oryol Oblast
* Penza, Penza Oblast
* Pskov, Pskov Oblast
* Rostov-on-Don, Rostov Oblast
* Ryazan, Ryazan Oblast
* Gatchina, Leningrad Oblast
* Samara, Samara Oblast
* Saratov, Saratov Oblast
* Smolensk, Smolensk Oblast
* Tambov, Tambov Oblast
* Tula, Tula Oblast
* Tver, Tver Oblast
* Ulyanovsk, Ulyanovsk Oblast
* Veliky Novgorod, Novgorod Oblast
* Vladimir, Vladimir Oblast
* Volgograd, Volgograd Oblast
* Vologda, Vologda Oblast
* Voronezh, Voronezh Oblast
* Yaroslavl, Yaroslavl Oblast

Federal cities|

* Moscow
* Saint Petersburg
* Sevastopol (disputed)

Switzerland|

* Aarau, Aargau
* Altdorf, Uri
* Appenzell, Appenzell Innerrhoden
* Basel, Basel-Stadt
* Bellinzona, Ticino
* Chur, Grisons
* Delémont, Jura
* Frauenfeld, Thurgau
* Fribourg, Canton of Fribourg
* Geneva, Canton of Geneva
* Herisau, Appenzell Ausserrhoden
* Lausanne, Vaud
* Liestal, Basel-Landschaft
* Lucerne, Canton of Lucerne
* Neuchâtel, Canton of Neuchâtel
* Sarnen, Obwalden
* Schaffhausen, Canton of Schaffhausen
* Schwyz, Canton of Schwyz
* Sion, Valais
* Solothurn, Canton of Solothurn
* Stans, Nidwalden
* St. Gallen, Canton of St. Gallen
* Glarus, Canton of Glarus
* Zug, Canton of Zug
* Zurich, Canton of Zürich

Autonomous
entities|

| Italy|

| Autonomous regions|

* Cagliari, Sardinia
* Palermo, Sicily
* Trento, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
* Aosta, Aosta Valley
* Trieste, Friuli Venezia Giulia

|

Portugal|

| Autonomous regions|

* Ponta Delgada, Angra do Heroísmo, & Horta, Azores
* Funchal, Madeira

|

Spain|

* Barcelona, Catalonia
* Las Palmas & Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands
* Logroño, La Rioja
* Madrid, Community of Madrid
* Mérida, Extremadura
* Murcia, Region of Murcia
* Oviedo, Asturias
* Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands
* Pamplona, Navarre
* Santander, Cantabria
* Santiago de Compostela, Galicia
* Seville, Andalusia
* Toledo, Castilla–La Mancha (de facto)
* Valencia, Valencian Community
* Valladolid, Castile and León (de facto)
* Vitoria-Gasteiz, Basque Country (de facto)
* Zaragoza, Aragon

Other|

* Ajaccio, Corsica Collectivité (France)
* Batumi, Adjara (Georgia)
* Comrat, Gagauzia (Moldova)
* Karyes, Mount Athos (Greece)
* Mariehamn, Åland Islands (Finland)
* Nakhchivan, Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan)
* Novi Sad, Vojvodina (Serbia)
* Simferopol, Crimea (Ukraine)

* 1 Also the capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
* 2 Continental placement may vary depending on geographic convention being followed
* 3 Also the seat of the European Union, see Institutional seats of the European Union and Brussels and the European Union
* 4 A city-state

Template:Pontic colonies

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