Date of birth of Jesus

Short description: Hypothetical date of birth of Jesus

The date of birth of Jesus is not stated in the gospels or in any historical reference, but most biblical scholars assume a year of birth between 6 and 4 BC.[1] The historical evidence is too incomplete to allow a definitive dating,[2] but the year is estimated through three different approaches: (A) by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, (B) by working backward from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus,[3][4] and (C) astrological or astronomical alignments.[5] The common Christian traditional dating of the birthdate of Jesus was 25 December, a date first asserted officially by Pope Julius I in 350 AD, although this claim is dubious or otherwise unfounded.[6] The day or season has been estimated by various methods, including the description of shepherds watching over their sheep.[4]

## Contents

* 1 Year of birth
* 1.1 Nativity accounts
* 1.2 Other gospel evidence
* 1.3 Theories based on the Star of Bethlehem
* 2 Day and season
* 2.1 Shia view
* 3 See also
* 4 References
* 4.1 Notes
* 4.2 Citations
* 4.3 Sources
* 4.4 Further reading
* 5 External links

## Year of birth

### Nativity accounts

The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus.[lower-alpha 1] Karl Rahner states that the authors of the gospels generally focused on theological elements rather than historical chronologies.[7]

Both Luke and Matthew associate Jesus' birth with the time of Herod the Great.[7] Matthew 2:1 states that "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king". He also implies that Jesus could have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the Magi, because Herod ordered the murder of all boys up to the age of two years, "in accordance with the time he had learned from the Magi". Matthew 2:16[8] In addition, if the phrase "about 30" in Luke 3:23 is interpreted to mean 32 years old, this could fit a date of birth just within the reign of Herod, who died in 4 BC.[9][10][11][12][13][14]

Luke 1:5 mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus,[4] and places the birth during the Census of Quirinius, which the Jewish historian Josephus described as taking place circa AD 6 in his book Antiquities of the Jews (written c. AD 93),[7] by indicating that Cyrenius/Quirinius' governorship of Syria began in AD 6 and a census took place during his tenure sometime between AD 6–7.[lower-alpha 2][15][16][lower-alpha 3] Since Herod died many years before this census, most scholars discount the census and generally accept a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC, the year in which Herod died.[1][4][7] Tertullian believed, some two centuries later, that a number of censuses were performed throughout the Roman world under Sentius Saturninus at the same time.[16][15][17] Some biblical scholars and commentators believe the two accounts can be harmonized,[18][19] arguing that the text in Luke can be read as "registration before Quirinius was governor of Syria", i.e., that Luke was actually referring to a completely different census.[lower-alpha 4]

### Other gospel evidence

Dispute of Jesus and the Pharisees, by James Tissot, c. 1890

Another approach to estimating the year of birth is based on an attempt to work backwards from the point when Jesus began preaching, using the statement in Luke 3:23 that he was "about 30 years of age" at that time.[20] Jesus began to preach after being baptized by John the Baptist, and based on Luke's gospel John only began baptizing people in "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar" (Luke 3:1–2), which scholars estimate would place the year at about AD 28–29.[20][21][22][23][24] By working backwards from this, it would appear that Jesus was probably born no later than 1 BC.[3][20][23] Another theory is that Herod's death was as late as after the January eclipse of 1 BC[25] or even AD 1[26] after the eclipse that occurred in 1 December BC.[27]

This date is independently confirmed by John's reference in John 2:20 to the Temple being in its 46th year of construction when Jesus began his ministry during Passover, which corresponds to around 27–29 AD according to scholarly estimates.[28]

### Theories based on the Star of Bethlehem

Most scholars regard the Star of Bethlehem account to be a pious fiction, of literary and theological value, rather than historical. Nonetheless, attempts have been made to interpret it as an astronomical event, which might then help date Jesus' birth through the use of ancient astronomical records, or modern astronomical calculations. The first such attempt was made by Johannes Kepler who interpreted the account to describe a Great Conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn.

University of Cambridge Professor Colin Humphreys has argued in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society that a comet in the early 5 BC was likely the "Star of Bethlehem", putting Jesus' birth in or near April, 5 BC.[29]

Other astronomical events have been considered, including a close planetary conjunction between Venus and Jupiter in 2 BC.[30]

## Day and season

Despite the modern celebration of Christmas in December, neither the Gospel of Luke nor Gospel of Matthew mention a season for Jesus' birth. Scholarly arguments have been made regarding whether shepherds would have been grazing their flock during the winter, with some scholars challenging a winter birth for Jesus[31] and some defending the idea by citing the mildness of winters in Judea and rabbinic rules regarding sheep near Bethlehem before February.[4][32][33]

Alexander Murray of History Today argues that the celebration of Christmas as the birth day of Jesus is based on a date of a pagan feast rather than historical analysis.[34] Saturnalia, the Roman feast for Saturn, was associated with the winter solstice. But Saturnalia was held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities only up through 23 December. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn and in the Roman Forum, as well as a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival atmosphere that overturned Roman social norms. The Roman festival of Natalis Solis Invicti has also been suggested, since it was celebrated on 25 December and was associated with some prominent emperors.[35] It is likely that such a Christian feast was chosen for Christ's marked contrast and triumph over paganism; indeed, new converts who attempted to introduce pagan elements into the Christian celebrations were sharply rebuked.[36]

Alternatively, 25 December may have been selected owing to its proximity to the winter solstice because of its symbolic theological significance. After the solstice, the days begin to lengthen with longer hours of sunlight, which Christians see as representing the Light of Christ entering the world. This symbolism applies equally to the celebration of the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist on 24 June, near the summer solstice, based on John's remark about Jesus "He must increase; I must decrease." John 3:30 NRSV.[37]

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Lord's Day (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the Resurrection of Jesus became a separate feast (now called Easter) and in the same century Epiphany began to be celebrated in the Eastern Churches on 6 January.[38] The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas was a 4th-century feast in the Western Church notably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first celebrated.[39]

The earliest source stating 25 December as the date of birth of Jesus is likely a book by Hippolytus of Rome, written in the early 3rd century.[40] He based his view on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring equinox which Hippolytus placed on 25 March, and then added nine months to calculate the date of birth. That date was then used for the Christmas celebration.[41] 25 March would also roughly be the date of his crucifixion, which ancient Christians would have seen as confirming the date of his birth, since many people of that era held the belief that the great prophets were conceived into the afterlife on the same date they were conceived into the world.[citation needed] Ignacio L. Götz suggests that Jesus could have been born "in the late spring of the year because pregnancies began in the fall after the harvests were in and there was enough money for a wedding feast."[42] John Chrysostom argued for a 25 December date in the late 4th century, basing his argument on the assumption that the offering of incense mentioned in Luke 1:8–11 refers to the offering of incense by a high priest on Yom Kippur (early October), and, as above, counting fifteen months forward. However, this was very likely a retrospective justification of a choice already made rather than a genuine attempt to derive the correct birth date.[43] John Chrysostom also writes in his homily on the Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ (Εἰς τὸ γενέθλιον τοῦ Σωτῆρος ἡµῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) that the date of 25 December was well known from the beginning among Westerners.[44]

Other sources stating 25 December as the date of Jesus are:

* Evodius in an epistle reported in part by Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos in his Ecclesiastical History II, 3[lower-alpha 5]
* Saint Jerome described a commentary by Victorinus of Pettau on papers by Alexander of Jerusalem:[45]

We have found, among the papers of Alexander, who was Bishop in Jerusalem, what he transcribed in his own hand from apostolic documents: on the eighth day before the calends of January Our Lord Jesus Christ was born, during the consulate of Sulpicius and Camerinus [sic: Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus was consul in AD 9]
* Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea, as reported in Historia Ecclesiae Christi (or Centuriae Magdeburgenses, cent. II. chapter VI[lower-alpha 6]

Lastly, 25 December might be a reference to the date of the Feast of Dedication, which occurs on 25 Kislev of the Jewish calendar. This would require that early Christians simply translated Kislev directly to December.[citation needed]

Research done by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints generally places the birth of Jesus at some point in early to mid April,[46] whereas September or late March have been suggested by theologian, biblical scholar and author Ian Paul.[47]

### Shia view

In the Shia hadith compilation Tuhaf al-Uqul the sixth imam, Jafar As Sadiq says the following when approached about the birth of Christ during Christmas,

"They have lied. Rather, it was in the middle of June. The day and night become even in the middle of March".

This statement of his does not literally mean it was on June 15th but it is in reference to a day near the Spring Equinox.[48]

## See also

* Adoration of the shepherds
* Anno Domini
* Ante Christum Natum
* Baptism of Jesus
* Christ myth theory
* Chronology of Jesus
* Common Era
* Detailed Christian timeline
* Dionysius Exiguus
* Gospel harmony
* Historical Jesus
* Historicity of Jesus
* Jesus in Christianity
* Life of Jesus in the New Testament
* Timeline of the Bible
* Venerable Bede

## References

### Notes

1. ↑ Rahner 1975, p. 731 states that the gospels do not, in general, provide enough details of dates to satisfy the demands of modern historians. Most mainline scholars do not see the Luke and Matthew nativity stories as historically factual; Marcus Borg in Borg & Wright 2009, p. 179 states "I (and most mainline scholars) do not see these stories as historically factual." Funk & Jesus Seminar 1998, p. 499 state, "There is very little in the two infancy narratives that reflects historical reminiscence." For this reason, they do not consider them a reliable method for determining Jesus' date of birth. See also Sanders 1993, pp. 85–88
2. ↑ Josephus 1854, Book 18, Chapters 1–2 indicates that the census under Cyrenius (another form of the name "Quirinius") occurred in the 37th year after Octavian's (i.e., Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus') victory over Marcus Antonius at the Battle of Actium, which secular historical records date to 2 September 31 BC. Therefore 31 BC + 37 years which is AD 6–7. Most scholars therefore believe Luke made an error when referring to the census.(Archer 1982)
3. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `MoreScholars`
4. ↑ In the words of Vermes 2006, pp. 28–30 these arguments have been rejected by the mainstream as "exegetical acrobatics", springing from the assumption that the Bible is inerrant,(Novak 2001) and most scholars have concluded that Luke's account is an error.(Brown 1978)
5. ↑ Translation: He [Evodius] says the period from the nativity of Christ unto the passing of the mother of God was forty-four years; but the whole of her life, fifty-nine years. This sum obtains if it was in fact the case that she was presented at the temple when she was three years old and there in the holy precincts spent eleven years. Then, by the priest’s hands was placed in the custody of Joseph, with whom she resided four months when she received the joyful announcement from the angel Gabriel. However, she gave birth to the Light of this World, the twenty-fifth day of the month of December, being fifteen years of age.
6. ↑ ut Theophilus indicat: Quid nobis necesse est ad lunae computum cum Iudaeis Pascha facere? Quin sicut Domini natalem, quocunque die VIII Calendarum Ianuarii venerit; ita et VIII Calendarum Aprilis, quando resurrectio accidit, Christi debemus Pascha celebrare.

### Citations

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Dunn 2003, p. 344.
2. ↑ Doggett 2006, p. 579.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Maier 1989, pp. 113–129.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Niswonger 1992, p. 121–124.
5. ↑ Molnar 1999, p. 104.
6. ↑ Pearse 2018.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Rahner 1975, p. 731.
8. ↑ Freed 2001, p. 119.
9. ↑ Barnes 1968, pp. 204–209.
10. ↑ Bernegger 1983, pp. 526–531.
11. ↑ Gelb 2013, p. 140.
12. ↑ Martin 1989, pp. 93–94.
13. ↑ Schürer, Vermès & Millar 1973, p. 328.
14. ↑ Steinmann 2009, pp. 1–29.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Kokkinos 1989, pp. 133–165.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Evans 1973, pp. 24–39.
17. ↑ Rhees 2007, Section 54.
18. ↑ Archer 1982, p. 366.
19. ↑ Bruce 1984, pp. 87–88.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 114.
21. ↑ Freedman & Myers 2000, p. 249.
22. ↑ Evans 2003, pp. 67–69.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Novak 2001, pp. 302–303.
24. ↑ Hoehner 1977, pp. 29–37.
25. ↑ Revillo, Juan, & Keyser, John. "Did Herod the 'Great' Really Die in 4 BC?". http://www.hope-of-israel.org/herodsdeath.html.
26. ↑ "Where Was Jesus Born?". http://www.khouse.org/enews_article/2005/1008/print/.
27. ↑ Pratt, John. "Yet Another Eclipse for Herod". http://www.ips-planetarium.org/?page=a_pratt1990.
28. ↑ Scarola 1998, pp. 61–81.
29. ↑ Humphreys 1991, pp. 389–407.
30. ↑ Mosley, J. (1981). "Common Errors in 'Star of Bethlehem' Planetarium Shows". The Planetarian (Third Quarter). https://www.ips-planetarium.org/general/custom.asp?page=a_mosley1981.
31. ↑ "When was Jesus born? | Bibleinfo.com" (in en). http://www.bibleinfo.com/en/questions/when-was-jesus-born.
32. ↑ Morris 1988, p. 93.
33. ↑ Freed 2001, pp. 136–137.
34. ↑ Murray, Alexander, "Medieval Christmas", History Today, December 1986, 36 (12), pp. 31–39.
35. ↑ Bishop Jacob Bar-Salabi (cited in Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155)
36. ↑ Talley 1991, p. 88-91.
37. ↑ "Why do we celebrate Jesus' birth on December 25? - Catholic Answers". https://www.catholic.com/qa/why-do-we-celebrate-jesus-birth-on-december-25.
38. ↑ Espín & Nickoloff 2007, p. 237.
39. ↑ Vischer 2003, pp. 400–401.
40. ↑ Schmidt, T. C. (2010). Hippolytus of Rome: Commentary on Daniel.
41. ↑ Mills, Bullard & McKnight 1990, p. 142.
42. ↑ Castro, Joseph; published, Jessica Leggett (19 November 2021). "When Was Jesus Born?" (in en). https://www.livescience.com/42976-when-was-jesus-born.html.
43. ↑ Beckwith 2001, p. 72.
44. ↑ "On the Day of the Birth of Our Savior Jesus Christ" by St. John Chrysostom. 1, para. 1
45. ↑ Chapman 1907, p. 591.
46. ↑ "Dating the Birth of Christ" (in en). https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/dating-the-birth-of-christ/.
47. ↑ "When Was Jesus Really Born? Not Dec. 25" (in en). 2021-12-23. https://people.howstuffworks.com/when-was-jesus-born.htm.
48. ↑ Berkeley Institute,A Green Christmas: Jesus’ Birthdate In The Islamic Tradition, Bilal Muhammad, January 16, 2020, Retrieved June 22, 2022

### Sources

* Archer, Gleason Leonard (April 1982). Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House. ISBN 978-0-310-43570-9. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbi00arch/page/366.
* Barnes, T. D. (1968-04-01). "The Date of Herod's Death". The Journal of Theological Studies (Oxford University Press (OUP)) XIX (1): 204–209. doi:10.1093/jts/xix.1.204. ISSN 0022-5185.
* Beckwith, R.T. (2001). Calendar and Chronology, Jewish and Christian: Biblical, Intertestamental and Patristic Studies. Arbeiten Zur Geschichte Des Antiken Judentums Und Des Urchristentums, Bd. 33. Brill. ISBN 978-0-391-04123-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=6j-fDxGEeGIC&pg=PA72.
* Bernegger, P. M. (1983). "Affirmation of Herod's Death in 4 B.C". The Journal of Theological Studies (Oxford University Press (OUP)) 34 (2): 526–531. doi:10.1093/jts/34.2.526. ISSN 0022-5185.
* Borg, M.J.; Wright, N.T. (2009). "The Meaning of the Birth Stories". The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-193482-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=m8_CHMfz6kkC.
* Brown, R.E. (1977). The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. Doubleday & Company. ISBN 9780385059077. https://archive.org/details/birthofmessiahco0000brow.
* Brown, R.E. (1978). An Adult Christ at Christmas: Essays on the Three Biblical Christmas Stories. Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814609972. https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8Mh-GliPIC&q="most+critical+scholars+acknowledge+a+confusion+and+misdating"&pg=PA17.
* Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1984). The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-87784-691-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=XeiIAAAAMAAJ.
* Chapman, John (1907). "On an Apostolic Tradition that Christ was baptized in 46 and crucified under Nero". The Journal of Theological Studies 8 (32): 591. ISSN 0022-5185.
* Davies, W. D.; Sanders, E. P. (1984). "Jesus from the Jewish point of view". in William Horbury. The Cambridge History of Judaism. 3: the Early Roman Period.
* Doggett, L.E. (2006). "Ch.12 Calendars". in P. Kenneth Seidelmann. Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 1891389459. http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendars.html.
* Dunn, James D.G. (2003). Jesus Remembered. Christianity in the Making. Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802839312. https://archive.org/details/jesusremembered0000dunn.
* Espín, O.O.; Nickoloff, J.B. (2007). An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Michael Glazier Bks. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5856-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA237.
* Evans, C.A. (2003). The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke. Bible Knowledge Collection. Victor Books. ISBN 978-0-7814-3868-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=iZC-tdB35bAC&pg=PA67.
* Evans, C.F. (1973). "Tertullian's reference to Sentius Saturninus and the Lukan Census". Journal of Theological Studies (Oxford University Press) XXIV (1): 24–39. doi:10.1093/jts/XXIV.1.24.
* Freed, E.D. (2001). Stories of Jesus' Birth: A Critical Introduction. Biblical seminar. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84127-132-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=X7jUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA119.
* Freedman, D.N.; Myers, A.C. (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA249.
* Funk, R.W.; Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus. A Polebridge press book. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-062979-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=fg1CAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA499.
* Gelb, N. (2013). Herod the Great: Statesman, Visionary, Tyrant. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-1067-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_PRG2vFJbcsC&pg=PA140.
* Gruen, Erich S. (1996). "The Expansion of the Empire Under Augustus". in Bowman, Alan K.. The Cambridge Ancient History. 10. Cambridge University Press. p. 157. ISBN 9780521264303. https://books.google.com/books?id=JZLW4-wba7UC&pg=PA157.
* Harvey, Anthony (2004). A Companion to the New Testament. Cambridge University Press.
* Hoehner, H.W. (1977). Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Contemporary evangelical perspectives. Zondervan Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-310-26211-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=6z-NcR7fVSIC&pg=PA29.
* Humphreys, C. J. (1991). "The Star of Bethlehem a Comet in 5-BC and the Date of the Birth of Christ". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 32 (4): 389–407. Bibcode: 1991QJRAS..32..389H. https://www.csmedia1.com/delreychurch.com/tynbull_1992_43_1_02_humphreys_starbethlehem.pdf.
* Josephus (1854). W. Whiston. ed. The Works of Flavius Josephus: Comprising the Antiquities of the Jews, a History of the Jewish Wars, and Life of Flavius Josephus, Written by Himself. The Works of Flavius Josephus: Comprising the Antiquities of the Jews, a History of the Jewish Wars, and Life of Flavius Josephus, Written by Himself. Jas. B. Smith & Company. https://books.google.com/books?id=E5dCAAAAYAAJ.
* Kokkinos, Nikos (1989). "Crucifixion in A.D. 36: The Keystone for dating the birth of Jesus". in Vardaman, J.; Yamauchi, E.M.. Chronos, Kairos, Christos: Nativity and Chronological Studies Presented to Jack Finegan. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931464-50-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC.
* Köstenberger, A.J.; Kellum, L.S.; Quarles, C.L. (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. B & H Academic. ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C. Retrieved 2022-06-03.
* Maier, Paul L. (1989). "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus". in Vardaman, J.; Yamauchi, E.M.. Chronos, Kairos, Christos: Nativity and Chronological Studies Presented to Jack Finegan. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931464-50-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC.
* Martin, Ernest L. (1989). "The Nativity and Herod's Death". in Vardaman, J.; Yamauchi, E.M.. Chronos, Kairos, Christos: Nativity and Chronological Studies Presented to Jack Finegan. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931464-50-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC.
* Meier, John P. (1991). A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. 1. Doubleday.
* Millar, Fergus (1990). "Reflections on the trials of Jesus". in P.R. Davies; R.T. White. Sheffield: JSOT Press. pp. 355–381. repr. in Millar, Fergus (2006), "The Greek World, the Jews, and the East", Rome, the Greek World and the East 3: pp. 139–163
* Mills, W.E.; Bullard, R.A.; McKnight, E.V. (1990). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA142.
* Molnar, M.R. (1999). The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2701-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=GXUTibYxdDcC.
* Morris, L.L. (1988). Luke: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale New Testament commentaries. Inter-Varsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8028-0419-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=c-GcZKG-ylwC&pg=PA93.
* Niswonger, R.L. (1992). New Testament History. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-31201-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=uyAXaNnz9sUC.
* Novak, R.M. (2001). Christianity and the Roman Empire: Background Texts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-56338-347-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=TNWkzgEACAAJ&pg=PA302.
* Pearse, Roger (21 December 2018). "Dubious claims: Pope Julius I decided that Jesus was born on 25 December?" (in en-GB). https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2018/12/21/dubious-claims-pope-julius-i-decided-that-jesus-was-born-on-25-december/.
* Rahner, K. (1975). Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-86012-006-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC.
* Rhees, R. (2007). The Life of Jesus of Nazareth. Echo Library. ISBN 978-1-4068-3848-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=duW_wb7umgIC.
* Sanders, E. P. (1993). The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin.
* Scarola, Jack V. (1998). "A Chronology of the nativity Era". in Jerry Vardaman. Chronos, Kairos, Christos II: Chronological, Nativity, and Religious Studies in Memory of Ray Summers. Chronos, kairos, Christos. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-582-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=mWnYvI5RdLMC&pg=PA61.
* Schürer, E.; Vermès, G.; Millar, F. (1973). History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ. 175 B.C.-A.D. 135. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-567-02242-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=p75tWhrwGT8C&pg=PA328.
* Steinmann, Andrew (2009). "When Did Herod the Great Reign?". Novum Testamentum (Brill) 51 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1163/156853608x245953. ISSN 0048-1009.
* Talley, T.J. (1991). The Origins of the Liturgical Year. A Pueblo book. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-6075-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=T_O8F_iGcqkC&pg=PA88.
* Vermes, Géza (2 November 2006). The Nativity: History and Legend. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-191261-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=J00OOo-3RqEC&pg=PT28.
* Vischer, L. (2003). Christian Worship in Reformed Churches Past and Present. Calvin Institute of Christian Worship liturgical studies series. W.B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-0520-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=49U8FUw_laQC&pg=PA400.

### Further reading

* Allert, Craig D. (2007). A High View of Scripture?. Baker Books. ISBN 9780801027789. https://books.google.com/books?id=AKRzBQAAQBAJ&q="Scripture+is+without+error+or+fault+in+all+its+teaching"&pg=PA160.
* Blomberg, C.E. (1995). "Quirinius". in Bromiley, Geoffrey W.. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 4. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837844. https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJvO2jMCr8C&q="governor+of+Syria+when+Jesus+was+born"&pg=PA12.
* Boyd, Gregory A.; Eddy, Paul Rhodes (2007). Lord or Legend?. Grand Rapids: Baker Books.
* Bruce, F.F. (1974). Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
* Burkett, Delbert (2002). An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00720-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC&pg=PA195.
* Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. Abingdon Press. ISBN 9781426724756. https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT64.
* Edwards, James R. (2015). The Gospel of Luke. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837356. https://books.google.com/books?id=E2ffBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68.
* Freeman, Charles (2009). A New History of Early Christianity. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300125818. https://books.google.com/books?id=5_in-6VLgRoC&q="Judaea+had+first+come+under+Roman+control+in+63+BC"&pg=PA4.
* Green, Joel (1997). The Gospel of Luke. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802823151. https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC&q=commentary+luke.
* Habermas, Gary R. (1984). Ancient Evidence for the Life of Jesus. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc..
* Maisch, Ingrid; Vogle, Anton (1975). "Jesus Christ". in Rahner, Karl. Encyclopedia of Theology. A&C Black. ISBN 9780860120063. https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC&q="None+of+the+explanations+of+this+contradiction+so+far+suggested+is+satisfactory"&pg=PA732.
* Merz, Annette (2015). "The Quest for the Historical Jesus". in Van Kooten, George H.. The Star of Bethlehem and the Magi: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from Experts on the Ancient Near East, the Greco-Roman World, and Modern Astronomy. BRILL. ISBN 9789004308473. https://books.google.com/books?id=pnbsCgAAQBAJ&q="Some+challenge+the+usual+understanding+of+the+word"&pg=PA480.
* Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674778863. https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C.
* Perkins, Pheme (2009). Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802865533. https://books.google.com/books?id=lMUZhdgmOR8C.
* Sanders, E.P. (1995). The Historical Figure of Jesus. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141928227. https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC.
* Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998). The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide. Eerdmans.
* Vermes, Géza (2010). Jesus: Nativity - Passion - Resurrection. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141957449. https://books.google.com/books?id=qSV5O_b5PecC&q="a+universal+census,+or+property+registration+for+taxation+purposes"&pg=PT94.

## External links

* Catholic Encyclopedia (1910): Chronology of the Life of Jesus Christ

* v
* t
* e

Timelines of religion

Christianity|

* Timeline
* Bible
* Ussher
* English Reformation
* Intelligent design
* Jerusalem
* Jesus
* Joan of Arc
* Missions
* Mormonism
* Book of Mormon
* Eastern Orthodoxy in North America
* Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece
* Roman Catholic Church
* Opus Dei
* Syro-Malabar Catholic Church

Greek polytheism|

* Theogony
* Chaos
* Chronos
* Prometheus (creator of humans)
* Ages of Man

Islam|

* Muslim history
* Jerusalem
* Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula

Judaism|

* Jewish history
* Hebrew Bible
* Hebrew prophets
* Jerusalem
* Zionism
* Antisemitism

Other religions|

* Ayyavazhi
* Bahá'í
* Buddhism
* Hindu texts
* Scientology
* Zen Buddhism in the United States

Religion portal

* v
* t
* e

Christianity

* Index
* Outline
* Glossary
* Lists of Christians
* By country

Bible|

* Books
* Canon
* Old Testament
* New Testament

Foundations|

* Church
* Creed
* Gospel
* New Covenant
* Christian tradition

History
Timeline|

| Early Christianity|

* Jesus
* Nativity
* Baptism
* Ministry
* Sermon on the Mount
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Apostles
* Church fathers
* Apostolic fathers

|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene period
* Late antiquity
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Chalcedon
* State church of the Roman Empire
* Biblical canon

Middle Ages|

* Monasticism
* Papal States
* East–West Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
* French Revolution
* Persecution:
* Communism
* Islam

Denominations
(List)|

| Western|

* Adventist
* Anabaptist
* Anglican
* Baptist
* Calvinist
* Catholic
* Charismatic
* Evangelical
* Holiness
* Lutheran
* Methodist
* Pentecostal
* Protestant

|

Eastern|

* Eastern Orthodox
* Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)
* Church of the East (Nestorian)
* Eastern Catholic
* Eastern Protestant

Nontrinitarian|

* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Latter Day Saint movement

Theology|

* God
* Trinity
* Father
* Son
* Holy Spirit
* Christology
* Nicene Creed
* Tradition
* Original sin
* Salvation
* Worship
* Mariology
* Theotokos
* Saints
* Ecclesiology
* Four marks
* Body of Christ
* One true church
* People of God
* Canon law
* Sacraments
* Baptism
* Lord's Supper
* Marriage
* Confirmation
* Penance
* Anointing of the Sick
* Holy orders
* Mission

Philosophy|

* Natural law
* Ethics
* Science
* Evolution
* Politics

Other
Features|

| Culture|

* Liturgy
* Art
* Jesus
* Marian
* Literature
* Music
* Church buildings
* Cathedrals
* Role in civilization
* See also:
* Other religions
* Criticism
* Persecution

|

Movements|

* Asceticism
* Charismatic
* Christian democracy
* Environmentalism
* Existentialism
* Fundamentalism
* Liberation
* Left/Right
* Pacifism
* Prosperity

Cooperation|

* Christendom
* Ecumenism
* Charta Oecumenica
* World Council of Churches
* World Evangelical Alliance
* Nondenominationalism

*   * Book
* Category

0.00

(0 votes)

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Religion:Date_of_birth_of_Jesus&oldid=3909427"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template