Event of the mubahala

Short description: Meeting between the Islamic prophet Muhammad and Najranite Christians

Illustration from the Iranian Tasnim News Agency. The Muslim delegation (Hasan, Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Husayn) are shown from behind. Part of a series on Islam
Shia Islam

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* v
* t
* e

The event of the mubahala (Arabic: مُبَاهَلَة, romanized: mubāhala, lit. 'mutual cursing') was an aborted attempt to resolve a theological dispute between Muslims and Christians in c. 632 CE by invoking the curse of God upon the liars. These debates took place in Medina, located in the Arabian Peninsula, between a Christian delegation from Najran, and the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who proposed this solution probably when their discourse had reached a deadlock concerning the nature of Jesus, human or divine.

The Christian delegation withdrew from the challenge and negotiated a peace treaty, either immediately, or when Muhammad arrived for the mubahala with his family, according to the majority of Islamic traditions. This episode has been linked to certain verses of the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, particularly verse 3:61. The event is particularly significant for Shia Muslims because Muhammad was accompanied by his daughter Fatima, her husband Ali, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn, who are pivotal to Shia beliefs. At the time, this event must have raised their religious rank as the partners of Muhammad in his prophetic claims.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Event
* 2.1 Mubahala
* 2.2 Participants
* 2.2.1 Ahl al-Kisa
* 3 Significance in Shi'a Islam
* 3.1 Eid of the mubahala
* 4 Christian interpretation of the mubahala
* 5 Footnotes
* 6 References

## Etymology

The word mubahala (مُبَاهَلَة) is derived from the root verb bahala, which means 'to curse', while the noun al-bahl can mean either 'the curse' or a scarcity of water.[1] The word mubahala can also mean 'withdrawing mercy from one who lies or engages in falsehood'.[2] The act of mubahala (lit. mutual imprecation, curse) thus involves swearing a conditional curse, for instance, "May I be cursed if...," together with a purifying oath.[3] As a last resort, mubahala remains a lawful option to resolve disputes in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).[3]

## Event

With the rise of Islam in the Hejaz,[4][5] Muhammad wrote to nearby personages around the year 9 AH (631–632 CE) and invited them to Islam.[6] One such letter was apparently addressed at the bishops of the Christian community of Najran.[7] A delegation of Najrani Christians later arrived in Medina to meet with Muhammad in 8,[8] 9,[9][10] or 10 AH,[8][11][3] perhaps to ascertain his claims to prophethood.[12] In view of their weak ties with the Sasanian Empire, these and other Christians of the south were probably in a position to independently negotiate with Muhammad.[7] By one account, the delegation was led by Abd al-Masih, Abu al-Harith ibn Alqama, and Sayyid ibn al-Harith.[7][13] There a peace treaty was finally reached by which the Christians agreed to pay an annual poll-tax (jizya) but were not required to convert to Islam or partake in Muslims' military campaigns,[14] and remained in charge of their own affairs.[10] This was perhaps the first such treaty in Muslim history,[4][10] but also resembled the treatment of Christians elsewhere by Muhammad.[15] It was not until the caliphate of Umar (r. 634–644) that the Christians of Najran were expelled from the Arabian Peninsula.[4]

### Mubahala

In Medina, Muhammad and the Christian delegation may have also debated the nature of Jesus, human or divine, although the delegation ultimately rejected the Islamic belief that Jesus was merely human,[16] as represented by verse 3:59 of the Qur'an, which acknowledges the miraculous birth of Jesus but rejects the Christians' belief in his divinity, "Truly the likeness of Jesus in the sight of God is that of Adam; He created him from dust, then said to him, 'Be!' and he was."[17] Indeed, this and some other verses of the third chapter (surah), perhaps even its first seventy to eighty verses,[3] are said to have been revealed to Muhammad on this occasion.[18] Among these is verse 3:61, sometimes known as the verse of mubahala, which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to mubahala,[19] perhaps when the debate had reached a deadlock:[20]

> فَمَنْ حَآجَّكَ فِيهِ مِنۢ بَعْدِ مَا جَآءَكَ مِنَ ٱلْعِلْمِ فَقُلْ تَعَالَوْا۟ نَدْعُ أَبْنَآءَنَا وَأَبْنَآءَكُمْ وَنِسَآءَنَا وَنِسَآءَكُمْ وَأَنفُسَنَا وَأَنفُسَكُمْ ثُمَّ نَبْتَهِلْ فَنَجْعَل لَّعْنَتَ ٱللَّهِ عَلَى ٱلْكَـٰذِبِينَ
> And to whomsoever disputes with thee over it, after the knowledge that has come unto thee, say, "Come! Let us call upon our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves. Then let us pray earnestly, so as to place the curse of God upon those who lie."[18]

The following verse 3:63, "And if they turn away, then God knows well the workers of corruption,"[10] has been interpreted as the subsequent rejection by the Christian delegation of tawhid, that is, the Islamic belief in the oneness of God.[21]

### Participants

The Mubahala Mosque in Medina, present-day Saudi Arabia

By some reports, the delegation did not accept the challenge and instead negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad, either because they thought possible that he was truthful in his claims,[22][3] or because they were intimidated by the military might of Muslims.[22][23] This is reported by the Sunni exegete Muqatil ibn Sulayman (d. 767),[24] and by the Sunni historian Ibn Sa'd (d. 845) in his Tabaqat.[13] In a tradition cited by Muqatil, Muhammad reflects hypothetically that he would have taken with him to the mubahala his daughter Fatima, her husband Ali, and their two sons Hasan and Husayn.[24] Ibn Sa'd writes that two leaders of the delegation later returned to Medina and converted to Islam,[13] which might explain their earlier refusal of the mubahala.[25]

Yet according to other reports, Muhammad did appear for the occasion of mubahala, accompanied by his family, as instructed by the verse of mubahala,[22][26] apparently at the khatib ahmar (lit. red dune) in the al-Baqi cemetery, later renamed to jabal al-mubahala (lit. mountain of the mubahala).[3][27] Those who accompanied him are often identified as Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn.[8][28][29] Such reports are given by the Shia-leaning historian Ibn Ishaq (d. 767) in his al-Sira al-Nabawiyya, the Sunni exegete Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 1210) in his Tafsir,[8] the Sunni traditionist Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875) in his canonical Sahih Muslim, the Sunni traditionist Hakim al-Nishapuri (d. 1014) in his al-Mustadrak,[30] and the prominent Sunni exegete Ibn Kathir (d. 1373).[10] This indeed appears to be the majority view in exegetical works.[31] Here, the Islamicist Wilferd Madelung argues that the term 'our sons' (abna'ana) in the verse of mubahala must refer to Muhammad's grandchildren, namely, Hasan and Husayn. In that case, he continues, it would be reasonable to include also in the event their parents, namely, Ali and Fatima.[16]

#### Ahl al-Kisa

Some traditions about the mubahala add that Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn stood under Muhammad's cloak, and the five have thus become known as the ahl al-kisa (lit. people of the cloak).[32][33][34] On the same occasion, Muhammad may have defined his ahl al-bayt (lit. people of the house) as Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn, according to Shia and some Sunni sources,[31] including the canonical collections Sahih Muslim, Sunan al-Tirmidhi,[35] and Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal.[36] Alternatively, some have suggested that these claims were possibly later additions.[36][3] At any rate, the inclusion of these four by Muhammad, as his witnesses and guarantors in the mubahala ritual,[37][38] must have raised their religious rank within the community.[16][39]

## Significance in Shi'a Islam

Verse 3:61 of the Quran, also known as the verse of mubahala, inscribed in the shrine of Husayn in Karbala, located in Iraq

That Muhammad was accompanied to the mubahala by the above four is also the Shi'a view,[40] and Shia sources are unanimous that the term 'our sons' (Arabic: أَبْنَآءَنَا, romanized: abna'ana) in the verse of mubahala refers to Hasan and Husayn, the term 'our women' (Arabic: نِسَآءَنَا, romanized: nisa'ana) therein refers to Fatima, and that the term 'ourselves' (Arabic: أَنفُسَنَا, romanized: anfusana) is a reference to Muhammad and 'Ali.[41] By contrast, most reports presented by the Sunni exegete al-Tabari (d. 923) are silent about the matter, whereas some other Sunni authors agree with the Shia reports.[16][12][27]

The verse of mubahala is often cited by Shi'a scholars to support their claims concerning the prerogatives of the ahl al-kisa.[19][3] In particular, if the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to 'Ali and Muhammad, as Shi'a authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar authority as the latter.[42][23] Likewise, the Shi'a exegete Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i (d. 1981) contends that the participation of these four, to the exclusion of other Muslims, necessitates their partnership with Muhammad in his prophetic claims, for otherwise there could have been no negative consequence to their participation as the verse of mubahala targets only the liars.[43]

### Eid of the mubahala

Eid of the mubahala (عِيْد ٱلْمُبَاهَلَة) is the Shi'a commemoration of the prophet Muhammad's mubahala with the Christians of Najran, celebrated annually on 21,[3] or 24 Dhu al-Hijja of the Islamic calendar,[23] although the date in the Gregorian calendar varies from year to year because the former calendar is lunar and the latter is solar. The equivalent Gregorian date to 24 Dhu al-Hijja is shown below for a few years.

Islamic year  | 1441 | 1442 | 1443 | 1444 | 1445 | 1446

|
|
|
|
|
|

Eid of mubahala | 14 August 2020 | 3 August 2021 | 23 July 2022 | 12 July 2023 | 1 July 2024 | 20 June 2025[44]

## Christian interpretation of the mubahala

Giulio Basetti-Sani, a Franciscan Islamicist, argued that St. Francis's meeting with Sultan Malik al-Kamil was an act of reparation for the failure of the Christians of Najran to bear witness to Christ.[45]

## Footnotes

1. ↑ Berjak 2006, p. 419.
2. ↑ Massignon 1999.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Schmucker 2012.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Shahid.
5. ↑ Nickel 2006.
6. ↑ Momen 1985, p. 13.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Watt 1956, p. 127.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Shah-Kazemi 2015.
9. ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 13–14.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Nasr et al. 2015, p. 380.
11. ↑ Lalani 2000, p. 6.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Momen 1985, p. 14.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Nickel 2006, p. 181.
14. ↑ Watt 1956, pp. 127–128.
15. ↑ Watt 1956, p. 126.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Madelung 1997, p. 16.
17. ↑ Nasr et al. 2015, pp. 378–379.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Nasr et al. 2015, p. 379.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Haider 2014, p. 35.
20. ↑ Osman 2015, p. 110.
21. ↑ Nickel 2006, p. 179.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Nasr et al. 2015, pp. 379–380.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Bill & Williams 2002, p. 29.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Nickel 2006, pp. 179–180.
25. ↑ al-Hasan 1977, p. 370.
26. ↑ Lammens 2012.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Bar-Asher & Kofsky 2002, p. 141.
28. ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 61n18.
29. ↑ Daftary 2008.
30. ↑ Osman 2015, p. 140n42.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Haider 2014, p. 36.
32. ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 14, 16–7.
33. ↑ Algar 1974.
34. ↑ Tritton 2012.
35. ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 16, 325.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Soufi 1997, p. 11n36.
37. ↑ McAuliffe.
38. ↑ Fedele 2018, p. 56.
39. ↑ Lalani 2006, p. 29.
40. ↑ Thurlkill 2007, p. 20.
41. ↑ Mavani 2013, pp. 71–2.
42. ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 72.
43. ↑ Thurlkill 2007, p. 110.
44. ↑ "Dhu al-Hijjah 1446 2025 in Iran, Islamic Calendar" (in en). https://www.islamiccal.com/en/hijri-calendar/iran/.
45. ↑ Basetti-Sani, Giulio (1956). "Muhammad and St. Francis: For a More Christian Understanding of Brethren the Muslims". The Muslim World 46 (4): 345–353. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1956.tb02938.x.

## References

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* Bar-Asher, Meir M.; Kofsky, Aryeh (2002). The Nusayri-Alawi Religion: An Enquiry into Its Theology and Liturgy. Brill. ISBN 978-9004125520. https://books.google.com/books?id=2bli4DyuHRIC&q=Event+of+Mubahala&pg=PA141.
* Berjak, Rafik (2006). "Mubahala". in Leaman, Oliver. The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 419. ISBN 9780415326391. https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/418/mode/2up.
* Bill, James; Williams, John Alden (2002). Roman Catholics and Shi'i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807826898. https://archive.org/details/romancatholicssh0000bill/mode/2up.
* Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis et al., eds (2008). "Ahl al-Kisā'". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_SIM_0311. ISBN 9789004161658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_SIM_0311.
* de-Gaia, Susan, ed (2018). "Fatima (605/615–632 CE)". Encyclopedia of Women in World Religions: Faith and Culture Across History. ABC-CLIO. pp. 56. ISBN 9781440848506. https://books.google.com/books?id=jt91DwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA56.
* Griffith, Sidney H. (2012). The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims in the World of Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400834020. https://archive.org/details/GriffithMosqueInShadow/mode/1up.
* Shī'ī Islam: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 9781107031432.
* "Fresh Look at Ancient Christians of Najrän and Present Religious Dialogues". Islamic Studies 16 (4): 367–375. 1977. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847053.
* Lalani, Arzina R. (2000). Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1850435928.
* Lalani, Arzina R. (2006). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". in Leaman, Oliver. The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 28–32. ISBN 9780415326391. https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/28/mode/2up.
* Houtsma, M.Th.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R. et al., eds (2012). "Fāṭima". Encyclopaedia of Islam (First ed.). doi:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_2328. ISBN 9789004082656. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_2328.
* The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. 1997. ISBN 0521561817. https://archive.org/details/successiontomuam0000made/mode/2up.
* (in fa) La Mubâhala de Médine et l'hyperdulie de Fatima. Iran: Resalat-e Ghalam. 1999.
* Houtsma, M.Th.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R. et al., eds (2012). "Mubāhala". Encyclopaedia of Islam (First ed.). doi:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_4979. ISBN 9789004082656. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_4979.
* Mavani, Hamid (2013), Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini, Routledge Studies in Political Islam, Routledge, ISBN 9780415624404, https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/2up
* Pink, Johanna, ed. "Fāṭima". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
* An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. 1985. ISBN 9780300035315.
* Nasr, H.; Dagli, C.K.; Dakake, M.M. et al., eds (2015). The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary. Harper Collins. ISBN 9780061125867. https://archive.org/details/thestudyquran_201909/mode/2up.
* ""We Will Make Peace With You": The Christians of Najrān in Muqātil's Tafsīr". Collectanea Christiana Orientalia 3: 171–188. 2006. ISSN 1697-2104. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49292659.
* Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam. Routledge. 2015. ISBN 9781315770147.
* Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012). "Mubāhala". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289. ISBN 9789004161214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289.
* Pink, Johanna, ed. "Najrān". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00296. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00296. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
* Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam 'Ali. I.B. Tauris. 2007. ISBN 9781845115265.
* Daftary, Farhad, ed (2015). "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib 2. Biography". Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0252.
* Soufi, Denise Louise (1997). The Image of Fatima in Classical Muslim Thought (PhD thesis). Princeton University. ProQuest 304390529.
* Pink, Johanna, ed. "Curse". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00102. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
* Chosen Among Women: Mary and Fatima in Medieval Christianity and Shi'ite Islam. University of Notre Dame Press. 2007. ISBN 9780268042318. https://archive.org/details/marythurkhillchosenamongwomenmaryandfatima/mode/2up.
* Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012). "Ahl al-Kisā'". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0382. ISBN 9789004161214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0382.
* Muhammad at Medina. Clarendon Press. 1956. https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp/mode/2up.

* v
* t
* e

People and things in the Quran

Characters

Non-humans|

* Allāh ("The God")
* Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous)
* Beings in Paradise

| Animals|

| Related|

* The baqarah (cow) of Israelites
* The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph
* The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians
* Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey)
* The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon
* The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave
* The namlah (female ant) of Solomon
* The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah
* The nāqat (she-camel) of Saleh

|

Non-related|

* ʿAnkabūt (Female spider)
* Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth)
* Ḥimār (Wild ass)
* Naḥl (Honey bee)
* Qaswarah ("Lion", "beast of prey" or "hunter")

Angels|

* Angels of Hell
* Mālik
* Zabāniyah
* Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael)
* Jibrīl (Gabriel)
* Ar-Rūḥ ("The Spirit")
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ("The Trustworthy Spirit")
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ("The Holy Spirit")
* Mīkāil (Michael)
* Angel of Death (Azrael)
* Bearers of the Throne
* Riḍwān
* Munkar and Nakir
* Harut and Marut
* Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes)
* Raqib
* Atid

Others|

* Jinn
* Jann
* ʿIfrīt
* Mārid ("Rebellious one")
* Shayāṭīn (Demons)
* Iblīs the (Chief) Al-Shayṭān
* Qarīn
* Ghilmān or Wildān
* Ḥūr

Prophets|

| Mentioned|

* Ādam (Adam)
* Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha)
* Ayyūb (Job)
* Dāwūd (David)
* Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)
* Hārūn (Aaron)
* Hūd (Eber?)
* Idrīs (Enoch?)
* Ilyās (Elijah)
* ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam)
* Isḥāq (Isaac)
* Ismāʿīl (Ishmael)
* Dhabih Ullah
* Lūṭ (Lot)
* Ṣāliḥ
* Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)
* Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)
* ʿUzair (Ezra?)
* Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)
* Yaʿqūb (Jacob)
* Isrāʾīl (Israel)
* Yūnus (Jonah)
* Dhūn-Nūn ("He of the Fish (or Whale)" or "Owner of the Fish (or Whale)")
* Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ("Companion of the Whale")
* Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob)
* Zakariyyā (Zechariah)

| Ulul-ʿAzm|

* Muḥammad
* Aḥmad
* Other names and titles of Muhammad
* ʿĪsā (Jesus)
* Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)
* Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)
* Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)
* Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)
* Nūḥ (Noah)

|

Debatable ones|

* Dhūl-Qarnain
* Luqmān
* Maryam (Mary)
* Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?)

Implied|

* Irmiyā (Jeremiah)
* Isma'il Ṣādiq al-Waʿd (Fulfiller of the Promise)?
* Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel)
* Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)

People of Prophets|

| Good ones|

* Adam's immediate relatives
* Martyred son
* Wife
* Believer of Ya-Sin
* Family of Noah
* Father Lamech
* Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos
* Luqman's son
* People of Aaron and Moses
* Egyptians
* Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)
* Imraʾat Firʿawn (Arabic: امْرَأَت فِرْعَوْن, Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim (Arabic: آسِيَا بِنْت مُزَاحِم) or Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses)
* Magicians of the Pharaoh
* Wise, pious man
* Moses' wife
* Moses' sister-in-law
* Mother
* Sister
* People of Abraham
* Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo
* Ishmael's mother
* Isaac's mother
* People of Jesus
* Disciples (including Peter)
* Mary's mother
* Zechariah's wife
* People of Joseph
* Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon)
* Egyptians
* ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)
* Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))
* Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah)
* Mother
* People of Solomon
* Mother
* Queen of Sheba
* Vizier
* Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son)

|

Evil ones|

* Āzar (possibly Terah)
* Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)
* Hāmān
* Jālūt (Goliath)
* Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses)
* As-Sāmirī
* Abū Lahab
* Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)

Implied or
not specified|

* Abrahah[clarification needed]
* Bal'am/Balaam
* Barsisa
* Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua
* Luqman's son
* Nebuchadnezzar II
* Nimrod
* Rahmah the wife of Ayyub
* Shaddad

Groups|

| Mentioned|

* Aṣḥāb al-Jannah
* People of Paradise
* People of the Burnt Garden
* Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath)
* Christian apostles
* Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus)
* Companions of Noah's Ark
* Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?
* Companions of the Elephant
* People of al-Ukhdūd
* People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin
* People of Yathrib or Medina
* Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)
* Nation of Noah

| Tribes, ethnicities
or families|

* Aʿrāb (Arabs or Bedouins)
* ʿĀd (people of Hud)
* Companions of the Rass
* Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba)
* People of Sabaʾ or Sheba
* Quraysh
* Thamūd (people of Saleh)
* Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ("Companions of the Stoneland")
* ‘Ajam
* Ar-Rūm (literally "The Romans")
* Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel)
* Muʾtafikāt (The overthrown cities of Sodom and Gomorrah)
* People of Ibrahim
* People of Ilyas
* People of Nuh
* People of Shuaib
* Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)
* Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ("Companions of the Wood")
* Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah)
* Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog
* Ahl al-Bayt ("People of the Household")
* Household of Abraham
* Brothers of Yūsuf
* Lot's daughters
* Progeny of Imran
* Household of Moses
* Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim
* Daughters of Muhammad
* Muhammad's wives
* Household of Salih
* People of Fir'aun
* Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)
* Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad)
* Anṣār (Muslims of Medina who helped Muhammad and his Meccan followers, literally 'Helpers')
* Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)
* People of Mecca
* Wife of Abu Lahab
* Children of Ayyub
* Sons of Adam
* Wife of Nuh
* Wife of Lut
* Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog)
* Son of Nuh

|

Implicitly
mentioned|

* Amalek
* Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)
* Banu Nadir
* Banu Qaynuqa
* Banu Qurayza
* Iranian people
* Umayyad Dynasty
* Aus and Khazraj
* People of Quba

Religious groups|

* Ahl al-Dhimmah
* Kāfirūn (Disbelievers)
* Zoroastrians
* Munafiqun (Hypocrites)
* Muslims
* Believers
* Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book)
* Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)
* Ruhban (Christian monks)
* Qissis (Christian priest)
* Yahūd (Jews)
* Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
* Rabbani/Rabbi
* Sabians
* Polytheists
* Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
* Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot

Locations|

| Mentioned|

* Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ("The Holy Land")
* 'Blessed' Land
* In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan)
* Al-Aḥqāf ("The Sandy Plains," or "the Wind-curved Sand-hills")
* Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars)
* Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
* ʿArafāt
* Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
* Badr
* Ḥunayn
* Makkah (Mecca)
* Bakkah
* Ḥaraman Āminan ("Sanctuary (which is) Secure")
* Kaʿbah (Kaaba)
* Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
* Safa and Marwa
* Sabaʾ (Sheba)
* ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba)
* Rass
* Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally "The Garden")
* Jahannam (Hell)
* In Mesopotamia:
* Al-Jūdiyy
* Munzalanm-Mubārakan ("Place-of-Landing Blessed")
* Bābil (Babylon)
* Qaryat Yūnus ("Township of Jonah," that is Nineveh)
* Door of Hittah
* Madyan (Midian)
* Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn
* Miṣr (Mainland Egypt)
* Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)
* Sinai Region or Tīh Desert
* Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)
* Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)
* Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ("The Blessed Place")
* Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor

| Religious locations|

* Bay'a (Church)
* Miḥrāb
* Monastery
* Masjid (Mosque, literally "Place of Prostration")
* Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ("The Sacred Grove")
* Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally "The Farthest Place-of-Prostration")
* Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
* Masjid al-Dirar
* A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
* Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque)
* The Prophet's Mosque
* Salat (Synagogue)

|

Implied|

* Antioch
* Antakya
* Arabia
* Al-Ḥijāz (literally "The Barrier")
* Black Stone (Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
* Cave of Hira
* Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
* Hudaybiyyah
* Ta'if
* Ayla
* Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
* Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
* Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
* Canaan
* Cave of Seven Sleepers
* Dār an-Nadwa
* Jordan River
* Nile River
* Palestine River
* Paradise of Shaddad

Plant matter|

* Baṣal (Onion)
* Fūm (Garlic or wheat)
* Shaṭʾ (Shoot)
* Sūq (Plant stem)
* Zarʿ (Seed)

| Fruits|

* ʿAdas (Lentil)
* Baql (Herb)
* Ḥabb dhul-ʿaṣf (Corn of the husk)
* Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber)
* Rummān (Pomegranate)
* Tīn (Fig)
* Ukul khamṭ (Bitter fruit or food of Sheba)
* Zaytūn (Olive)
* In Paradise
* Forbidden fruit of Adam

|

Bushes, trees
or plants|

* Plants of Sheba
* Athl (Tamarisk)
* Sidr (Lote-tree)
* Līnah (Tender Palm tree)
* Nakhl (Date palm)
* Rayḥān (Scented plant)
* Sidrat al-Muntahā
* Zaqqūm

Holy books|

* Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus)
* Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad)
* Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)
* At-Tawrāt (The Torah)
* Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses)
* Tablets of Stone
* Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David)
* Umm al-Kitāb ("Mother of the Book(s)")

Objects of people
or beings|

* Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles
* Noah's Ark
* Staff of Musa
* Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah)
* Throne of Bilqis
* Trumpet of Israfil

| Mentioned idols
(cult images)|

* 'Ansāb
* Idols of Israelites:
* Baʿal
* The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites
* Idols of Noah's people:
* Nasr
* Suwāʿ
* Wadd
* Yaghūth
* Yaʿūq
* Idols of Quraysh:
* Al-Lāt
* Al-ʿUzzā
* Manāt
* Jibt and Ṭāghūt

|

Celestial bodies|

Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'):

* Al-Qamar (The Moon)
* Kawākib (Planets)
* Al-Arḍ (The Earth)
* Nujūm (Stars)
* Ash-Shams (The Sun)

Liquids|

* Māʾ (Water or fluid)

* Nahr (River)
* Yamm (River or sea)

* Sharāb (Drink)

Events, incidents,
occasions or times|

* Incident of Ifk
* Laylat al-Qadr
* Event of Mubahala
* Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Marib in Sheba)
* The Farewell Pilgrimage
* Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

| Battles or
military expeditions|

* Battle of al-Aḥzāb ("the Confederates")
* Battle of Badr
* Battle of Hunayn
* Battle of Khaybar
* Battle of Tabouk
* Battle of Uhud
* Conquest of Mecca

|

Days|

* Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday)
* As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)
* Days of battles
* Days of Hajj
* Doomsday

|

Months of the
Islamic calendar|

12 months:

* Four holy months
* Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month)
* Ramaḍān

|

Pilgrimages|

* Al-Ḥajj (literally "The Pilgrimage", the Greater Pilgrimage)
* Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)

|

Times for Prayer
or Remembrance|

Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ):

* Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)
* Al-Ghuduww ("The Mornings")
* Al-Bukrah ("The Morning")
* Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ("The Morning")
* Al-Layl ("The Night")
* Al-ʿIshāʾ ("The Late-Night")
* Aẓ-Ẓuhr ("The Noon")
* Dulūk ash-Shams ("Decline of the Sun")
* Al-Masāʾ ("The Evening")
* Qabl al-Ghurūb ("Before the Setting (of the Sun)")
* Al-Aṣīl ("The Afternoon")
* Al-ʿAṣr ("The Afternoon")
* Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ("Before the rising of the Sun")
* Al-Fajr ("The Dawn")

|

Implied|

* Event of Ghadir Khumm
* Laylat al-Mabit
* The first pilgrimage

|

Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)

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