Indigenous religion

Short description: Indigenous religious belief systems

A Buryat religious specialist in Olkhon. Because they have undergone Russian colonialism, the Buryat's belief system is labeled an "indigenous religion".

Indigenous religion or native religion is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the religious belief systems of communities described as being "indigenous". This category is often juxtaposed against others such as the "world religions" and "new religious movements". The term is commonly applied to a range of different belief systems across the Americas, Australasia, Asia, Africa, and Northern Europe, particularly to those practiced by communities living under the impact of colonialism.

The term "indigenous religions" is usually applied to the localised belief systems of small-scale societies. These belief systems do not typically engage in proselytization, thus distinguishing them from movements like Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism that all seek converts and which are typically classified as "world religions". They are also often characterised as being distinct from the "world religions" because they are orally transmitted, intertwined with traditional lifestyles, and pluralist. Numerically, most of the world's religions could be classed as "indigenous", although the number of "indigenous religionists" is significantly smaller than the number of individuals who practice one of the "world religions".

Within the study of religion there has been much debate as to what the scope of the category should be, largely arising from debates over what the term "indigenous" should best encompass. For instance, the Japanese religion of Shinto is often referred to as an "indigenous religion" although, because the Japanese are not a colonised society but have colonised neighbouring societies like that of the Ainu, there is debate as to whether they meet the definition of "indigenous". In some cases, practitioners of new religions like Heathenry have sought to present theirs as "indigenous religions" although have faced scepticism from scholars of religion.

## Contents

* 1 Definition
* 2 Examples
* 2.1 Shinto
* 2.2 Indigenous Philippine folk religions
* 2.3 Heathenry
* 2.4 Native American religions
* 3 See also
* 4 Sources
* 4.1 Footnotes
* 4.2 Bibliography

## Definition

The academic study of religions has used three concepts through which to categorise different religious groups: "world religions", "new religious movements", and "indigenous religions".[1] The scholar of religion Carole M. Cusack noted that "indigenous religions" were rejected from the "world religions" category because they "are typically this-wordly, orally transmitted, non-proselytizing, folk-oriented, expressed in myths and traditional law, and pluralist."[2]

In the nineteenth century, the dominant ways to refer to these religions were "primitive religion" or "non-literate religion", as they were seen as offering insight into how religion was practiced by the earliest humans.[3][4] Another term, "primal religion", was coined by Andrew Walls in the University of Aberdeen in the 1970s to provide a focus on non-Western forms of religion as found in Africa, Asia, and Oceania.[5] However, according to the scholar of religion Graham Harvey, such approaches preference Western industrialized people and the course of Protestant Enlightenment culture.[6] Likewise, James Cox, Walls's student, argues that terms such as "primal religion", "primitive religion", and "tribal religion" suggest an undeveloped religion which can be seen as a preparation for conversion to Christianity.[7]

Graham Harvey states that indigenous religions constitute most of the world's religions.[8] At the same time, he noted that "indigenous religionists" do not numerically make up the majority of religious people.[8]

Some religions considered "indigenous religions" have gained as much global visibility as some of the "world religions".[9] For instance, musicians influenced by the belief systems of the Maori, Indigenous Australian, and Canadian First Nations peoples have had their work exposed to an international audience.[9]

## Examples

### Shinto

Main article: Philosophy:Shinto

A Shinto rite; Shinto is often called an "indigenous religion", though the reasons for this classification have been debated among scholars.[10]

The Japanese religion Shinto is often described as an "indigenous religion", although some scholars, like Asian studies scholar John K. Nelson notes that it is often "unclear" what is meant by the term "indigenous" in this context.[10] He noted, for example, that there remain debates as to when the ancestors of the Japanese arrived in the islands that now make up Japan and that there were other communities, such as the Ainu, who lived on some of these islands before them.[10] It is however a native religion, being the religion of the ethnicity who arrived in the islands that now make up Japan.[11]

### Indigenous Philippine folk religions

Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of various ethnic groups in the Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line with animism. These indigenous folk religions[12] include a set of local worship traditions that are devoted to the anito or diwata (and their variables), terms which translate to gods, spirits, and ancestors.[13][14][15]

### Heathenry

Eight people, all white, stand on heathland. Some of them are dressed in historical clothing akin to that worn in the medieval period.A 2009 rite performed on the Icelandic hill of Öskjuhlíð, Reykjavík

Many followers of Heathenry, a modern pagan religion that scholars recognise as a new religious movement, like to regard their belief system as an "indigenous religion".({{{1}}}, {{{2}}}) The Icelandic heathenry organisation Ásatrú has seen significant growth since its foundation in 1972, with around 1.5% of the Icelandic population being a member of the organisation as of 2024.

### Native American religions

## See also

* Ethnic religion
* Ethnoreligious group

## Sources

### Footnotes

1. ↑ Harvey 2000, p. 6.
2. ↑ Cusack 2016, p. 154.
3. ↑ Cox 2007, p. 9.
4. ↑ Harvey 2000, pp. 7–9.
5. ↑ Cox & Sutcliffe 2006, p. 8.
6. ↑ Harvey 2000, pp. 8–9.
7. ↑ Cox 2007, p. 27.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Harvey 2000, p. 3.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Harvey 2000, p. 4.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Nelson 1996, p. 7.
11. ↑ Hardacre, Helen (2017). Shinto: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-062171-1.
12. ↑ Almocera, Ruel A., (2005) Popular Filipino Spiritual Beliefs with a proposed Theological Response. in Doing Theology in the Philippines. Suk, John., Ed. Mandaluyong: OMF Literature Inc. Pp 78-98
13. ↑ Maggay, Melba Padilla (1999). Filipino Religious Consciousness. Quezon City: Institute for Studies in Asian Church and Culture.
14. ↑ Sitoy, T. Valentino Jr. (1985). A history of Christianity in the Philippines Volume 1: The Initial Encounter. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers. ISBN 9711002558.
15. ↑ Demetrio, Francisco R.; Cordero-Fernando, Gilda; Nakpil-Zialcita, Roberto B.; Feleo, Fernando (1991). The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion. GCF Books, Quezon City.

### Bibliography

* Cusack, Carole M. (2016). "After World Religions: Reconstructing Religious Studies". in Christopher R. Cotter. After World Religions: Reconstructing Religious Studies. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 153–67. ISBN 978-1-138-91912-9.
* Cox, James L.; Sutcliffe, Steven J. (2006). "Religious studies in Scotland: A persistent tension with divinity". Religion 36 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1016/j.religion.2005.12.001.
* Cox, James L. (2007). From Primitive to Indigenous: The Academic Study of Indigenous Religions. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-754-65569-5.
* Gregorius, Fredrik (2015). "Contemporary Pagan and Native Faith Movements in Europe: Colonialist and Nationalist Impulses". in Rountree, Kathryn. Contemporary Pagan and Native Faith Movements in Europe: Colonialist and Nationalist Impulses. New York and Oxford: Berghahn. pp. 64–85. ISBN 978-1-78238-646-9.
* Harvey, Graham (2000). "Indigenous Religions: A Companion". in Graham Harvey. Indigenous Religions: A Companion. London and New York: Cassell. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-0304704484.
* Nelson, John K. (1996). A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295975009. https://archive.org/details/yearinlifeofs00nels.
* Snook, Jennifer (2015). American Heathens: The Politics of Identity in a Pagan Religious Movement. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-4399-1097-9.
* Snook, Jennifer; Horrell, Thad; Horton, Kristen (2017). "Cosmopolitanism, Nationalism, and Modern Paganism". in Rountree, Kathryn. Cosmopolitanism, Nationalism, and Modern Paganism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 43–64. ISBN 978-1-137-57040-6.
* Stausberg, Michael (March 2021). "The Demise, Dissolution, and Elimination of Religions". Numen (Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers) 68 (2–3 - Special Issue: The Dissolution of Religions): 103–131. doi:10.1163/15685276-12341617. ISSN 1568-5276.

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Religion

Major religious groups and denominations1

| Abrahamic|

| Judaism|

* Orthodox
* Haredi
* Hasidic
* Modern
* Conservative
* Reform
* Karaite
* Samaritanism
* Haymanot
* Reconstructionist
* Renewal
* Humanistic

|

Christianity|

* Catholicism
* Latin
* Eastern
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Nestorianism
* Assyrian
* Ancient
* Proto-Protestantism
* Waldensians
* Czech Brethren/Moravians
* Protestantism
* Lutheranism
* Calvinism
* Reformed
* Presbyterianism
* Congregationalism
* Anabaptism
* Amish
* Brethren
* Hutterites
* Mennonites
* Schwenkfelders
* Anglicanism
* Methodism
* Holiness
* Baptists
* Quakerism
* Plymouth Brethren
* Restorationism
* Irvingism
* Adventism
* Pentecostalism/Charismatic
* Independent Catholicism
* Nontrinitarianism
* Unitarianism
* Swedenborgianism
* Mormonism
* Christadelphians
* Bible Students/Jehovah's Witnesses
* Anglo-Israelism
* Oneness Pentecostalism
* Spiritual
* Tolstoyan
* Judaizers
* Nondenominational
* Evangelicalism
* Esoteric

Islam|

* Sunni
* Ashʿari
* Maturidi
* Traditionalist theology
* Salafism
* Wahhabism
* Modernist Salafism
* Shia
* Twelver
* Zaidiyyah
* Isma'ilism
* Alawis
* Sufism
* Khawarij
* Ibadi
* Alevism
* Ahmadi
* Mahdavia
* Quranism
* Non-denominational

Others|

* Bábism
* Azali
* Bahá'í
* Druze
* Ali-Illahism
* Yarsanism
* Mandaeism
* Rastafarianism

Dharmic|

| Hinduism|

* Vaishnavism
* Sri Vaishnavism
* Brahma Sampradaya
* Nimbarka Sampradaya
* Pushtimarg
* Mahanubhava
* Ramanandi
* Varkari
* Shaivism
* Siddhantism
* Kashmir
* Kapalika
* Kaumaram
* Lingayatism
* Nath
* Balinese
* Shaktism
* Smartism
* Śrauta
* Sant Mat
* Ayyavazhi
* Neo-Hinduism

|

Buddhism|

* Theravada
* Mahayana
* Chan/Zen
* Amidism
* Nichiren
* Vajrayana
* Tibetan
* Neo-Buddhism

Others|

* Jainism
* Digambara
* Śvētāmbara
* Sikhism

Mazdan|

* Zoroastrianism

Indo-European|

* Armenian
* Baltic
* Celtic
* Druidry
* Germanic
* Hellenism
* Italo-Roman
* Romanian
* Slavic
* Yazidis
* Ossetian
* Kalash

Uralic|

* Estonian
* Finnish
* Hungarian
* Mari
* Mordvin
* Sámi
* Udmurt

Altaic|

* Turko-Mongolic
* Tengrism
* Burkhanism
* Vattisen Yaly
* Tungusic
* Manchu
* Evenki

Chinese|

* Confucianism
* Taoism
* Folk Taoism
* Yao Taoism
* Nuo
* Salvationist
* Xiantiandao
* Yiguandao
* Luoism

Tibeto-
Burmese|

* Bon
* Burmese
* Benzhuism
* Bimoism
* Bathouism
* Bongthingism
* Donyi-Polo
* Heraka
* Kiratism
* Qiang
* Sanamahism

Korean|

* Sindoism
* Cheondoism
* Jeungsanism

Japanese|

* Shinto
* Tenrikyo
* Ryukyuan

Tai and Miao|

* Ahom
* Hmongism
* Mo
* Satsana Phi

Austroasiatic|

* Vietnamese
* Caodaism
* Đạo Mẫu
* Hoahaoism
* Sarnaism

Austronesian|

* Batak Parmalim
* Dayak
* Kaharingan
* Momolianism
* Javanese Kejawèn
* Karo Pemena
* Malaysian
* Philippine Dayawism
* Tagalog
* Polynesian
* Hawaiian
* Māori
* Sumbese Marapu
* Sundanese Wiwitan

African|

| Traditional|

* Akan
* Akamba
* Baluba
* Bantu
* Kongo
* Zulu
* Berber
* Guanche church
* Bushongo
* Dinka
* Efik
* Fon and Ewe
* Igbo
* Ik
* Lotuko
* Lozi
* Lugbara
* Maasai
* Mbuti
* San
* Serer
* Tumbuka
* Urhobo
* Waaq
* Yoruba
* Ifá

|

Diasporic|

* Candomblé
* Bantu
* Jejé
* Ketu
* Comfa
* Convince
* Espiritismo
* Kumina
* Obeah
* Palo
* Quimbanda
* Santería
* Tambor de Mina
* Trinidad Orisha
* Umbanda
* Vodou
* Voodoo
* Winti

Native
American|

* Abenaki
* Anishinaabe
* Blackfoot
* Californian
* Miwok
* Ohlone
* Pomo
* Cherokee
* Chilote
* Choctaw
* Creek
* Guarani
* Haida
* Ho-Chunk
* Hopi
* Iroquois
* Seneca
* Wyandot
* Longhouse Religion
* Jivaroan
* Kwakwakaʼwakw
* Lakota
* Lenape
* Mapuche
* Mesoamerican
* Aztec
* Maya
* Purépecha
* Midewiwin
* Muisca
* Native American Church
* Navajo
* Nuu-chah-nulth
* Pawnee
* Tsimshian
* Ute
* Zuni

Other ethnic|

* Aboriginal Australian
* Circassian
* Dravidian
* Inuit
* Papuan
* Siberian

Recent|

* Adi Dharm/Brahmoism
* Anthroposophy
* Discordianism
* Eckankar
* Falun Gong
* Fourth Way
* Goddess
* Japanese
* Jediism
* Modekngei
* Neopaganism
* Reconstructionism
* Wicca
* Neoshamanism
* New Acropolis
* New Age
* New Thought
* Rajneesh
* Satanism
* Spiritualism
* Subud
* Tensegrity
* Thelema
* Theosophy
* Neo-Theosophy
* Agni Yoga
* Transcendental Meditation
* UFO religion
* Raëlism
* Scientology
* Unitarian Universalism
* White Brotherhood

Note: 1 The main source: Eliade, Mircea, ed (1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. New York: MacMillan.

Historical religions

* Prehistoric
* Paleolithic
* Harappan
* Egyptian
* Atenism
* Mesopotamian
* Sumerian
* Babylonian
* Semitic
* Canaanite
* Yahwism
* Arabian
* Somali
* Hurrian
* Urartu
* Etruscan
* Basque
* Georgian
* Vainakh
* Proto-Indo-European
* Proto-Indo-Iranian
* Vedic
* Mazdaism
* Hittite
* Armenian
* Paleo-Balkan
* Albanian
* Illyrian
* Thracian
* Dacian
* Greek
* Mysteries
* Orphism
* Gnosticism
* Hermeticism
* Greco-Buddhism
* Roman
* Imperial cult
* Gallo-Roman
* Mithraism
* Manichaeism
* Mazdakism
* Scythian
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Frankish
* Norse
* Celtic
* Baltic
* Slavic
* Finnish
* Hungarian
* Ainu
* Melanesian
* Micronesian
* Nauruan
* Cook Islands
* Rapa Nui
* Tongan
* Inca
* Olmec
* Zapotec
* Fuegian
* Selk'nam
* Guanche
* Swahili
* Jamaican Maroon

Topics

| Aspects|

* Apostasy / Disaffiliation
* Behaviour
* Beliefs
* Clergy
* Conversion
* Deities
* Entheogens
* Ethnic religion
* Denomination
* Faith
* Fire
* Folk religion
* God
* Meditation
* Monasticism
* monk
* nun
* Mysticism
* Mythology
* Nature
* Ordination
* Orthodoxy
* Orthopraxy
* Prayer
* Prophecy
* Religious experience
* Ritual
* liturgy
* sacrifice
* Spirituality
* Supernatural
* Symbols
* Truth
* Water
* Worship

|

Theism|

* Animism
* Deism
* Dualism
* Henotheism
* Monotheism
* Nontheism
* Panentheism
* Pantheism
* Polytheism
* Transtheism

Religious
studies|

* Anthropology
* Cognitive science
* Comparative
* Development
* Evolutionary origin
* Evolutionary psychology
* History
* Philosophy
* Neurotheology
* Psychology
* Sociology
* Theology
* Theories
* Women

Religion and
society

* Agriculture
* Business
* Clergy
* monasticism
* ordination
* Conversion
* evangelism
* missionary
* proselytism
* Disability
* Education
* Fanaticism
* Freedom
* pluralism
* syncretism
* toleration
* universalism
* Fundamentalism
* Growth
* Happiness
* Homosexuality
* Minorities
* National church
* National religiosity levels
* Religiocentrism
* Political science
* Populations
* Schism
* Science
* State
* Theocracy
* Vegetarianism
* Video games
* Violence
* persecution
* terrorism
* war
* Wealth

Secularism and
irreligion

* Antireligion
* Deism
* Agnosticism
* Atheism
* Criticism
* LaVeyan Satanism
* Deconstruction
* Humanistic Judaism
* Irreligion by country
* Objectivism
* Secular humanism
* Secular theology
* Secularization
* Separation of church and state
* Unaffiliated

Overviews
and lists

* Index
* Outline
* Timeline
* Abrahamic prophets
* Deification
* Deities
* Founders
* Mass gatherings
* New religious movements
* Organizations
* Religions and spiritual traditions
* Scholars

* Category
* Portal

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