Islamic extremism

Short description: Extreme or radical form of Islam

Not to be confused with Islamic fundamentalism or Jihadism.

Muslim protest against the anti-Islamic film Innocence of Muslims in Sydney, 15 September 2012. The protesters carry signs reading "Behead all those who insult the Prophet" and "Our dead are in Paradise. Your dead are in HELL!" Part of a series on:
Islamism

Fundamentals

* Islam
* History
* Culture
* Economics
* Politics
* Secularism

Ideologies

* Islamism
* Qutbism
* Salafi movement
* International propagation
* Shia Islamism

Islamic fundamentalism

Concepts

* Apostasy in Islam
* Takfir
* Caliphate
* Islamic democracy
* Islamic socialism
* Islamic state
* Islamic monarchy
* Islamic republic
* Islamization (of knowledge)
* Jihad
* Islamic terrorism
* Jihadism
* Pan-Islamism
* Political Islam
* aspects
* Post-Islamism
* Sharia
* Shura
* Two-nation theory
* Ummah

Influences

* Anti-communism
* Anti-imperialism
* Anti-Zionism
* Islamic Golden Age
* Islamic revival

Movements

Scholastic

* Barelvi
* Dawat-e-Islami
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Deobandi
* Madkhalism
* Nurcu
* Sahwa movement
* Wahhabism
* International propagation

Political

* Hizb ut-Tahrir
* Iranian Revolution
* Jamaat-e-Islami
* Millî Görüş
* Muslim Brotherhood
* Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan
* List of Islamic political parties

Militant

* Militant Islamism based in
* MENA region
* South Asia
* Southeast Asia
* Sub-Saharan Africa

Key texts

* Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
(Iqbal 1930s)

* Principles of State and Government
(Asad 1961)

* Ma'alim fi al-Tariq ("Milestones")
(Qutb 1965)

* Islamic Government:
Governance of the Jurist ("Velayat-e faqih")
(Khomeini 1970)

Heads of state

* Ali Khamenei
* Omar al-Bashir
* Muammar Gaddafi
* Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
* Ruhollah Khomeini
* Mohamed Morsi
* Mohammed Omar
* House of Saud
* House of Thani
* Zia-ul-Haq

Key ideologues

* Muhammad Abduh
* Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī
* Qazi Hussain Ahmad
* Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani
* Muhammad Asad
* Hassan al-Banna
* Rached Ghannouchi
* Safwat Hegazi
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Ali Khamenei
* Ruhollah Khomeini
* Necip Fazıl Kısakürek
* Abul A'la Maududi
* Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani
* Yusuf al-Qaradawi
* Sayyid Qutb
* Tariq Ramadan
* Ata Abu Rashta
* Rashid Rida
* Navvab Safavi
* Ali Shariati
* Haji Shariatullah
* Hassan Al-Turabi
* Ahmed Yassin
* Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

Criticism of Islamism

* Criticism of Islamism
* Criticism of Islam
* Liberal movements within Islam
* Khaled Abu al-Fadl
* Farag Foda
* Abdelwahab Meddeb
* Maryam Namazie
* Maajid Nawaaz
* Olivier Roy

Related topics

* Islam and other religions
* Islamophobia
* Reform movements
* Modernity (Modernism)

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on

Islam

Beliefs

* Oneness of God
* Prophets
* Revealed books

* Angels
* Predestination

* Day of Resurrection

Practices

* Profession of faith
* Prayer

* Alms-giving
* Fasting
* Pilgrimage

Texts and sciences

* Quran
* Tafsir
* Sunnah (Hadith, Sirah)
* Aqidah (creed)
* Theology
* Sharia (law)
* Fiqh (jurisprudence)
* Qisas Al-Anbiya

History

* Timeline
* Muhammad

* Ahl al-Bayt
* Sahabah
* Rashidun

* Caliphate
* Imamate
* Spread of Islam

* Succession to Muhammad

Denominations and branches

* Sunni
* Salafiya
* Wahhabi
* Modernism
* Shia
* Ismaili
* Zaidiyyah
* Alawites
* Druze
* Kharijites
* Sufism
* Orders
* Theological branches

Culture and society

* Academics
* Animals
* Art
* Calendar
* Children
* Demographics
* Denominations
* Economics
* Education
* Exorcism
* Feminism
* Festivals
* Finance
* LGBT
* Madrasa
* Moral teachings
* Mosque
* Mysticism
* Philosophy
* Poetry
* Politics
* Proselytizing
* Science
* Slavery
* Social welfare
* Women

Related topics

* Abrogation in Islam
* Criticism of Islam
* Muhammad
* Quran
* Islam and other religions
* Islamism
* Islam and violence
* Islamophobia

* Glossary

* v
* t
* e

Islamic extremism is characterised by extremist beliefs, behaviors and ideologies adhered to by some Muslims within Islam. The term 'Islamic extremism' is contentious, encompassing a spectrum of definitions, ranging from academic interpretations of Islamic supremacy to the notion that all ideologies other than Islam have failed and are inferior.[1]

Islamic extremism is different from Islamic fundamentalism or Islamism. Islamic fundamentalism refers to a movement among Muslims advocating a return to the fundamental principles of an Islamic state in Muslim-majority countries. Meanwhile, Islamism constitutes a form of political Islam. However, both Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have also been classified as subsets of Islamic extremism by some. Acts of violence committed by Islamic terrorists and jihadists are associated with these extremist beliefs, while many Muslims see extremists as not following Islam. The term "Islamism" has been criticized as having been given connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, by the Western mass media, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping.[2]

During the Cold War following World War II, some NATO governments, particularly those of the United States and the United Kingdom, launched covert and overt campaigns to encourage and strengthen fundamentalist groups in the Middle East and southern Asia. These groups were seen as a hedge against potential expansion by the Soviet Union, and as a counterweight against nationalist and socialist movements that were seen as a threat to the interests of the Western nations.[3][4][5]

In a 2018 interview with The Washington Post, Mohammed bin Salman, the de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, said that investments in mosques and madrassas overseas were rooted in the Cold War, when allies asked Saudi Arabia to use its resources to prevent inroads in Muslim countries by the Soviet Union.[6] According to some estimates, since the 1960s, the Saudis have funnelled over USD 100 billion into funding schools and mosques all over the world with the mission of spreading puritanical Wahhabi Islam.[7] According to political scientist Alex Alexiev, the impetus for the international propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism was "the largest worldwide propaganda campaign ever mounted"[8], David A. Kaplan described it as "dwarfing the Soviets' propaganda efforts at the height of the Cold War".[9] In 2013, the European Parliament identified Wahhabism as the main source of global terrorism.[10]

## Contents

* 1 Definitions
* 1.1 Academic definition
* 1.2 United Kingdom High Courts' definition
* 2 Key influences of radical Islam
* 2.1 Early Islam
* 2.1.1 Kharijites
* 2.1.2 Ibn Taymiyyah
* 2.1.3 Ottoman Empire
* 2.2 Modern Islam
* 2.2.1 Salafism and Wahhabism
* 2.3 Contemporary Islam
* 3 Active Islamic extremist groups
* 3.1 Groups
* 4 Foreign political support
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 Further reading
* 8 External links

## Definitions

### Academic definition

The academic definition of radical Islam consists of two parts:

* The first being: Islamic thought that states that all ideologies other than Islam, whether associated with the West (capitalism or democracy) or the East (communism or socialism) have failed and have demonstrated their bankruptcy.[1]
* The second being: Islamic thought that states that (semi)secular regimes are wrong because of their negligence of Islam.[11]

### United Kingdom High Courts' definition

UK High Courts have ruled in two cases on Islamic extremism, and provided definition.

Aside from those, two major definitions have been offered for Islamic extremism, sometimes using overlapping but also distinct aspects of extreme interpretations and pursuits of Islamic ideology:

* The use of violent tactics such as bombing and assassinations for achieving perceived Islamic goals (see Jihadism; or Zeyno Baran, Senior Fellow and Director of the Center for Eurasian Policy at the Hudson Institute, prefers the term Islamist extremism)[12]
* An extremely conservative view of Islam,[13] which does not necessarily entail violence[14] (see also Islamic fundamentalism [Baran again prefers the term Islamism]).[12]

In 2019, the United States Institute of Peace issued a report on extremism in fragile states, advocating the establishment of a shared understanding, operational framework for prevention, and international cooperation.[15]

## Key influences of radical Islam

### Early Islam

According to the academic definition of radical Islam, the second condition for something to be called radical Islam, is that it is antigovernmental. Consequently, a government is a condition for radical Islam. However, even though the peace of Westphalia was established in 1648 and thus introduced the nation state, the writings of the formative centuries of Islamic history are influential to the contemporary writings that were coined radical after the concept of the nation state was established in the Muslim world as well. Key influences of radical Islam that stem from early Islam include:

#### Kharijites

Islamic extremism dates back to the early history of Islam with the emergence of the Kharijites in the 7th century CE.[16] The original schism between Kharijites, Sunnīs, and Shīʿas among Muslims was disputed over the political and religious succession to the guidance of the Muslim community (Ummah) after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[16] From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims.[16] Shīʿas believe ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib is the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnīs consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the Shīʿas and the Sunnīs during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War);[16] they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfīr (excommunication), whereby they declared both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims to be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims (munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed them worthy of death for their perceived apostasy (ridda).[16][17][18]

The Islamic tradition traces the origin of the Kharijities to the battle between ʿAlī and Mu'awiya at Siffin in 657 CE. When ʿAlī was faced with a military stalemate and agreed to submit the dispute to arbitration, some of his party withdrew their support from him. "Judgement belongs to God alone" (لاَ حُكْمَ إلَا لِلّهِ) became the slogan of these secessionists.[16] They also called themselves al-Shurat ("the Vendors"), to reflect their willingness to sell their lives in martyrdom.[19]

These original Kharijites opposed both ʿAlī and Mu'awiya, and appointed their own leaders. They were decisively defeated by ʿAlī, who was in turn assassinated by a Kharijite. Kharijites engaged in guerilla warfare against the Umayyads, but only became a movement to be reckoned with during the Second Fitna (the second Islamic Civil War) when they at one point controlled more territory than any of their rivals. The Kharijites were, in fact, one of the major threats to Ibn al-Zubayr's bid for the caliphate; during this time they controlled Yamama and most of southern Arabia, and captured the oasis town of al-Ta'if.[19]

The Azariqa, considered to be the extreme faction of the Kharijites, controlled parts of western Iran under the Umayyads until they were finally put down in 699 CE. The more moderate Ibadi Kharijites were longer-lived, continuing to wield political power in North and East Africa and in eastern Arabia during the 'Abbasid period. Because of their readiness to declare any opponent as apostate, the extreme Kharijites tended to fragment into small groups. One of the few points that the various Kharijite splinter groups held in common was their view of the caliphate, which differed from other Muslim theories on two points.

* First, they were principled egalitarians, holding that any pious Muslim ("even an Ethiopian slave") can become Caliph and that family or tribal affiliation is inconsequential. The only requirements for leadership are piety and acceptance by the community.
* Second, they agreed that it is the duty of the believers to depose any leader who falls into error. This second principle had profound implications for Kharijite theology. Applying these ideas to the early history of the caliphate, Kharijites only accept Abu Bakr and 'Umar as legitimate caliphs. Of 'Uthman's caliphate they recognize only the first six years as legitimate, and they reject 'Ali altogether.

By the time that Ibn al-Muqaffa' wrote his political treatise early in the 'Abbasid period, the Kharijites were no longer a significant political threat, at least in the Islamic heartlands. The memory of the menace they had posed to Muslim unity and of the moral challenge generated by their pious idealism still weighed heavily on Muslim political and religious thought, however. Even if the Kharijites could no longer threaten, their ghosts still had to be answered.[19] The Ibadis are the only Kharijite group to survive into modern times.

#### Ibn Taymiyyah

Main article: Biography:Ibn Taymiyyah

#### Ottoman Empire

Kadızadelis (also Qādīzādali) was a seventeenth-century puritanical reformist religious movement in the Ottoman Empire that followed Kadızade Mehmed (1582-1635), a revivalist Islamic preacher. Kadızade and his followers were determined rivals of Sufism and popular religion. They condemned many of the Ottoman practices that Kadızade felt were bidʻah "non-Islamic innovations", and passionately supported "reviving the beliefs and practices of the first Muslim generation in the first/seventh century" ("enjoining good and forbidding wrong").[20]

Driven by zealous and fiery rhetoric, Kadızade Mehmed was able to inspire many followers to join in his cause and rid themselves of any and all corruption found inside the Ottoman Empire. Leaders of the movement held official positions as preachers in the major mosques of Baghdad, and "combined popular followings with support from within the Ottoman state apparatus".[21] Between 1630 and 1680 there were many violent quarrels that occurred between the Kadızadelis and those that they disapproved of. As the movement progressed, activists became "increasingly violent" and Kadızadelis were known to enter "mosques, tekkes and Ottoman coffeehouses in order to mete out punishments to those contravening their version of orthodoxy."

### Modern Islam

#### Salafism and Wahhabism

Template:Salafi

The Salafiyya movement is a conservative,[22] Islahi (reform)[23] movement within Sunnī Islam that emerged in the second half of the 19th century and advocate a return to the traditions of the "devout ancestors" (Salaf al-Salih). It has been described as the "fastest-growing Islamic movement"; with each scholar expressing diverse views across social, theological, and political spectrum. Salafis follow a doctrine that can be summed up as taking "a fundamentalist approach to Islam, emulating the Prophet Muhammad and his earliest followers—al-salaf al-salih, the 'pious forefathers'....They reject religious innovation, or bidʻah, and support the implementation of Sharia (Islamic law)."[24] The Salafi movement is often divided into three categories: the largest group are the purists (or quietists), who avoid politics; the second largest group are the militant activists, who get involved in politics; the third and last group are the jihadists, who constitute a minority.[24] Most of the violent Islamist groups come from the Salafi-Jihadist movement and their subgroups.[25] In recent years, Jihadi-Salafist doctrines have often been associated with the armed insurgencies of Islamic extremist movements and terrorist organizations targeting innocent civilians, both Muslims and Non-Muslims, such as al-Qaeda, ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh, Boko Haram, etc.[26][27][24][25] The second largest group are the Salafi activists who have a long tradition of political activism, such as those that operate in organizations like the Muslim Brotherhood, the Arab world's major Islamist movement. In the aftermath of widescale repressions after the Arab Spring, accompanied by their political failures, the activist-Salafi movements have undergone a decline. The most numerous are the quietists, who believe in disengagement from politics and accept allegiance to Muslim governments, no matter how tyrannical, to avoid fitna (chaos).[24]

The Wahhabi movement was founded and spearheaded by the Ḥanbalī scholar and theologian Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,[28][29][30] a religious preacher from the Najd region in central Arabia,[31][32][33][34][35] and was instrumental in the rise of the House of Saud to power in the Arabian peninsula.[28] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to revive and purify Islam from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the fundamental principles of the Islamic religion.[32][33][34][35] His works were generally short, full of quotations from the Quran and Hadith literature, such as his main and foremost theological treatise, Kitāb at-Tawḥīd (Arabic: كتاب التوحيد; "The Book of Oneness").[32][33][34][35] He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (tawḥīd), and denounced what he held to be popular religious beliefs and practices among Muslims that he considered to be akin to heretical innovation (bidʿah) and polytheism (shirk).[32][33][34][35]

Wahhabism has been described as a conservative, strict, and fundamentalist branch of Sunnī Islam,[36] with puritan views,[36] believing in a literal interpretation of the Quran.[28] The terms "Wahhabism" and "Salafism" are sometimes evoked interchangeably, although the designation "Wahhabi" is specifically applied to the followers of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his reformist doctrines.[28] The label "Wahhabi" was not claimed by his followers, who usually refer themselves as al-Muwaḥḥidūn ("affirmers of the singularity of God"), but is rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics.[28][29][33] Starting in the mid-1970s and 1980s, the international propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism within Sunnī Islam[36] favored by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia[31][37][38] and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf has achieved what the French political scientist Gilles Kepel defined as a "preeminent position of strength in the global expression of Islam."[39]

22 months after the September 11 attacks, when the FBI considered al-Qaeda as "the number one terrorist threat to the United States", journalist Stephen Schwartz and U.S. Senator Jon Kyl have explicitly stated during a hearing that occurred in June 2003 before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Security of the U.S. Senate that "Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world".[40] As part of the global "War on terror", Wahhabism has been accused by the European Parliament, various Western security analysts, and think tanks like the RAND Corporation, as being "a source of global terrorism".[40][41] Furthermore, Wahhabism has been accused of causing disunity in the Muslim community (Ummah) and criticized for its followers' destruction of many Islamic, cultural, and historical sites associated with the early history of Islam and the first generation of Muslims (Muhammad's family and his companions) in Saudi Arabia.[42][43][44][45]

### Contemporary Islam

Main article: Religion:Political aspects of Islam

The contemporary period begins after 1924. With the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), the Ottoman Caliphate was also abolished. This event heavily influenced Islamic thinking in general, but also what would later be coined radical Islamic thought.[46] Key thinkers that wrote about Islam in the 20th century, and especially about jihad, include Muhammad Abduh, Rashid Rida, Hassan al-Banna, Abul A'la Maududi and Sayyid Qutb.

Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri of al-Qaeda have promoted the overthrow of secular governments.[47][48][49]

Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian Islamist ideologue and prominent figurehead of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, was influential in promoting the Pan-Islamist ideology in the 1960s.[50] When he was executed by the Egyptian government under the regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser, Ayman al-Zawahiri formed the organization Egyptian Islamic Jihad to replace the government with an Islamic state that would reflect Qutb's ideas for the Islamic revival that he yearned for.[51] The Qutbist ideology has been influential on jihadist movements and Islamic terrorists that seek to overthrow secular governments, most notably Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri of al-Qaeda,[47][48][49] as well as the Salafi-jihadi terrorist group ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh.[52] Moreover, Qutb's books have frequently been cited by Osama bin Laden and Anwar al-Awlaki.[53][54][55][56][57][58]

Sayyid Qutb could be said to have founded the actual movement of radical Islam.[49][50][59] Unlike the other Islamic thinkers that have been mentioned above, Qutb was not an apologist.[59] He was a prominent leader of the Muslim Brotherhood and a highly influential Islamist ideologue,[49][59] and the first to articulate these anathemizing principles in his magnum opus Fī ẓilāl al-Qurʾān (In the shade of the Qurʾān) and his 1966 manifesto Maʿālim fīl-ṭarīq (Milestones), which lead to his execution by the Egyptian government.[59][60] Other Salafi movements in the Middle East and North Africa and across the Muslim world adopted many of his Islamist principles.[49][59]

According to Qutb, the Muslim community (Ummah) has been extinct for several centuries and reverted to jahiliyah (the pre-Islamic age of ignorance) because those who call themselves Muslims have failed to follow the sharia law.[49][59] To restore Islam, bring back its days of glory, and free the Muslims from the clasps of ignorance, Qutb proposed the shunning of modern society, establishing a vanguard modeled after the early Muslims, preaching, and bracing oneself for poverty or even death as preparation for jihad against what he perceived as jahili government/society, and overthrow them.[49][59] Qutbism, the radical Islamist ideology derived from the ideas of Qutb,[49] was denounced by many prominent Muslim scholars as well as other members of the Muslim Brotherhood, like Yusuf al-Qaradawi.

Quranist militants are extremist groups or individuals who claim to follow the Qur'an alone, and use violent jihad to impose their strict, literal interpretations, often targeting other Muslims deemed heretics or apostates, like the infamous Yan Tatsine movement in Nigeria, which preached against modern technology and advocated for "Qur'an-only" prayer, leading to brutal conflicts. These groups, like some modern jihadists, believe politics is integral to faith and seek to establish Islamic rule through force, interpreting scripture to justify their violence and creation of "pure" Islamic states.[61][62] Other Quranist groups who have been described as militant include Kala Kato and Al-Shabaab (Mozambique).[63][64][65][66]

## Active Islamic extremist groups

### Groups

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Group Name  | Banner  | Home Base  | Leaders  | Strength  | Casualties  | Ideology

|
|
|
|
|
|

Al-Qaeda | 90px  | Afghanistan, Pakistan, and MENA region | Osama bin Laden † (1988–2011)
Ayman al-Zawahiri † (2011–2022)

Saif al-Adel (de facto; 2022–present)

| 300–3,000[67][68] | 4,400 casualties[69] | Sunnī Islamist and militant terrorist organization which aims to "restore Islam" and establish "true Islamic states", implement Sharia law, and rid the Muslim world of any Non-Muslim influences by following the doctrine and teachings of the Egyptian Islamist ideologue and propagandist Sayyid Qutb.[70] The title translates to "Organization of the Base of Jihad".
Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb | 90px  | Kabylie Mountains, Algeria | Abdelmalek Droukdel † (2007-2020)  | 800–1,000+[71] | 200+  | AQIM is a Sunnī Islamist and militant terrorist organization which aims to overthrow the Government of Algeria and replace it with an Islamic state.
Al-Mourabitoun
a.k.a. al-Qaeda West Africa | 90px  | Mali, Niger, and Libya | Mokhtar Belmokhtar †[72][73] | Under 100 (French claim)  | Killed 27 in the 2015 Bamako hotel attack.  | Affiliated branch of al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb listed above.
Ansar al-Sharia in Yemen
a.k.a. Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula | 90px  | Yemen  | Nasir al-Wuhayshi † (2011–15)
Qasim al-Raymi † (2015–2020)[74] | 2,000+  | Over 250 killed in the 2012 Sana'a bombing and 2013 Sana'a attack.[75] | AQAP is considered the most active[76] of al-Qaeda's branches, or "franchises", that emerged due to weakening central leadership.[77] The U.S. Government believes AQAP to be the most dangerous al-Qaeda branch due to its emphasis on attacking the "far enemy" and its reputation for plotting attacks on overseas targets.[75][78]
al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent | 90px  | India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar  | Asim Umar  | 300[79][80] | Claims 6 killed in assassinations. Naval frigate hijacking attempted in 2014.  | AQIS is a Sunnī Islamist and militant terrorist organization which aims to overthrow the Governments of Pakistan, India, Myanmar, and Bangladesh to establish an Islamic state.
Boko Haram – West Africa Province of the Islamic State Caliphate | 90px  | Northeastern Nigeria, Chad, Niger, Mali, and northern Cameroon[81] | Mohammed Yusuf † (founder

2002 – 2009)
Abubakar Shekau † (2009–2021)

| Estimates range between 500 and 9,000[82][83][84] | Since 2009, it has killed 20,000 and displaced 2.3 million.  | Title means "Western education is forbidden", founded as a Sunnī Islamic fundamentalist sect and influenced by the Wahhabi doctrine, advocating a strict form of Sharia law.[81] Since 2015 Boko Haram has pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), rebranding itself as Islamic State's West Africa Province (ISWAP).[81]
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (commonly known as ISIS, ISIL, IS, or Daesh)  | 90px  | Iraq and Syria (occupied territories)  | Abu Musab al-Zarqawi † (founder 1999 – 2006)
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi † (2010–2019)
Abu Ibrahimi al-Hashimi al-Qurashi † (2019–2022)[85]
Abu al-Hasan al-Hashimi al-Qurashi (2022)[86]Abu al-Hussein al-Husseini al-Qurashi (2022–2023) Abu Hafs al-Hashimi al-Qurashi (2023–present)  | 40,000–200,000 at its height across all 'provinces'[87][88] | 30,000+ killed, including the genocides of Shīʿa Muslims, Christians, Yazidis, other ethnic and religious minorities in the Middle East, and many others around the world by ISIL or groups associated or inspired by ISIL. Since 2015 includes Boko Haram, rebranded as "Islamic State's West Africa Province" (ISWAP).[81][89] | Salafi-jihadist and Sunnī militant terrorist organization that follows the Islamic fundamentalist Wahhabi doctrine of Sunnī Islam.[90] Originated as the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI). Gained large swathes of territory in Iraq in 2014 and is currently at war with Iraq, Syria, and a coalition of 60 other countries including the United States, United Kingdom, and France.
Jemaah Islamiyah |  | Southeast Asia:

* Indonesia
* Malaysia
* Philippines
* Singapore
* Thailand

| Abu Bakar Bashir  | 5,000[91] | Over 250 killed in bombings throughout Indonesia since 2002  | With a name meaning "Islamic Congregation" (frequently abbreviated JI),[92] is a Southeast Asian Sunnī Islamist and militant terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment of a Daulah Islamiyah (regional Islamic caliphate) in Southeast Asia.[93]
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan
a.k.a. Pakistani Taliban | 90px  | Northwest Pakistan  | Maulana Fazlullah  | 25,000[94] | hundreds  | TTP is an umbrella organization of various Sunnī Islamist and militant groups protecting foreign Islamic terrorists hiding in the mountains of Pakistan.
Jaish-e-Mohammed | 90px  | Kashmir, India  | Masood Azhar  |  |  | Aim is to annex Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan. Operates primarily in Jammu and Kashmir.
Lashkar-e Tayyiba

a.k.a. LeT

| 90px  | Kashmir, India  | Hafiz Saeed  |  |  | Aim is to annex Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan and, ultimately, install Islamic rule throughout South Asia. Operational throughout India, especially in the northern region of Jammu and Kashmir since at least 1993.[95]
National Thowheeth Jama'ath | 90px  | Sri Lanka  |  |  | 269 (excluding 9 bombers)  | Convert Sri Lanka into an Islamic caliphate

## Foreign political support

According to the British historian Mark Curtis, in his book Religion:Secret Affairs: Britain's Collusion with Radical Islam, Britain has been accused of consistently supporting radical Islam to combat secular nationalism because the secular nationalists threatened to seize the resources of their countries and use it for internal development, which was not accepted by England.[96] The United States, like Britain before it, has been accused of historically supporting radical Islam in the face of secular nationalism, seen as a major threat to Western colonial dominance. Chomsky and coauthors accuse Israel of destroying Egypt and Syria in 1967, two bastions of secular Arab nationalism opposed to Saudi Arabia, which they view as the leader of radical Islam.[97]

## See also

* Antisemitism in the Arab world
* Antisemitism in Islam
* Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh
* Christian terrorism
* Islam and other religions
* Islam and secularism
* Islam and violence
* Islam and war
* Religious violence
* Holy war in Islam
* Islamic views on slavery
* History of slavery in the Muslim world
* Slavery and religion#Islam
* Slavery in 21st-century jihadism
* Islam Yes, Islamic Party No
* Islamic extremism in Mali
* Islamic extremism in Northern Nigeria
* Islamic extremism in the 20th-century Egypt
* Islamic extremism in the United States
* Islamic terrorism
* Jihadism
* Islamism
* Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah
* Al-Siyasa al-Shar'iyya fi Islah al-Ra'i wa al-Ra'iyya
* Post-Islamism
* List of Islamist terrorist attacks
* Mujahideen
* Persecution of minority Muslim groups
* Petro-Islam
* Qutbism
* Racism in Muslim communities
* Religious fanaticism in Islam
* Salafi movement
* International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism (by region)
* Salafi jihadism
* Wahhabism
* Sectarian violence among Muslims
* Takfirism
* Violence against Muslims in independent India
* Violent extremism

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Cook, David (2015). Understanding Jihad. University of California Press. pp. 103. ISBN 9780520287327.
2. ↑ William E. Shepard; FranÇois Burgat; James Piscatori; Armando Salvatore (2009). "Islamism". in John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305135. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0888. Retrieved 3 February 2017. "The term "Islamism/Islamist" has come into increasing use in recent years to denote the views of those Muslims who claim that Islam, or more specifically, the Islamic sharīʿah, provides guidance for all areas of human life, individual and social, and who therefore call for an "Islamic State" or an "Islamic Order." [...] Today it is one of the recognized alternatives to "fundamentalist", along with "political Islam" in particular. [...] Current terminology usually distinguishes between "Islam," [...] and "Islamism", referring to the ideology of those who tend to signal openly, in politics, their Muslim religion. [...] the term has often acquired a quasi-criminal connotation close to that of political extremism, religious sectarianism, or bigotry. In Western mainstream media, "Islamists" are those who want to establish, preferably through violent means, an "Islamic state" or impose sharīʿah (Islamic religious law)—goals that are often perceived merely as a series of violations of human rights or the rights of women. In the Muslim world, insiders use the term as a positive reference. In the academic sphere, although it is still debated, the term designates a more complex phenomenon.".
3. ↑ Dreyfuss, Robert (2005). Devil's game: how the United States helped unleash fundamentalist Islam. The American empire project. New York: A Holt Paperback. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-8050-7652-3.
4. ↑ Davidson, Christopher M. (2016). Shadow Wars: The Secret Struggle for the Middle East. La Vergne: Oneworld Publications. pp. 43–45. ISBN 978-1-78607-002-9.
5. ↑ Curtis, Mark (2012). Secret affairs: Britain's collusion with radical Islam (New updated version ed.). London: Serpent's Tail. pp. 65–68. ISBN 978-1-84668-764-8.
6. ↑ "Saudi prince denies Kushner is ‘in his pocket’" (in en-US). The Washington Post. 2018-03-23. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/saudi-prince-denies-kushner-is-in-his-pocket/2018/03/22/701a9c9e-2e22-11e8-8688-e053ba58f1e4_story.html.
7. ↑ "'Tsunami of money' from Saudi Arabia funding 24,000 Pakistan madrassas". The Economic Times. 2016-01-30. ISSN 0013-0389. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/tsunami-of-money-from-saudi-arabia-funding-24000-pakistan-madrassas/articleshow/50781972.cms?from=mdr.
8. ↑ Jr, Frank Gaffney (2003-12-08). "Waging the 'War of Ideas'" (in en-US). https://centerforsecuritypolicy.org/waging-the-war-of-ideas-2/.
9. ↑ Jr, Frank Gaffney (2003-12-08). "Waging the 'War of Ideas'" (in en-US). https://centerforsecuritypolicy.org/waging-the-war-of-ideas-2/.
10. ↑ Reporters, Telegraph (2016-03-29). "What is Wahhabism? The reactionary branch of Islam from Saudi Arabia said to be 'the main source of global terrorism'" (in en-GB). The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/03/29/what-is-wahhabism-the-reactionary-branch-of-islam-said-to-be-the/.
11. ↑ Cook, David (2015). Understanding Jihad. University of California Press. pp. 107. ISBN 9780520287327.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Baran, Zeyno (10 July 2008). "The Roots of Violent Islamist Extremism and Efforts to Counter It". Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. https://fas.org/irp/congress/2008_hr/roots.pdf.
13. ↑ Brian R. Farmer (2007). Understanding radical Islam: medieval ideology in the twenty-first century. Peter Lang. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8204-8843-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=bIQ0hhu8l7IC&pg=PA36.
14. ↑ Jason F. Isaacson; Colin Lewis Rubenstein (2002). Islam in Asia: changing political realities. Transaction Publishers. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-7658-0769-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=krMEfM_YO3UC&pg=PA191.
15. ↑ "Preventing Extremism in Fragile States: A New Approach, Final Report of the Task Force on Extremism in Fragile States". United States Institute of Peace. February 2019. https://www.usip.org/publications/2019/02/preventing-extremism-fragile-states-new-approach.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Izutsu, Toshihiko (2006). "The Infidel (Kāfir): The Khārijites and the origin of the problem". The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology: A Semantic Analysis of Imān and Islām. Tokyo: Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies at Keio University. pp. 1–20. ISBN 983-9154-70-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDxHG5MtLawC&pg=PA1. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
17. ↑ Khan, Sheema (12 May 2018). "Another battle with Islam's 'true believers'". The Globe and Mail Opinion. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-debate/another-battle-with-islams-true-believers/article20802390/.
18. ↑ Hasan, Usama (2012). "The Balance of Islam in Challenging Extremism". http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/the-balance-of-islam-in-challenging-extremism.pdf.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Brown, Daniel (2017). A New Introduction to Islam (3rd ed.). Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 163–169. ISBN 9781118953464.
20. ↑ Evstatiev, Simeon (2016). "8: The Qāḍīzādeli Movement and the Revival of takfīr in the Ottoman Age". Accusations of Unbelief in Islam. Brill. pp. 213–14. doi:10.1163/9789004307834_010. ISBN 978-9004307834. https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004307834/B9789004307834_010.xml. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
21. ↑ Cook, Michael (2003). Forbidding Wrong in Islam: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 91.
22. ↑ Naylor, Phillip (15 January 2015). North Africa Revised. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292761926. https://books.google.com/books?id=SSUKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT302. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
23. ↑ Esposito, John (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 275. ISBN 9780195125597. https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA275. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 "Salafism: Politics and the puritanical". The Economist. 27 June 2015. https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21656189-islams-most-conservative-adherents-are-finding-politics-hard-it-beats.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander; Hughes, Seamus; Clifford, Bennett (2021). "The Ideologues". Homegrown: ISIS in America (1st ed.). London and New York City: I.B. Tauris. pp. 111–148. ISBN 978-1-7883-1485-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=T4vzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
26. ↑ Marc Sageman (21 September 2011). Understanding Terror Networks. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 61–. ISBN 978-0-8122-0679-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=iCoYDUv63L8C&pg=PA61.
27. ↑ Vincenzo Oliveti (January 2002). Terror's Source: The Ideology of Wahhabi-Salafism and Its Consequences. Amadeus Books. ISBN 978-0-9543729-0-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=rYFtQgAACAAJ.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 Peskes, Esther (2012). "Wahhabis". in Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_SIM_224015. ISBN 978-9004161214.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Bokhari, Kamran; Senzai, Farid, eds (2013). "Conditionalist Islamists: The Case of the Salafis". Political Islam in the Age of Democratization. New York City: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 81–100. doi:10.1057/9781137313492_5. ISBN 978-1-137-31349-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ThiuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81.
30. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce, eds (2009). "Archived copy". Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York City: Facts On File. pp. 260–261. ISBN 978-0816062591. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA260. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal, eds (2021). "Part 3: Fundamentalisms and Extremists – The Citadel of Salafism". Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. 21. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 333–347. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_019. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Laoust, H. (2012). "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb". in Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Haykel, Bernard (2013). "Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703–92)". in Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad et al.. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 231–232. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA231. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Esposito, John L., ed (2004). "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791)". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-19-512559-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA123. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad – Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxford University Press. 2020. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e916.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Saat, Norshahril, ed (2018). "The Riyal and Ringgit of Petro-Islam: Investing Salafism in Education". Islam in Southeast Asia: Negotiating Modernity. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing. pp. 63–88. doi:10.1355/9789814818001-006. ISBN 9789814818001.
37. ↑ Hasan, Noorhaidi (2010). "The Failure of the Wahhabi Campaign: Transnational Islam and the Salafi madrasa in post-9/11 Indonesia". South East Asia Research (Taylor & Francis on behalf of the SOAS University of London) 18 (4): 675–705. doi:10.5367/sear.2010.0015. ISSN 2043-6874.
38. ↑ Inge, Anabel (5 October 2016). "6 common misconceptions about Salafi Muslims in the West" (in en). https://blog.oup.com/2016/10/6-misconceptions-salafi-muslims/.
39. ↑ Kepel, Gilles (2003). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. New York City: I.B. Tauris. pp. 61–62. ISBN 9781845112578. https://books.google.com/books?id=OLvTNk75hUoC&q="petro-islam"&pg=PA61. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". Washington, D.C.: United States Government Publishing Office. 26 June 2003. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-108shrg91326/html/CHRG-108shrg91326.htm. "Nearly 22 months have passed since the atrocity of 11 September. Since then, many questions have been asked about the role in that day's terrible events and in other challenges we face in the war against terror of Saudi Arabia and its official sect, a separatist, exclusionary and violent form of Islam known as Wahhabism. It is widely recognized that all of the 19 suicide pilots were Wahhabi followers. In addition, 15 of the 19 were Saudi subjects. Journalists and experts, as well as spokespeople of the world, have said that Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world, from Morocco to Indonesia, via Israel, Saudi Arabia, Chechnya. In addition, Saudi media sources have identified Wahhabi agents from Saudi Arabia as being responsible for terrorist attacks on U.S. troops in Iraq. The Washington Post has confirmed Wahhabi involvement in attacks against U.S. forces in Fallujah. To examine the role of Wahhabism and terrorism is not to label all Muslims as extremists. Indeed, I want to make this point very, very clear. It is the exact opposite. Analyzing Wahhabism means identifying the extreme element that, although enjoying immense political and financial resources, thanks to support by a sector of the Saudi state, seeks to globally hijack Islam [...] The problem we are looking at today is the State-sponsored doctrine and funding of an extremist ideology that provides the recruiting grounds, support infrastructure and monetary life blood of today's international terrorists. The extremist ideology is Wahhabism, a major force behind terrorist groups, like al Qaeda, a group that, according to the FBI, and I am quoting, is the "number one terrorist threat to the U.S. today"."
41. ↑ Haider, Murtaza (22 July 2013). "European Parliament identifies Wahabi and Salafi roots of global terrorism". Dawn (Pakistan). http://www.dawn.com/news/1029713.
42. ↑ "Wahhābī (Islamic movement)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. 9 June 2020. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wahhabi. Retrieved 1 July 2020. "Because Wahhābism prohibits the veneration of shrines, tombs, and sacred objects, many sites associated with the early history of Islam, such as the homes and graves of companions of Muhammad, were demolished under Saudi rule. Preservationists have estimated that as many as 95 percent of the historic sites around Mecca and Medina have been razed.".
43. ↑ Rabasa, Angel; Benard, Cheryl (2004). "The Middle East: Cradle of the Muslim World". The Muslim World After 9/11. Rand Corporation. p. 103, note 60. ISBN 0-8330-3712-9.
44. ↑ Howden, Daniel (6 August 2005). "The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-destruction-of-mecca-saudi-hardliners-are-wiping-out-their-own-heritage-501647.html.
45. ↑ Finn, Helena Kane (8 October 2002). "Cultural Terrorism and Wahhabi Islam". http://www.cfr.org/world/cultural-terrorism-wahhabi-islam/p5234. "It is the undisputed case that the Taliban justification for this travesty [the destruction of the Buddha statues at Bamiyan] can be traced to the Wahhabi indoctrination program prevalent in the Afghan refugee camps and Saudi-funded Islamic schools (madrasas) in Pakistan that produced the Taliban. ...In Saudi Arabia itself, the destruction has focused on the architectural heritage of Islam's two holiest cities, Mecca and Medina, where Wahhabi religious foundations, with state support, have systematically demolished centuries-old mosques and mausolea, as well as hundreds of traditional Hijazi mansions and palaces."
46. ↑ Cook, David (2015). Understanding Jihad. University of California Press. pp. 93. ISBN 9780520287327.
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Gallagher, Eugene V.; Willsky-Ciollo, Lydia, eds (2021). "Al-Qaeda". New Religions: Emerging Faiths and Religious Cultures in the Modern World. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-1-4408-6235-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=Id4aEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13. Retrieved 31 October 2021.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Aydınlı, Ersel (2018). "The Jihadists pre-9/11". Violent Non-State Actors: From Anarchists to Jihadists. Routledge Studies on Challenges, Crises, and Dissent in World Politics (1st ed.). London and New York City: Routledge. pp. 65–109. ISBN 978-1-315-56139-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hq1TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65. Retrieved 31 October 2021.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 49.3 49.4 49.5 49.6 49.7 Akbarzadeh, Shahram, ed (2012). "Sayyid Qutb: Founder of Radical Islamic Political Ideology". Routledge Handbook of Political Islam (1st ed.). London and New York City: Routledge. pp. 9–26. ISBN 9781138577824. https://books.google.com/books?id=D-LfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Polk, William R. (2018). "The Philosopher of the Muslim Revolt, Sayyid Qutb". Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North. The Henry L. Stimson Lectures Series. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 370–380. doi:10.2307/j.ctv1bvnfdq.40. ISBN 978-0-300-22290-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=ozFDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA370. Retrieved 31 October 2021.
51. ↑ Lawrence Wright (2006). "2". The Looming Tower. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41486-X.
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57. ↑ Trevor Stanley. "The Evolution of Al-Qaeda: Osama bin Laden and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi". http://www.pwhce.org/evolutionofalqaeda.html.
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60. ↑ Gibril Haddad, "Quietism and End-Time Reclusion in the Qurʾān and Hadith: Al-Nābulusī and His Book Takmīl Al-Nuʿūt within the ʿuzla Genre", Islamic Sciences 15, no. 2 (2017): pp. 108–109)
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70. ↑ Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Harvard University Press.. ISBN 9780674008779. https://archive.org/details/jihad00gill_0. "Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam."
71. ↑ "Profile: Al-Qaeda in North Africa". BBC. 17 January 2013. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17308138.
72. ↑ "National Counterterrorism Center | FTOs". https://www.dni.gov/nctc/ftos/al_murabitun_fto.html.
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78. ↑ Smith-Spark, Laura (14 January 2015). "What is al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula?". https://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/14/middleeast/yemen-al-qaeda-arabian-peninsula/.
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92. ↑ Zalman, Amy. "Jemaah Islamiyah (JI)". About.com. http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/Jemaah_Islamiya.htm.
93. ↑ Counter-Society to Counter-State: Jemaah Islamiah According to Pupji, p. 11., Elena Pavlova, The Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, [1]
94. ↑ Bennett-Jones, Owen (25 April 2014). "Pakistan army eyes Taliban talks with unease". BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-27133865.
95. ↑ "Field Listing :: Terrorist groups – foreign based – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/396.html.
96. ↑ Chomsky, Noam; Vltchek, Andre (2013). On Western Terrorism: From Hiroshima to Drone Warfare. Pluto Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-84964-937-7.
97. ↑ Chomsky, Noam; Wainwright, Joel; Nir, Oded (2018). ""There Are Always Grounds for Seeking a World That Is More Free and More Just": An Interview with Noam Chomsky on Israel, Palestine, and Zionism". Rethinking Marxism 30 (3): 357. doi:10.1080/08935696.2018.1525966. https://doi.org/10.1080/08935696.2018.1525966.

## Further reading

* "The Ideologues". Homegrown: ISIS in America (1st ed.). London and New York City: I.B. Tauris. 2021. pp. 111–148. ISBN 978-1-7883-1485-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=T4vzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111.
* "Chapter 5: The Battle of Islamic Fundamentalisms". The Shia Revival: How Conflicts Within Islam Will Shape the Future (1st ed.). New York City and London: W. W. Norton & Company. 2007. pp. 147–168. ISBN 978-0-393-06211-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=BIXoGto8gTEC&pg=PA147.
* Extremist Islam: Recognition and Response in Southeast Asia. Oxford and New York City: Oxford University Press. 2022. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197610961.001.0001. ISBN 9780197610961. OCLC 1267403660.
* "A Global Salafi Jihad Insurgency: Myth or Reality?". Global Insurgency Strategy and the Salafi Jihad Movement. INSS Occasional Paper. 66. Colorado Springs, Colorado: USAF Institute for National Security Studies at the USAF Academy. April 2008. pp. 42–86. https://books.google.com/books?id=0s0gAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA42.
* Ullah, Haroon K. (2017). Digital World War: Islamists, Extremists, and the Fight for Cyber Supremacy. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300231106.

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