Northern Crusades

Short description: 12th/13th century crusades around the Baltic Sea

Danish crusaders in the Battle of Lindanise (Tallinn) against Estonian Pagans, 15 June 1219. Painted by C. A. Lorentzen in 1809.

Template:CrusadeTemplate:Campaignbox Russo-German Wars and Conflicts The Northern Crusades,[1] or Baltic Crusades,[2] were military campaigns conducted by several Germanic Catholic kingdoms and military orders in an effort to Christianize all of the pagans (the Balts, the Finns, and the West Slavs) around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.[3] The most notable of these campaigns were the Prussian and Livonian Crusades, the latter of which also fought against the Orthodox Christian states of Novgorod and Pskov.[1] In some cases, such as with the Wendish Crusade, the conflicts were partly aimed at controlling the rich resources found in these lands.[1]

Some of these wars were explicitly regarded as crusades during the Middle Ages. For example, the war against the Estonians and the "other pagans in those parts" was authorized by Pope Alexander III's 1171 crusade bull, Non parum animus noster.[4][5] However, others—such as the (possibly mythical) 12th-century First Swedish Crusade and several subsequent incursions, undertaken by Scandinavian Christians against the then-Pagan Finns—were dubbed "crusades" only in the 19th century, by romantic nationalist historians.[citation needed]

## Contents

* 1 Background
* 2 Wendish Crusade
* 3 Swedish Crusades
* 4 Danish Crusades
* 5 Livonian Crusade
* 5.1 Campaign against the Livonians (1198–1212)
* 5.2 Campaign against the Latgallians and Selonians (1208–1224)
* 5.3 Campaign against the Estonians (1208–1224)
* 5.4 Wars against Saaremaa (1206–1261)
* 5.5 Wars against the Curonians and Semigallians (1201–1290)
* 6 Prussia and Lithuania
* 6.1 Campaigns of Bolesław the Curly and Konrad of Masovia
* 6.2 Campaigns of Bolesław the Chaste and Leszek the Black
* 7 Teutonic Order in Livonia and Votia (1237–1410)
* 8 See also
* 9 External links
* 10 Bibliography
* 11 References

## Background

At the start of the northern crusades, Christian monarchs across northern Europe commissioned forays into territories that comprised modern-day Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. The indigenous populations of pagans suffered forced baptisms and the ravages of military occupation. The ascendant Teutonic Order spearheaded these incursions and profited immensely from the crusades, as did German merchants who fanned out along trading routes traversing the Baltic frontier.[6]

The official starting point for the Northern Crusades was Pope Celestine III's call in 1195,[7] but the Catholic kingdoms of Scandinavia, Poland, and the Holy Roman Empire had begun moving to subjugate their Pagan neighbors even earlier (see Christianization of Pomerania).[8] The non-Christian people who were objects of the campaigns at various dates included:

* The Polabian Wends, Sorbs, and Obotrites between the Elbe and Oder rivers (by the Saxons, Danes, and Poles, beginning with the Wendish Crusade in 1147).
* The Finns proper in the 1150s in the First Crusade by the Swedes; by the Danes in 1191 and 1202; Tavastia in 1249 in the Second Crusade by the Swedes; and Karelia in 1293 in the Third Crusade by the Swedes; Christianization in these areas had started earlier.
* Livonians, Latgallians, Selonians, and Estonians (by the Germans and Danes, 1193–1227).
* Semigallians and Curonians (1219–1290).
* Old Prussians.
* Lithuanians and Samogitians (by the Germans, unsuccessfully, 1236–1410).

Armed conflict between the Finnic peoples, Balts, and Slavs who lived by the Baltic shores, and their Saxon and Danish neighbors to the north and south, had been common for several centuries before the crusade. The previous battles had been caused largely by attempts to destroy castles and sea trade routes in order to gain an economic advantage in the region. The crusade followed this pattern of conflict, albeit now inspired and prescribed by the Pope and undertaken by Papal knights and armed monks.

Template:Timeline Northern Crusades

## Wendish Crusade

The campaigns started with the 1147 Wendish Crusade against the Polabian Slavs (or "Wends") of what is now northern and eastern Germany. The crusade occurred parallel to the Second Crusade to the Holy Land and continued intermittently until the 16th century.

## Swedish Crusades

The Swedish crusades were campaigns by Sweden against Finns, Tavastians, and Karelians during the period from 1150 to 1293. The wars with the Eastern Orthodox Novgorod Republic also had a religious aspect.

## Danish Crusades

The Danes are known to have made at least three crusades to Finland. The first mention of these crusades is from 1187, when crusader Esbern Snare mentioned—in his Christmas-feast speech—a major victory over the Finns.[9] The next known crusades were made in 1191 and in 1202; the latter was led by the Bishop of Lund, Anders Sunesen, with his brother.[10]

Journalist Matts Dumell explains that there was a rivalry between the churches in Denmark and Sweden. This led to competition between the two countries, which mostly took the form of conquests, gaining adherents to Christianity and propaganda wins against each other. Due to this, there is virtually no possibility that Finland was already part of Sweden in the mid-1100s to early 1200s. Sweden saw civil strife from within during this period as well, which took the form of several battles and assassinations between several strongmen from the House of Sverker and the House of Erik. Only in 1216 would the Pope declare that the Finnish areas should no longer be part of the Danish kingdom, but should instead be placed under the Swedish king's 'protection'. However, only in 1165 did the Roman Catholic Church start to 'expect' bigger territorial gains and adherents from the Danes in missionary work in Finland and Estonia, the latter seeing some conversion to Christianity before 1165. There is scholarly debate over how successful the Danes ultimately were and if they gained any permanent foothold or territory in Finland before the Swedes began their efforts. Dumell debates if places, like a fort in Saxby near Porvoo, could be a product of this Danish presence, possibly built during their crusade in 1191.[11]

Dumell lists several possible crusades by Denmark to Finland:

* King Knut Waldemarsson 1191 led a 'victorious' crusade to Finland. Dumell says this expedition is well attested as it is mentioned in multiple ancient sources. Waldemarsson would, in 1194 and 1196–1197, embark on crusades against Estonia as well.[12]
* In 1202, Bishop Anders and his brothers, Ebbe and Lars Sunesen, are said to have conducted a crusade into Finland. This crusade's attestation is very sparse and its veracity unsure. Dumell debates if it was mixed up with another expedition in 1206 to Ösel, or if it was a real and distinct event.[13]
* There was possibly one Danish crusade against Finland in 1209. However, this is very poorly attested and hard to confirm.[14]

## Livonian Crusade

By the 12th century, the peoples inhabiting the lands now known as Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania formed a pagan wedge between increasingly powerful, rival Christian states – the Orthodox Church to their east and the Catholic Church to their west. The difference in creeds was one of the reasons they were able to resist being forcibly converted to a different religion. During a period of more than 150 years leading up to the arrival of German crusaders in the region, Estonia was attacked thirteen times by the Russian principalities, and by Denmark and Sweden as well. Estonians raided Denmark and Sweden in turn. There were peaceful attempts by some Catholics to convert the Estonians, starting with missions dispatched by Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, in 1045–1072. However, these peaceful efforts seem to have had limited success.

### Campaign against the Livonians (1198–1212)

Moving in the wake of German merchants following old Viking trading routes, a canon named Meinhard landed at the mouth of the Daugava river in present-day Latvia in 1180 and was made bishop in 1186. Pope Celestine III proclaimed a crusade against the Baltic Pagans in 1195, which was reiterated by Pope Innocent III, and a crusading expedition led by Meinhard's successor, Bishop Berthold of Hanover, landed in Livonia (part of present-day Latvia, surrounding the Gulf of Riga) in 1198. Although the crusaders won their first battle, Bishop Berthold was mortally wounded and the crusaders were repelled.

In 1199, Albert of Buxhoeveden was appointed by the Archbishop Hartwig II of Bremen to Christianize the Baltic countries. By the time Albert died 30 years later, the conquest and formal Christianization of present-day Estonia and northern Latvia was complete. Albert began his task by touring the Empire, preaching a Crusade against the Baltic countries, and was assisted in this by a papal bull, which declared that fighting against the Baltic heathens was of the same rank as participating in a crusade to the Holy Land. He landed in the mouth of the Daugava in 1200, with only 23 ships and 500 soldiers. Due to the bishop's efforts, he ensured that a constant flow of recruits followed. The first crusaders usually arrived to fight during the spring and returned to their homes in the autumn. To ensure a permanent military presence, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were founded in 1202. The founding, led by Bishop Albert at the market at Riga in 1201, attracted citizens from the Empire and economic prosperity ensued. At Albert's request, Pope Innocent III dedicated the Baltic countries to the Virgin Mary to popularize recruitment to his army. This is noticeable in one of the names given to Livonia at the time, Terra Mariana (Land of Mary). The name 'Mary's Land' has also survived up to modern times.

Ruins of the castle in Sigulda

In 1206, the crusaders subdued the Livonian stronghold in Turaida on the right bank of Gauja River, the ancient trading route to the Northwestern Rus. In order to gain control over the left bank of Gauja, the stone castle was built in Sigulda before 1210. By 1211, the Livonian province of Metsepole (now Limbaži district) and the mixed Livonian–Latgallian inhabited county of Idumea (now Straupe) were converted to the Roman Catholic faith. The last battle against the Livonians was the siege of Satezele hillfort, near Sigulda in 1212. The Livonians, who had been paying tribute to the East Slavic Principality of Polotsk, first considered the Germans useful allies. The first prominent Livonian to be christened was their leader, Caupo of Turaida. As the German grip tightened, the Livonians rebelled against the crusaders and the christened chief was unseated. Caupo of Turaida remained an ally of the crusaders until his death in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in 1217.[15]

The German crusaders enlisted newly baptised Livonian warriors to participate in their campaigns against Latgallians and Selonians (1208–1209), Estonians (1208–1227), and against Semigallians, Samogitians, and Curonians (1219–1290).

### Campaign against the Latgallians and Selonians (1208–1224)

Baltic Tribes c 1200

After the subjugation of the Livonians, the crusaders turned their attention to the Latgallian principalities to the east, along the Gauja and Daugava rivers. The military alliance in 1208 and later conversion from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism of the Principality of Tālava was the only peaceful subjugation of the Baltic tribes during the Nordic crusades. The ruler of Tālava, Tālivaldis (Talibaldus de Tolowa), became the most loyal ally of German crusaders against the Estonians. He died a Catholic martyr in 1215. The war against the Latgallian and Selonian countries along the Daugava waterway started in 1208 with the occupation of the Orthodox Principality of Koknese and the Selonian Sēlpils hillfort. The campaign continued in 1209 with an attack on the Orthodox Principality of Jersika (known as Lettia), which crusaders had accused of being allied with Lithuanian pagans. After the defeat, the king of Jersika, Visvaldis, became the vassal of the Bishop of Livonia and received part of his country (southern Latgale) as a fiefdom. The Selonian stronghold of Sēlpils was briefly the seat of a Selonian diocese (1218–1226), then came under the rule of the Livonian Order (eventually the stone castle of Selburg was built in its place). Only in 1224, with the division of Tālava and Adzele counties between the Bishop of Riga and the Order of the Swordbearers, did the Latgallian countries come under the possession of the German conquerors. The territory of the former Principality of Jersika was divided between the Bishop of Riga and the Livonian Order in 1239.

### Campaign against the Estonians (1208–1224)

Kuressaare Castle, Estonia, constructed by the Teutonic Order

By 1208, the Germans were strong enough to begin operations against the Estonians, who were divided into eight territories of varying sizes led by elders, with limited cooperation between them. From 1208 to 1227, the war parties of both sides rampaged through the Livonian, Northern Latgallian, and Estonian counties. The Livonians and Latgallians normally allied with the Crusaders and the Principalities of Polotsk and Pskov appearing as allies of different sides at different times. Hillforts, which were the key centers of Estonian counties, were besieged and captured numerous times. A truce between the war-weary sides was established for three years (1213–1215) and proved generally more favorable to the Germans, who consolidated their political position, while the Estonians were unable to develop their system of loose alliances into a centralized state. The Livonian leader Kaupo was killed in battle near Viljandi (Fellin) on the 21st of September, 1217. The battle was a crushing defeat for the Estonians, whose leader Lembitu was also killed. Since 1211, his name had come to the attention of the German chroniclers as a notable Estonian elder, becoming the central figure of the Estonian resistance.

The Christian kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden were also greedy for conquests on the Eastern shores of the Baltic. While the Swedes made only one failed foray into western Estonia in 1220, the Danish Fleet, headed by King Valdemar II of Denmark, had landed at the Estonian town of Lindanisse[16] (present-day Tallinn) in 1219. After the Battle of Lindanise, the Danes established a fortress, which was besieged by Estonians in 1220 and 1223, but held out. Eventually, the whole of northern Estonia came under Danish control.

### Wars against Saaremaa (1206–1261)

The last Estonian county to hold out against the invaders was the island county of Saaremaa (Ösel), whose war fleets had raided Denmark and Sweden during the years of fighting against the German crusaders.

In 1206, a Danish army led by the king Valdemar II and Andreas, the Bishop of Lund, landed on Saaremaa and attempted to establish a stronghold without success. In 1216, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and Bishop Theodorich joined forces and invaded Saaremaa over the frozen sea. In return, the Oeselians raided the territories in Latvia that were under German rule the following spring. In 1220, the Swedish army, led by king John I of Sweden and the bishop Karl of Linköping, conquered Lihula in Rotalia in Western Estonia. Oeselians attacked the Swedish stronghold the same year, conquered it, and killed the entire Swedish garrison, including the Bishop of Linköping.

In 1222, the Danish king Valdemar II attempted the second conquest of Saaremaa, this time establishing a stone fortress which housed a strong garrison. The Danish stronghold was besieged and surrendered within five days. The Danish garrison returned to Revel, leaving behind bishop Albert of Riga's brother Theodoric, and few others, as hostages for peace. The castle was razed to the ground by the Oeselians.[17]

A 20,000 strong army under the papal legate William of Modena crossed the frozen sea while the Saaremaa fleet was icebound in January 1227. After the surrender of two major Oeselian strongholds, Muhu and Valjala, the Oeselians formally accepted Christianity.

In 1236, after the defeat of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the Battle of Saule, military action on Saaremaa broke out again. In 1261, warfare continued as the Oeselians had once more renounced Christianity and killed all the Germans on the island. A peace treaty was signed after the united forces of the Livonian Order, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek, and Danish Estonia, including mainland Estonians and Latvians, defeated the Oeselians by conquering their stronghold at Kaarma. Soon thereafter, the Livonian Order established a stone fort at Pöide.

### Wars against the Curonians and Semigallians (1201–1290)

Although the Curonians had attacked Riga in 1201 and 1210, Albert of Buxhoeveden had been reluctant to conduct a large scale campaign against them, considering Courland a tributary of Valdemar II of Denmark. After Albert's death in 1229, the crusaders secured the peaceful submission of Vanemane (a county with a mixed Livonian, Oselian, and Curonian population in the northeastern part of Courland) by treaty in 1230. In the same year, the papal vice-legate Baldouin of Alnea annulled this agreement and concluded an agreement with the ruler (rex) of Bandava in the central Courland Lammekinus, delivering his kingdom into the hands of the papacy. Baldouin became the popes's delegate in Courland and bishop of Semigallia; however, the Germans complained about him to the Roman Curia, and in 1234, Pope Gregory IX removed Baldouin as his delegate.

After their decisive defeat in the Battle of Saule by the Samogitians and Semigallians, the remnants of the Sword Brothers were reorganized in 1237 as a subdivision of the Teutonic Order, and became known as the Livonian Order. In 1242, under the leadership of the master of the Livonian Order, Andrew of Groningen, the crusaders began the military conquest of Courland. They defeated the Curonians as far south as Embūte, near the contemporary border with Lithuania, and founded their main fortress at Kuldīga. In 1245, Pope Innocent IV allotted two-thirds of conquered Courland to the Livonian Order and one third to the Bishopric of Courland.

At the Battle of Durbe in 1260, a force of Samogitians and Curonians overpowered the united forces of the Livonian and Teutonic Orders. However, over the following years, the crusaders gradually subjugated the Curonians, and in 1267, concluded the peace treaty stipulating the obligations and the rights of their defeated rivals. The unconquered southern parts of their territories (Ceklis and Megava) were united under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Tērvete castle hill in 2010.

The conquest of Semigallian counties started in 1219 when crusaders from Riga occupied Mežotne, the major port on the Lielupe waterway, and founded the Bishopric of Semigallia. In 1251, after several unsuccessful campaigns against the pagan Semigallian, Duke Viestards and his Samogitian kinsfolk, the Roman Curia decided to abolish the Bishopric of Semigallia, dividing its territories between the Bishopric of Riga and the Order of Livonia. In 1265, a stone castle was built at Jelgava, on the Lielupe, and became the main military base for crusader attacks against the Semigallians. In 1271, the capital hillfort of Tērvete was conquered. However, Semigallians led by the Duke Nameisis rebelled in 1279, and the Lithuanians under Traidenis defeated Livonian Order forces in the Battle of Aizkraukle. Duke Nameisis' warriors unsuccessfully attacked Riga in 1280, provoking the siege of Turaida castle by around 14,000 crusaders in 1281. To conquer the remaining Semigallian hillforts, the Order's master Villekin of Endorpe built a castle called Heiligenberg (lit. Saints' Hill), right next to the Tērvete castle in 1287. The same year, the Semigallians made another attempt to conquer Riga, but were unsuccessful. Livonian knights attacked them on their return home, but the Semigallians defeated them in the Battle of Garoza. The Order's master Villekin and at least 35 knights lost their lives. The new master of the Order, Konrad von Hattstein, organised the last campaigns against the Semigallians in 1289 and 1290. The hillforts of Dobele, Rakte, and Sidabre were conquered, and most of the Semigallian warriors joined the Samogitian and Lithuanian forces.

## Prussia and Lithuania

### Campaigns of Bolesław the Curly and Konrad of Masovia

From 1147, the Polish Duke of Mazovia, Boleslaw the Curly, led many expeditions against pagan Prussia, with some of them being successful and resulting in the conquest of parts of the Prussian territories.[18]

Konrad I, the Polish Duke of Masovia, unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Pagan Prussia in crusades in 1219 and 1222.[19] Taking the advice of the first Bishop of Prussia, Christian of Oliva, Konrad founded the crusading Order of Dobrzyń (or Dobrin) in 1220. However, the order was largely ineffective, and Konrad's campaigns against the Old Prussians were answered by incursions into the already captured territory of Culmerland (Chełmno Land). Subjected to constant Prussian counter-raids, Konrad wanted to stabilize the north of the Duchy of Masovia in this fight over the border area of Chełmno Land. Masovia became part of Poland in the 10th century, but native Prussians, Yotvingians, and Lithuanians were still living in the territories north of Masovia, where no settled borders existed. Konrad asked in 1226 the Roman Catholic monastic order of the Teutonic Knights to come to Prussia and suppress the Old Prussians. Duke Konrad supported the Teutonic Knights financially, militarily, and by providing supplies.

### Campaigns of Bolesław the Chaste and Leszek the Black

Campaigns against Yotvingians and Lithuanians were also conducted in the years 1248–1282 by the princes Bolesław the Chaste, Siemowit and Leszek the Black. They defeated the forces of pagans invading Mazovia, Kujawy, and the Lublin region. They also carried out several expeditions to Yotvingian territories.[20]

## Teutonic Order in Livonia and Votia (1237–1410)

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The Northern Crusades provided both the rationale and the opportunity for the growth and expansion of the Teutonic Order, a German military religious order founded as a hospital in Acre around 1190 and established as a military order in 1198. Duke Konrad I of Masovia (a region in east-central Poland) appealed to the Teutonic Knights to defend his borders and subdue the pagan Old Prussians in 1226. In 1234, a significant expedition began in which Polish forces, allied with the Teutonic Knights, defeated the Old Prussians in a battle on the Dzierzgoń River.[21] While engaged in the decades-long subjugation of the Prussians, the Teutonic Knights also entered into conflict with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In 1221, Pope Honorius III expressed concern about conflicts in the Finnish region involving Novgorod, after receiving alarming information from the Archbishop of Uppsala. He authorized the Bishop of Finland to establish a trade embargo against the "barbarians" described as threatening Christianity in Finland.[22] The specific identity or origin of these "barbarians", presumably cited from the Archbishop's letter, remains unclear and may not have been known precisely, even by the Pope. However, when the call for an embargo was renewed around 1229, it specifically targeted Russians (Novgorodians).[23][24] According to papal letters from that year,[30] the Bishop of Finland requested the Pope, Gregory IX, to authorize or call for the implementation of a trade embargo against Novgorodians by Baltic Sea ports (including Visby, Riga, and Lübeck). In the following decade (around 1232–1237), Pope Gregory IX also requested the Livonian Brothers of the Sword to send troops to protect Finland from Novgorod incursions. Whether any knights were actually dispatched remains unknown.[31]

Missionary work and crusading in Estonia by the Livonian Order and other Catholic powers led to conflicts with Novgorod, which had its own interests in the region, as demonstrated by its attempts to subjugate, raid, or convert the Pagan Estonians. The Estonians, in turn, sometimes sought alliances with Novgorod against the crusaders.[32]

Intermittent warfare between Novgorod and the crusader states in Livonia continued. These conflicts ultimately halted the eastward expansion of the Livonian Order, while Novgorodian attempts to gain control over Estonia and Livonia also failed. The region (Terra Mariana) remained under the complex political control of the Livonian Confederation, primarily the Livonian Order and powerful Prince-Bishops.

## See also

* Ostsiedlung
* Finnish–Novgorodian wars
* Swedish–Novgorodian wars
* Christianization of Lithuania
* Chronology of the Northern Crusades

## External links

* Northern Crusades, article about the crusades from Ancient History Encyclopedia

## Bibliography

* Paul Srodecki and Norbert Kersken, eds. The Expansion of the Faith: Crusading on the Frontiers of Latin Christendom in the High Middle Ages. Turnhout: Brepols, 2022. ISBN 978-2-503-58880-3

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Christiansen, Erik (1997). The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 287. ISBN 0-14-026653-4. https://archive.org/details/northerncrusades00eric/page/287.
2. ↑ Hunyadi, Zsolt; József Laszlovszky (2001). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Budapest: Central European University Press. p. 606. ISBN 963-9241-42-3.
3. ↑ Lock, Peter. The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2013, pp. 216-218
4. ↑ Pope Alexander III; Curtin, D. P. (May 2008). Non Parum Animus Noster. Dalcassian Press. ISBN 9798869282217. https://books.google.com/books?id=fcn9EAAAQBAJ.
5. ↑ Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 71
6. ↑ Pluskowski, Aleksander, "Crusading into the medieval Baltic: Stanford Humanities Center Q&A with Aleks Pluskowski" Stanford Humanities Center Dec 12, 2016
7. ↑ Christopher Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades, (University of Harvard Press, 2006), 488.
8. ↑ von Güttner-Sporzyński, Darius. "Poland and the papacy before the second crusade". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235718803.
9. ↑ Jensen, Kurt Villads (2019). Ristiretket. Turun Historiallinen Yhdistys. pp. 126–127. ISBN 9789527045091.
10. ↑ Haggren, Georg; Halinen, Petri; Lavento, Mika; Raninen, Sami; Wessman, Anna (2015). Muinaisuutemme jäljet. Gaudeamus. pp. 380.
11. ↑ Dumell, Matts (2024). I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350. Förlaget Scriptum. pp. 67–81. ISBN 978-952-7523-27-8.
12. ↑ Dumell, Matts (2024). I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350. Förlaget Scriptum. pp. 67–81. ISBN 978-952-7523-27-8.
13. ↑ Dumell, Matts (2024). I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350. Förlaget Scriptum. pp. 67–81. ISBN 978-952-7523-27-8.
14. ↑ Dumell, Matts (2024). I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350. Förlaget Scriptum. pp. 67–81. ISBN 978-952-7523-27-8.
15. ↑ The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia. Columbia University Press. 1961. ISBN 0-231-12889-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=FmJnyTlis7oC.
16. ↑ "Estland" (in da). Salmonsens konversationsleksikon. https://runeberg.org/salmonsen/2/7/0518.html.
17. ↑ Urban, William L. (1994). The Baltic Crusade. Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 113–114. ISBN 0-929700-10-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNBNHgAACAAJ.
18. ↑ Biniaś-Szkopek, Magdalena (2009) (in pl). Bolesław IV Kędzierzawy – książę Mazowsza i princeps. Poznań.
19. ↑ Lewinski-Corwin, Edward Henry (1917). A History of Prussia. New York: The Polish Book Importing Company. p. 628.
20. ↑ Marcin, Kromer (1857) (in pl). Kronika polska Marcina Kromera biskupa warmińskiego ksiąg XXX.... Sanok. p. 475.
21. ↑ Biskup, Marian; Labuda, Gerard (1986) (in pl). Dzieje Zakonu Krzyżackiego w Prusach. Gdańsk: Morskie. p. 140.
22. ↑ Pope Honorius III (13 January 1221). "To prevent all supplies to the barbarian peoples who surrounded his diocese, in order thereby to possibly inhibit their attacks" (in Latina). Letter to the Bishop of Finland. Diplomatarium Fennicum 64.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Pope Gregory IX (23 January 1229). "To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith for as long as they hate and attack the recently converted Finns" (in Latina). Letter to the Bishop and Archdeacon of Riga and the Abbot of Dünamünde. Diplomatarium Fennicum 74.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Pope Gregory IX (27 January 1229). "To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith for as long as they hate and attack the newly converted Finns" (in Latina). Letter to the Bishop and Abbot of the Order of St John and the Dean of Lübeck. Diplomatarium Fennicum 76.
25. ↑ Pope Gregory IX (23 January 1229). "Concerning the removal of the diocesan see in Finland to a more suitable location" (in Latina). Letter to the Bishop and Abbot of the Order of St John and the Dean of Lübeck. Diplomatarium Fennicum 72.
26. ↑ Pope Gregory IX (23 January 1229). "To ensure that no injustice be done to the Bishop, clergy and people of Finland, which the Holy See has taken under its protection" (in Latina). Letter to the bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Provost of Visby. Diplomatarium Fennicum 73.
27. ↑ Pope Gregory IX (27 January 1229). "To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith as long as they hate and attack the newly converted Finns" (in Latina). Letter to the Bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Provost of Visby. Diplomatarium Fennicum 75.
28. ↑ Pope Gregory IX (31 January 1229). "Bull ratifying ownership by the Finnish church of former pagan groves and sanctuaries which the converts have voluntarily given to the church" (in Latina). Letter to the Bishop of Finland. Diplomatarium Fennicum 77.
29. ↑ Pope Gregory IX. "To prevent merchants of Gotland from engaging in trade with the heathens harassing the Christian church in Finland" (in Latina). Letter to the Bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Dean of Visby. Diplomatarium Fennicum 78.
30. ↑ See Diplomatarium Fennicum documents 72,[25] 73,[26] 74,[23] 75,[27] 76,[24] 77,[28] and 78.[29]
31. ↑ Pope Gregory IX (24 November 1232). "To protect the Bishop of Finland and the recently converted Finns from the attacks of the Russians" (in Latina). Letter to the Order of the Sword in Livonia. Diplomatarium Fennicum 80.
32. ↑ Fonnesberg-Schmidt, I.M. (2007). The popes and the Baltic crusades, 1147–1254. Brill. pp. 215–218, 220. ISBN 9789004155022.

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History of the Catholic Church

General|

* History of the Catholic Church
* By country or region
* Ecclesiastical history
* Timeline
* Papacy
* Papal primacy
* Catholic ecumenical councils
* First seven
* Catholic Bible
* Biblical canon
* Vulgate
* History of the Roman Curia
* Religious institutes
* Christian monasticism
* Catholic culture
* Art
* Role in civilization
* Papal States
* Latin Church
* Eastern Catholic Churches

Early Church
(30–325/476)|

| Origins and
Apostolic Age (30–100)|

* Jesus
* Ministry
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Holy Spirit
* Mary
* John the Baptist
* Apostles
* Commissioning
* Peter
* John
* Paul
* Stephen
* Council of Jerusalem
* Split with Judaism
* New Testament
* Background
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

|

Ante-Nicene period (100–325)|

* Persecution
* Church Fathers
* Apostolic Fathers
* Pope Clement I
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Canon
* Tertullian
* Origen

Late antiquity
(313–476)|

| Great Church
(180–451)
Roman
state church
(380-451)|

* Constantine the Great
* Christianity
* Arian controversy
* Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
* Old St. Peter's Basilica
* First Council of Nicaea
* Pope Sylvester I
* First Council of Constantinople
* Biblical canon
* Jerome
* Vulgate
* Council of Ephesus
* Council of Chalcedon

|

Early Middle Ages|

* Benedict of Nursia
* Monasticism
* Second Council of Constantinople
* Pope Gregory I
* Gregorian chant
* Islamic conquests
* Third Council of Constantinople
* Saint Boniface
* Byzantine Iconoclasm
* Second Council of Nicaea
* Charlemagne
* Pope Leo III
* Fourth Council of Constantinople
* East–West Schism

High Middle Ages|

* Pope Urban II
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Northern
* States
* Military orders
* Universities
* Scholasticism
* First Council of the Lateran
* Second Council of the Lateran
* Third Council of the Lateran
* Pope Innocent III
* Latin Empire
* Francis of Assisi
* Fourth Council of the Lateran
* Inquisition
* First Council of Lyon
* Second Council of Lyon
* Bernard of Clairvaux

Late Middle Ages|

* Thomas Aquinas
* Pope Boniface VIII
* Western Schism
* Avignon Papacy
* Pope Clement V
* Council of Vienne
* Knights Templar
* Catherine of Siena
* Pope Alexander VI
* Age of Discovery

Reformation
Catholic Reformation

* Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Thomas More
* Pope Leo X
* Society of Jesus
* Ignatius of Loyola
* Francis Xavier
* Dissolution of the Monasteries
* Council of Trent
* Pope Pius V
* Tridentine Mass
* Teresa of Ávila
* John of the Cross
* Philip Neri
* Robert Bellarmine
* Thirty Years' War

Baroque Period to the
French Revolution

* Pope Innocent XI
* Pope Benedict XIV
* Suppression of the Society of Jesus
* Age of Enlightenment
* Anti-clericalism
* Pope Pius VI
* Shimabara Rebellion
* Edict of Nantes
* Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

19th century|

* Pope Pius VII
* Pope Pius IX
* Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary
* Our Lady of La Salette
* Our Lady of Lourdes
* First Vatican Council
* Papal infallibility
* Pope Leo XIII
* Mary of the Divine Heart
* Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart
* Rerum novarum

20th century|

* Pope Pius X
* Our Lady of Fátima
* Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII Consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
* Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
* Lateran Treaty
* Nazism
* Pope John XXIII
* Second Vatican Council
* Pope Paul VI
* Pope John Paul I
* Mother Teresa
* Communism
* Pope John Paul II
* World Youth Day
* 1995

21st century|

* Sexual abuse scandal
* Islam
* World Youth Day
* 2000
* 2002
* 2005
* 2008
* 2011
* 2013
* 2016
* 2019
* Pope Benedict XVI
* Pope Francis

*   *

Template:Christian History

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern Crusades. Read more

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