Religious text

Short description: Texts central to a religion's tradition

"Scripture" and "scriptures" redirect here. For other uses, see Scripture (disambiguation).

"Sacred texts" redirects here. For the website, see Internet Sacred Text Archive.

Clockwise from upper left:

* The Rigveda (Vedic chant) manuscript in Devanagari, a scripture of Hinduism, dated 1500–1000 BCE. It is the oldest religious text in any Indo-European language.
* Sephardic Torah scroll, containing the first section of the Hebrew Bible, rolled to the first paragraph of the Shema.
* A page from one of the early Quranic manuscripts (7th century CE), currently preserved in the National Museum of New Delhi, India.
* A page from the Codex Vaticanus manuscript (4th century CE) in the Greek Old and New Testament, currently preserved in the Vatican Library, Rome.

Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. Religious texts are usually thought of as sacred or authoritative based on their recognition and use in a religious community. What is included as a religious text may vary between different cultures and historical contexts.[1] They often feature a compilation or discussion of beliefs, ritual practices, moral commandments and laws, ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and admonitions for fostering a religious community.

Within each religion, these texts are revered as authoritative sources of guidance, wisdom, and divine revelation. They are often regarded as sacred or holy, representing the core teachings and principles that their followers strive to uphold.[2][3][4] Most of the time they are considered sacred not just because of their content, but because communities treat them as important sources for belief, practice, and moral guidance. What is considered "sacred" can differ very much depending on cultural, historical, and institutional factors.[1][5]

## Contents

* 1 Oral traditions
* 2 Etymology and nomenclature
* 3 History of religious texts
* 4 Authority of religious texts
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 Further reading
* 8 External links

## Oral traditions

Not all religious traditions rely on written texts. In many cultures, religious teachings are preserved and passed on through oral traditions such as storytelling, memorization, and ritual speech. These oral traditions can function in ways similar to written scripture by conveying beliefs, values, and practices across generations. For example, many indigenous traditions, such as those of Native American groups, maintain religious knowledge through oral practice instead of written documents.[6]

## Etymology and nomenclature

According to Peter Beal, the term scripture – derived from scriptura (Latin) – meant "writings [manuscripts] in general" prior to the medieval era, and was then "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible".[7] Beyond Christianity, according to the Oxford World Encyclopedia, the term scripture has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion",[8] while The Oxford center of Dictionary of World Religions states it refers to a text "having [religious] authority and often collected into an accepted canon".[9] In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to the English language, and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like "sacred" to denote religious texts.

Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.[10] The term "canon" is derived from the Greek word "κανών", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow.[11] The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate a corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group.[12] The earliest reference to the term "canon" in the context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as the Synod of Laodicea, mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts.[13]

## History of religious texts

One of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of ancient Sumer,[14][15] a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE.[16] The Epic of Gilgamesh from Sumer, although only considered by some scholars as a religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE,[17] and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes various mythological figures and themes of interaction with the divine.[18] The Rigveda, a scripture of Hinduism, is dated 1500 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age.[19][20]

The earliest dating of the earliest Biblical texts is the 13th-12th centuries BCE.[21][22][23] The beginning of the scribal documentation from temple and royal courts is dated to the 8th century BCE and continues until the 5th century BCE.[24]

High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440,[25] before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation.

## Authority of religious texts

The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and is derived from the ratification, enforcement, and its use across generations. The process in which texts become accepted as sacred is often formed by historical developments, as well as religious leaders, institutions, and community practices, and may reflect broader social and cultural influences.[5] Some religious texts are accepted or categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical, or post-canonical.[10]

"Scripture" (or "scriptures") is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative",[26][27] revered and "holy writ",[28] "sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to a religious community.[29][30] The terms sacred text and religious text are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to be sacred because of the belief in some theistic religions such as the Abrahamic religions that the text is divinely or supernaturally revealed or divinely inspired, or in non-theistic religions such as some Indian religions they are considered to be the central tenets of their eternal Dharma. In contrast to sacred texts, many religious texts are narratives or discussions about the specific religion's general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures.

In some religions (e.g. Christianity), the canonical texts include a particular text (Bible) but are "an unsettled question," according to linguist Eugene Nida. In others (Hinduism, Buddhism), there "has never been a definitive canon".[31][32] While the term scripture is derived from the Latin scriptura, meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of their oral tradition, and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according to Encyclopaedia Britannica.[28][33][34]

In Islam, the Sunnah are the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The Sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw, followed, and passed on to the next generations.[35] According to classical Islamic theories,[36] the Sunnah are documented by hadith (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions or disapprovals attributed to Muhammad), and alongside the Quran (the book of Islam) is the divine revelation (wahy) delivered through Muhammad[36] that make up the primary sources of Islamic law and theology.[37][38] However, sects of Islam differ on which hadiths (if any) should be accepted as canonical (see criticism of hadith). These examples primarily reflect written traditions; however, in some religions, religious teachings may also be preserved through oral practice rather than fixed written texts.[1][6]

## See also

* List of religious texts

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade (2012) (in en). Encyclopedia of Global Religion. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc.. doi:10.4135/9781412997898. ISBN 978-0-7619-2729-7. https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/embed/globalreligion/chpt/scripture?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
2. ↑ Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies". Journal of Literacy Research 35 (1): 667–670. , Quote: "religious texts serve two important regulatory functions: on the group level, they regulate liturgical ritual and systems of law; at the individual level, they (seek to) regulate ethical conduct and direct spiritual aspirations."
3. ↑ Eugene Nida (1994). "The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts". TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction (Érudit: Université de Montréal) 7 (1): 195–197.Université+de+Montréal&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Religion:Religious_text"> , Quote: "The phrase "religious texts" may be understood in two quite different senses: (1) texts that discuss historical or present-day religious beliefs and practices of a believing community and (2) texts that are crucial in giving rise to a believing community."
4. ↑ Ricoeur, Paul (1974). "Philosophy and Religious Language". The Journal of Religion (University of Chicago Press) 54 (1): 71–85. doi:10.1086/486374.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1994-07-01) (in en). What Is Scripture?: A Comparative Approach. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-2015-9. https://www.google.com/books/edition/What_Is_Scripture/0RVUzV4JpAgC?hl=en&gbpv=0.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Graham, William Albert (1993-03-26). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8. https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7741158M/Beyond_the_Written_Word?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
7. ↑ Peter Beal (2008). A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology: 1450 to 2000. Oxford University Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-0-19-926544-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=TekTDAAAQBAJ.
8. ↑ "Scriptures". The World Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-954609-1. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-10395.
9. ↑ John Bowker (2000). "Scripture". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-6484.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Lee Martin McDonald; James H. Charlesworth (5 April 2012). 'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. A&C Black. pp. 1–5, 18–19, 24–25, 32–34. ISBN 978-0-567-12419-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYIebgV1_e0C&pg=PA25.
11. ↑ Juan Carlos Ossandón Widow (2018). The Origins of the Canon of the Hebrew Bible. Brill Academic. pp. 22–27. ISBN 978-90-04-38161-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=uJByDwAAQBAJ.
12. ↑ Gerbern Oegema (2012). Lee Martin McDonald and James H. Charlesworth. ed. 'Noncanonical' Religious Texts in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. A&C Black. pp. 18–23 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-567-12419-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYIebgV1_e0C.
13. ↑ Gallagher, Edmon L.; Meade, John D. (2017). The Biblical Canon Lists from Early Christianity: Texts and Analysis. Oxford University Press. pp. xii–xiii. ISBN 978-0-19-879249-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=Fpg4DwAAQBAJ.
14. ↑ Kramer, Samuel (1942). "The Oldest Literary Catalogue: A Sumerian List of Literary Compositions Compiled about 2000 B.C.". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 88 (88): 10–19. doi:10.2307/1355474.
15. ↑ Sanders, Seth (2002). "Old Light on Moses' Shining Face". Vetus Testamentum 52 (3): 400–406. doi:10.1163/156853302760197520.
16. ↑ Enheduanna; Meador, Betty De Shong (2009-08-01) (in en). Princess, priestess, poet: the Sumerian temple hymns of Enheduanna. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71932-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=X3ALAQAAMAAJ.
17. ↑ Stephanie Dalley (2000). Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–45. ISBN 978-0-19-953836-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=0YHfiCz4BRwC.
18. ↑ George, Andrew (2002-12-31) (in en). The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044919-8. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780140449198.
19. ↑ Sagarika Dutt (2006). India in a Globalized World. Manchester University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-84779-607-3
20. ↑ Kumar, Shailendra; Choudhury, Sanghamitra (2021-01-01). Meissner, Richard. ed. "Ancient Vedic Literature and Human Rights: Resonances and Dissonances" (in en). Cogent Social Sciences 7 (1). doi:10.1080/23311886.2020.1858562. ISSN 2331-1886.
21. ↑ Coogan, Michael David (2012). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. (New York: Oxford University Press), p 183, https://archive.org/details/briefintroductio0000coog/page/182/mode/2up?view=theater
22. ↑ Niditch, Susan (2008). Judges. (Louisville: John Knox Press), p. 9.
23. ↑ Schniedewind, William M. (2004). How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel. (Cambridge University Press), p 54.
24. ↑ "The Yahwist" (in en-US). Contradictions in the Bible. 2012-12-23. http://contradictionsinthebible.com/the-yahwist-2/.
25. ↑ "The History Guide". http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/press.html.
26. ↑ Charles Elster (2003). "Authority, Performance, and Interpretation in Religious Reading: Critical Issues of Intercultural Communication and Multiple Literacies". Journal of Literacy Research 35 (1): 669–670.
27. ↑ John Goldingay (2004). Models for Scripture. Clements Publishing Group. pp. 183–190. ISBN 978-1-894667-41-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=N6_TwzrgshkC.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 ((The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica)) (2009). Scripture. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/scripture.
29. ↑ Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1994). What is Scripture?: A Comparative Approach. Fortress Press. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-1-4514-2015-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=0RVUzV4JpAgC.
30. ↑ William A. Graham (1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–46. ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=XzYX0T-ZqTcC.
31. ↑ Eugene Nida (1994), The Sociolinguistics of Translating Canonical Religious Texts, 7, pp. 194–195
32. ↑ Thomas B. Coburn (1984). ""Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life". Journal of the American Academy of Religion (Oxford University Press) 52 (3): 435–459. doi:10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435.
33. ↑ William A. Graham (1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge University Press. pp. ix, 5–9. ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=XzYX0T-ZqTcC.
34. ↑ Carroll Stuhlmueller (1958). "The Influence of Oral Tradition Upon Exegesis and the Senses of Scripture". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 20 (3): 299–302.
35. ↑ Qazi, M. A.; El-Dabbas, Mohammed Saʿid (1979). A Concise Dictionary of Islamic Terms. Lahore, Pakistan: Kazi Publications. p. 65.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought, 1996: p.7
37. ↑ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (22 March 2011). "What is Shari'a?". ABC Religion and Ethics. http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2011/03/22/3170810.htm. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
38. ↑ "What is the Difference Between Quran and Sunnah?". http://askaquestionto.us/question-answer/revealedbook/what-is-the-difference-between-quran-and-sunnah.

## Further reading

* The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts
* Traditions écrites, collections et processus de normativité G. Ducoeur & C. Redard (ed.), University of Strasbourg, 2025

## External links

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* Germanic
* Illyro-thracian
* Greek
* Hellenism
* Gnosticism
* Neoplatonism
* Roman
* Slavic
* Vedic Hinduism

Related topics|

* Evolution of morality
* Evolutionary origin of religions
* Evolutionary psychology of religion
* History of atheism
* History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)
* Humanism
* Irreligion
* Roman School
* Secularism

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