Supay

In the Quechua, Aymara, and Inca mythologies, Supay (from Quechua: supay "shadow"; Aymara: Supaya) was originally an ambivalent spirit, both benevolent and harmful, a denizen of the Incan netherworld (Hurin Pacha) who might enter the world of the living as "shadow", perhaps attempting to bring someone as companion into the world of the dead.

Some explain Supay as a single spirit or god of the subterranean realm. Either way, in the Spanish Christianized conception the Supay was turned more or less into the Devil or demons living in Hell.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Supay according to chroniclers
* 3 Features
* 4 Mythology
* 4.1 Myth of Lago Titicaca
* 5 Modern Andean-Christian belief
* 6 Mining communities
* 7 Retablos
* 8 See also
* 9 Explanatory notes
* 10 References
* 10.1 Bibliography

## Etymology

The anonymous dictionary of 1586,[1] as do Father Diego González Holguín (1608)[2], Jorge A. Lira (1945) and Jesús Lara (1971), the name Supay comes from the Quechua word "Supa", which translates as shadow, illness, death, possessed, or crazy.[3][4] In early Quechua-Spanish usage, the sense of "shadow" or "soul" or "anima" is followed.[5][6]

Other forms include: zupay, çupay, hupai, hupee.[7]

## Supay according to chroniclers

Like the early evangelists, many chroniclers have described and portrayed the divinity Supay in the same erroneous manner.

The most atavistic reference to Supay is found in the lexicon of Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás. In it, he alleges the nature of Supay as follows:[8]

> “And these evil angels (Supays) were cast out of heaven by God for their sins, and banished here below to earth, to hell in great fire, darkness, and stench, where they remain to this day, and will remain forever imprisoned, suffering for their sins. And these are the ones you call ‘manaalliçupay’ in your language.”

> («Y a estos ángeles malos (Supays) por sus pecados los echó Dios del cielo, y desterró acá baxo de la tierra, al infierno en gran fuego, oscuridad, y hedor, donde hasta agora están, y estarán para siempre encerrados, padesciendo por sus pecados. Y estos son los que en vuestra lengua llamays "manaalliçupay"»)

>     ~ Léxicon, o Vocabulario de la lengua general del Perú

In this testimony, Supay is equated with evil angels, who are considered manaalliçupay. The quote falsely suggests that the souls of those who became ancestors and went to Uku Pacha were demons. This was done to forcibly equate Andean concepts associated with death with the devil and hell. This equation of Supay with the devil was questioned by some, including the clergyman Bartolomé Álvarez. He questioned the aforementioned equation, recognizing that doing so would confirm that the devil could only be the dead individual.

Another interpretation is the description of Supay as a dual-aligned deity. Dualism in Inca gods is very common, since gods can be benevolent or, due to their fury, cause misfortune.

Regarding the link between souls and Supay, Guamán Poma de Ayala also highlights this relationship in his work Nueva corónica y buen gobierno (New Chronicle and Good Government). The chronicler states that:[9]

> "Idols, Uacas of the Inga of the others in this kingdom, which was in the time of the Inga of how it was first followed, of how Topa Inga Yupanqui spoke with the uacas and stones and demons, and knew by luck from them the past and the future of them and of the whole world, and of how the Spaniards were to come to rule; and so because of this the Inga was called Uiracocha Inga. But he did not teach them anything else about God, although they say that they said there was another Lord greater than them, they were devils, and so they said Supay, which is how they knew him as Supay."

> («Ídolos, Uacas del Inga de los demás de este reino, que fue en tiempo del Inga de cómo se siguió primero, de cómo Topa Inga Yupanqui hablaba con las uacas y piedras y demonios, y sabía por suerte de ellos lo pasado y lo venidero de ellos y de todo el mundo, y de cómo habían de venir los españoles a gobernar; y así por ello el Inga se llamó Uiracocha Inga. Pero lo demás de cosa de Dios no le enseñó a saber, aunque dicen que decían que había otro Señor muy grande más que ellos, eran diablos, y así decían Supay, que por tal conocían por Supay».)

>     ~ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno, capitulo 12, pagina 264

Two important aspects stand out in this quote: the first refers to the origin of idolatry in the Andes, associated with the Inca ruler. The second refers to the term Supay, which is again translated as devil, to indicate that the Incas already had knowledge of the devil. The Supay presented by Guamán is related to the authority of the Inca and his transformation after death into a “demon,” who demanded veneration and sacrificial offerings from the natives.

As is axiomatic, not all deceased persons could be considered Supay or ancestors, since only those who had had a certain prestige, that is, those who had been political leaders or prominent figures whose investiture allowed them, even after death, to demand the fulfillment of the rituals that corresponded to them.

It is worth mentioning that when the Inca died, he passed into his state as an ancestor, in which he was mummified in a fetal position and offered as a sign of support for his soul to cross over into the afterlife. The mallqui (mummy or body of the ancestors) of the ruler and/or ethnic leader was placed in tombs called machays (caves). In various ceremonies and special events, the mummy was displayed outside its enclosure and carried around to various sites.

The work also alludes to Supay in a non-explicit way, using the terms devil and/or demon to replace it. However, in a quote from his work, he writes the following:[10]

> "When snakes appear or enter their homes, and owls and little owls sing, bats that they call tuco, chuchic, pacpac, pecpe, chicollom, cayaycuuan. Taparanco yaycuuan. Uro nina, ayacta ayzaycuuan. Ycjapas maycan uanoson. Atocmi “zupayta” ayzan uarmitam ychapas carita. [The owl, the barn owl, the paq paq, p'iqpi, chiqallu (species of owls) have called me. A moth has entered inside me. The will-o'-the-wisps have dragged my corpse away. When will we die? By the way, the fox has dragged away the demon, a woman, or perhaps a man.]"

> («Quando le paresen o se les entran en sus casas las culebras y cantar de lechuzas y muchuelos, murciélagos que los llaman tuco, chuchic, pacpac, pecpe, chicollom, cayaycuuan. Taparanco yaycuuan. Uro nina, ayacta ayzaycuuan. Ycjapas maycan uanoson. Atocmi "zupayta" ayzan uarmitam ychapas carita. [El búho, la lechuza, el paq paq, p'iqpi, chiqallu (especie de búhos) me han llamado. Una mariposa nocturna ha entrado dentro de mí. Los fuegos fatuos me han arrastrado el cadáver. ¿Quizá cuándo vamos a morir? Por cierto, el zorro ha arrastrado al demonio, a una mujer o quizás a un hombre.]»

>     ~ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno, capitulo 12, pagina 284

This quote is complemented by the illustration in the section Abuciones y agüeros (Omens and Portents) of his work, as the illustration depicts what appears to be an Inca sorcerer surrounded by various animals, including a fox in the foreground. In the drawing, the fox is dragging something in its mouth that appears to be a small reptile or a large insect. This act alludes to a superstition of that time, an omen that was, in turn, interpreted by the Inca sorcerer.

After the aforementioned quote, the chronicler mentions: “hearing the howling of foxes or some other animal.” This is interpreted as an example of an announcement of death. In relation to the above, some Andean legends associate the fox with harm and misfortune. Likewise, the animal maintains a relationship of perpetual enmity with man. However, the figure of the fox has an ambivalent meaning. In the Manuscript of Huarochirí, the fox knows the secrets of the hero Tantañamca, but refuses to help the huaca Cuniraya Huiracocha and, as a result, is cursed to be at odds with men. In Andean areas, peasants associate the fox with the “dog of Mallku” (the spirit of the mountain that protects the community) and/or the “dog of the gentiles” that protects the houses of deceased ancestors and the chullpas (funeral monuments) where they are buried.

The word Supay can be seen a second time in the chapter on idols as the main element of a curse among sorcerers:[11]

> "Both spoke of this same Pachacámac, although, not knowing the true meaning of the word, they attributed it to the devil. In saying that the God of the Christians and Pachacámac were one and the same, he spoke the truth, because the intention of those Indians was to give this name to the supreme God, who gives life and being to the universe, as the name itself signifies. And in saying that he was Pachacámac, he lied, because the Indians never intended to give this name to the devil, whom they called nothing but Zupay, which means devil, and to name him, they first spat as a sign of curse and abomination, and they named Pachacámac with the worship and demonstrations we have mentioned. However, as this enemy had so much power among those infidels, he made himself God, entering into everything that the Indians venerated and regarded as sacred. He spoke in their oracles and temples and in the corners of their houses and other places, telling them that he was Pachacámac and that he was all the other things to which the Indians attributed divinity, and because of this deception, they worshipped those things in which the devil spoke to them, thinking that it was the deity they imagined. If they understood that it was the devil, they would burn them, as they do now, by the mercy of the Lord, who wanted to communicate this to them."

> («Hablando ambos de este mismo Pachacámac, aunque por no saber la propia significación del vocablo se lo atribuyeron al demonio. El cual, en decir que el Dios de los cristianos y el Pachacámac era todo uno, dijo verdad, porque la intención de aquellos indios fue dar este nombre al sumo Dios, que da vida y ser al universo, como lo significa el mismo nombre. Y en decir que él era el Pachacámac mintió, porque la intención de los indios nunca fue dar este nombre al demonio, que no le llamaron sino Zupay, que quiere decir diablo, y para nombrarle, escupían primero en señal de maldición y abominación, y al Pachacámac nombraban con la adoración y demostraciones que hemos dicho. Empero, como este enemigo tenía tanto poder entre aquellos infieles, haciase Dios, entrándose en todo aquello que los indios veneraban y acataban por cosa sagrada. Hablaba en sus oráculos y templos y en los rincones de sus casas y otras partes, diciéndoles que era el Pachacámac y que era todas las demás cosas a que los indios atribuían deidad, y por este engaño adoraban aquellas cosas en que el demonio les hablaba, pensando que era la deidad que ellos imaginaban, que si entendieran que era el demonio las quemaran entonces como ahora lo hacen por la misericordia del Señor, que quiso comunicarlas».)

>     ~ Comentarios Reales de los Incas, Libro Segundo, Capítulo II

In this quote, Pachacámac is referred to as God, while Supay is relegated to the role of the Christian devil. Supay is also attributed with evil characteristics, such as entering and possessing the objects of veneration and worship of the natives in order to deceive them. At this point, it seems that Garcilaso emphasizes the huacas (sacred sites), which, as is well known, were a set of elements sacred to the Inca people. Within these huacas were idols and representations of various gods, which were highly venerated. To prove their veracity, the huacas had to communicate with the Inca rulers to manifest their power and, therefore, be objects of veneration and respect. If the huaca did not speak, it was a false huaca and should not be given prestige as such. In relation to these elements and Supay, Garcilaso alludes to Supay's possession of these elements to deceive and disorient the population. Multiple chroniclers have associated huacas with idolatrous acts and, therefore, with the devil. Inca Garcilaso is no exception in this regard. Continuing with Garcilaso, in another quote from his aforementioned work, he equates Uku Pacha with hell and/or the underworld. The respective quote is as follows:[12]

> "They believed that there was another life after this one, with punishment for the wicked and rest for the good. They divided the universe into three worlds: they called heaven Hanan Pacha, which means high world, where they said the good went to be rewarded for their virtues; they called this world of generation and corruption Hurin Pacha, which means lower world; they called the center of the earth Ucu Pacha, which means lower world down there, where they said the wicked went, and to make it clearer they gave it another name, which is Zupaipa Huacin, which means House of the Devil."

> («Creían que había otra vida después de esta, con pena para los malos y descanso para los buenos. Dividían el universo en tres mundos: llaman al cielo Hanan Pacha, que quiere decir mundo alto, donde decían que iban los buenos a ser premiados de sus virtudes; llamaban Hurin Pacha a este mundo de la generación y corrupción, que quiere decir mundo bajo; llamaban Ucu Pacha al centro de la tierra, que quiere decir mundo inferior de allá abajo, donde decían que iban a parar los malos, y para declararlo más le daban otro nombre, que es Zupaipa Huacin, que quiere decir Casa del Demonio».)

>     ~ Comentarios Reales de los Incas, Libro Segundo, Capítulo VII

In Garcilaso's quote, he explains that, for the natives, the world was divided into three universal planes. It is also worth noting that the comparison between these elements and the Christian trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) is palpable. This is even more evident when comparing Uku Pacha and its ruler, Supay, with hell and the devil, respectively. In fact, it was Inca Garcilaso who gave Uku Pacha a meaning similar to what many know as the “underworld.”

Another point worth noting is the way Garcilaso describes what could be Kay Pacha (this world), as he calls it Hurin Pacha, which is commonly taken as a synonym for Uku Pacha. However, this would present a greater complexity than some scholars maintain.

According to various sources, there was a bipartite perception of Hurin Pacha (the Andean underworld). On one side was an intra-terrestrial plane, a place of fertility, the Sun (as punchao), the Moon, and the animals of the night. This plane, in turn, was crossed by a sea. It is called Hurin Pacha in the chronicles.[13] The first section of the underworld territory we can talk about was understood as a place of prosperity; moreover, thanks to the work of José María Arguedas, we know that there is a tree with “sweets” for deceased children. Taking this information into account, it is possible that children could have made a “journey” of sorts, accessing only the area where the tree was located, and then accessing the sky.[14] On the other hand, there would be the plane of eternal darkness, where the greatest exponent of the night is located, the antagonistic form of celestial power and germinative power: the Uku Pacha.[15]

Both terms, it seems, were confused in the chronicles and were possibly two terms that referred to parts of an intra-terrestrial world, but the data is unclear.

Likewise, there could have been many other names and elements that have been lost over time and through evangelization campaigns. An example of this is the fourth world called Hawa Pacha (outer world). This world would have been eradicated by the Spanish in their eagerness to standardize the cosmological conception of the Andean worlds with the aforementioned Christian trilogy.

## Features

Supay is commonly described as having a “demonic” appearance, with long horns, glassy, starry eyes, a feline face with long fangs, and long ears. Like other Andean gods, Supay is a multiform god, capable of manifesting himself in any form. Adding to this his conflictive and unpredictable personality, Supay is classified as a trickster, as he can both protect humanity on its journey to the afterlife and also has the power to deceive and/or urge humanity to bring out its most twisted side. These characteristics and abilities made him a very dangerous being for those who did not show him respect.

Supay was created by Viracocha for the purpose of showing humanity that there will always be evil in the world, but not enough. Because of this, the Incas believed that he was a being who balanced the scales between good and evil. The fact that Huiracocha created him makes him a brother of the gods Inti, Illapa, and Mama Quilla.

Supay, lord of the dead and monarch of the underworld, could be benevolent to the living he liked and to those who had died a dignified death, but he was terrible and evil to the rest, both in the underworld and in the earthly and present world, because he could tip the scales of bad luck just by thinking about it.[16]

The Incas believed that Supay was the deity who maintained the balance between positive and negative supernatural forces.

Supay was a Machiavellian deity who mocked the suffering of others, their beliefs, and even their knowledge, because he questioned everything and was capable of changing ideas and thoughts, turning a holy man into an evil one and a wise man into a madman without conscience or knowledge.

Uku Pacha (world of eternal darkness)[15], was his natural home, but he could come and go from Earth to Heaven whenever he pleased. This establishes him as an unpredictable, fickle, and ubiquitous deity (he could be benevolent or Machiavellian; he could manifest himself in any form and in any place, proving to be omnipresent and that the laws are not entirely subject to him). Wherever he manifested himself, Supay spread a cloak of terror and unease. Likewise, this deity reminded each and every one (gods or humans) that they were always under the threat of destruction, disappearance, and death. This thought applied to anything they believed to be beautiful or safe, since it could disappear in an instant and forever, frustrating all the dreams and plans of gods and men.

Supay was also the creator of men, but they were made in his image and likeness, eventually becoming terrible demons of the depths, the roads, the mountains, the waters, the jungle, and the caves.

The Spanish equated him with the Devil because, according to Andean traditions and legends, Supay appears as a huaca (deity) of good and bad luck, of sexual love or infatuation, of transgression and adventure, of excesses and fun that does not take life seriously, because life is fleeting and nothing is serious.[17] Many of these are classic features of the Devil in Christian folklore.

## Mythology

### Myth of Lago Titicaca

In this myth, Supay is responsible for causing the flood, which later gave rise to Lake Titicaca.

The myth tells that Lake Titicaca was once a fertile valley populated by people who lived happily in peace and harmony. They lacked nothing; the land was rich and provided them with everything they needed. Death, hatred, and ambition were unknown in this land. The Apus, the gods of the mountains, protected these human beings. They imposed only one condition: no one was allowed to climb to the top of the mountains where the Sacred Fire burned.

For a long time, the people who lived in the valley did not think of breaking this order from the gods. But the Supay (or Auka), an evil spirit condemned to live in darkness, could not bear to see these people living so peacefully in the valley. He devised a plan to divide the men by sowing discord. Using trickery, he managed to get the people to disobey their gods and follow the path of curiosity, to find the Sacred Fire at the top of the mountains.[18][19]

Then one fine day, at dawn, these people disobeyed and began to climb to the top of the mountains, although halfway up they were surprised by the Apus.

The Apus realized that the men had disobeyed and decided to exterminate them. Thousands of pumas appeared, at the command of the Apus, to devour those who had attempted to reach the sacred fire. Fleeing in terror, they begged Supay for help, but he remained unmoved by their pleas. They all died for their audacity.

Seeing this, Inti, the sun god, began to cry. His tears were so abundant that they formed a flood that lasted forty days.

Only one man and one woman were saved on a reed boat. Once the flood was over, the man and woman could not believe their eyes. Under the pure blue sky, they were in the middle of an immense lake. Floating in the water were the pumas, drowned and transformed into stone statues.[20]

This is where the name Lake Titicaca comes from, although the correct name would be “Titekjarka,” which comes from Tite (puma) and Kjarka (rock), and which translated into Spanish means: The lake of the stone pumas. When the Spanish arrived at the lake, they couldn't pronounce its name correctly and called it Titicaca.[21]

## Modern Andean-Christian belief

The name Supay is now roughly translated into diablo (Spanish for devil) in most Southern American countries.

Some commentary regards the Supay as a single God of Death of the Uku Pacha (inner world),[22] the "god of the mountains",[23] or "the spirit or god who lived in the earth".[24]

What appears to be the case is there is conflation between the Supay, regarded as a trickster deity, and El Tío (q.v.), the Bolivian god of the underworld and the mines.[25] While scholarly argument postulates Tío to have been a sort of Spanish invented frightening god/boogeyman and thus a corruption of Dios,[26] the popular notion is that the miners avoid the derogatory supay and call him Tío, or "uncle".[28] The name is sometimes concatenated as "Tío Supay" or "Uncle Supay".[lower-alpha 1][29]

It has been commented that in the early 20th century, the Aymara were more prone to worship the Supay akin to old tradition, and the Quechua more likely to regard it as a disgusting creature.[30]

In some areas of Peru, where the cult of the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated, she became controller of lightning who frightens away the devilish Supay (early 20th century).[30] This Catholic Virgin Mother is the Pachamama's counterpart, just as the Devil is the replacement for Supay.[23]

## Mining communities

Supay is given original meaning in the miner's communities, with Tío or Supay recognized as the lord of the mines,[31] sometimes conflated together into figure of Tío Supay, as already discussed.[29] And the Virgin of the Mineshaft (Virgen del Socavón) is the mining communities' alias of the Virgin of Candelaria previously discussed.[32]

In Oruro, Bolivia, the Carnaval de Oruro features the diablada dance with the Supay cast in the role of its most important devil[32][lower-alpha 2] The carnival dance may also feature the china supay or "she-devils" of overtly sexual nature that used to be performed by men.[34]

In the miners' lore, Tío was the king of the underground (rey de lo subterráneo), and Chinasupay the she-devil his wife, according to Victor Montoya, and he sees some parallels with the Hades-Persephone myth here.[35]

## Retablos

Vintage Andean household altars or retablos typically depicted two of the aforementioned three worlds, but more recent altars depict all three, with the lowest floor, Uku Pacha, of the lost souls of the deceased and demonical beings. The supay-devils are portrayed as goat-men with wings and long claws on hands and hind feet. There are also winged angels depicted, but the indigenous faith regards this not so much as the battle between good and evil but as striking balance between natural forces.[37]

## See also

* Huari (deity) [es; es; Huari (dios de los huaris)] \- deity of the Huaris
* psychopomp
* Saqra

## Explanatory notes

1. ↑ Some miners who claimed to have seen him said he was a small man who smelled of sulfur, and accused him of pranks like hiding the miner's coca or his essentially tools.[29]
2. ↑ It is not clear if the star of the dance really names himself the Supay as Perrin seems to suggest. Otherliterature refer to Lucifer and Satan appearing, both symbolizing El Tío.[33]

## References

1. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 22.
2. ↑ Holguín (1608) Vocabulario apud Taylor (2000), p. 22
3. ↑ Lira, Jorge A. (1945) Diccionario kkechuwa-español apud Taylor (2000), p. 22
4. ↑ Lira, Jorge A. (1978) [1971] Diccionario Qheshwa-Castellano apud Taylor (2000), p. 22
5. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 26.
6. ↑ Quispe-Agnoli, Rocío (2017). "Sacred as Evil Otherness in Early Colonial Andes". in Díaz, Mónica. To Be Indio in Colonial Spanish America. University of New Mexico Press. pp. 196–198, notes on p. 213. ISBN 9780826357731. https://books.google.com/books?id=TlXSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA197.
7. ↑ Díaz, Mónica (2017-06-15) (in en). To Be Indio in Colonial Spanish America. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-5773-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=TlXSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA197.
8. ↑ Santo Tomás, Domingo de; Instituto Nacional de Cultura; Centro Nacional de Información Cultural; César, Coloma Porcari; Clide, Valladolid Huamán (2003). Lexicon o Vocabulario de la Lengua General del Perú. https://repositorio.cultura.gob.pe/handle/CULTURA/226.
9. ↑ "Ídolos y waqas del Ynga, pág. 264 [264: Guaman Poma, Nueva corónica y buen gobierno (1615)"] (in es). https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/264/es/text/?open=idm246.
10. ↑ "Supersticiones y agüeros, pág. 284 [284: Guaman Poma, Nueva corónica y buen gobierno (1615)"] (in es). https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/284/es/text/?open=idm246.
11. ↑ "Supersticiones y agüeros, pág. 284 [284: Guaman Poma, Nueva corónica y buen gobierno (1615)"] (in es). https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/284/es/text/?open=idm246.
12. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}". https://www.cusco.gob.pe/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/los-comentarios-reales.pdf.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft_id=https://www.cusco.gob.pe/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/los-comentarios-reales.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Religion:Supay">
13. ↑ "CAPITULO III: EL HURIN PACHA O EL INFRAMUNDO ANDINO" (in en). https://issuu.com/piwigd/docs/donato_amado_-_el_estandarte_real_y_la_mascapaycha/s/13304735.
14. ↑ "El Hurin Pacha o Inframundo Andino | PDF | Inframundo griego" (in en). https://es.scribd.com/document/741335555/el-hurin-pacha-o-inframundo-andino.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Gómez, Pedro (December 2009). "El mundo de los muertos en la cosmovisión centroandina" (in es). http://www.ugr.es/~pwlac/G25_51Carmen_Garcia_Escudero.html.
16. ↑ Tapia, Javier (2020) (in en). Mitología Inca: El pilar del mundo. Plutón Ediciones X Sl. ISBN 978-84-18211-10-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=nLHcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44.
17. ↑ Tapia, Javier (2020) (in en). Mitología Inca: El pilar del mundo. Plutón Ediciones X Sl. ISBN 978-84-18211-10-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=nLHcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44.
18. ↑ Hoteles, Tierra Viva (2018-09-19). "La leyenda inca del Lago Titicaca" (in es-ES). https://tierravivahoteles.com/la-leyenda-inca-del-lago-titicaca/.
19. ↑ "Mitos e La Creacion Precolombina Document | PDF | Civilización maya" (in en). https://es.scribd.com/document/595995398/Mitos-e-La-Creacion-Precolombina-Document.
20. ↑ AquilesSB (2019-10-07). "EL LAGO TITICACA - MITO INCA. –" (in es-MX). POESÍA, ARTE Y MITOS. https://www.poesia-arte-mitos.com/el-lago-titicaca-mito-inca/.
21. ↑ "Lago Titicaca: las aguas mágicas" (in es). 2012-07-08. https://www.lanacion.com.ar/lifestyle/lago-titicaca-las-aguas-magicas-nid1488503/.
22. ↑ Adames, Hector Y.; Chavez-Dueñas, Nayeli Y. (2016). Cultural Foundations and Interventions in Latino/a Mental Health: History, Theory and within Group Differences. Routledge. pp. 20–21. ISBN 9781317529804. https://books.google.com/books?id=VZmkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Crump, William D. (2021). "Encyclopedia of Easter Celebrations Worldwide". Encyclopedia of Easter Celebrations Worldwide. McFarland. p. 25. ISBN 9781476680545.
24. ↑ LeCount (1995), p. 50.
25. ↑ Lane, Kris (2021). Potosi: The Silver City That Changed the World. Univ of California Press. pp. 142, 185, 204. ISBN 9780520383357. https://books.google.com/books?id=tWMOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA204.
26. ↑ Estermann, Josef (2014). "7. La imagen de Dios en perspectiva indígena andina". Cruz & Coca: Hacia la descolonización de religión y teología. Quito: Editorial Abya-Yala. p. 155 and n158. ISBN 9789942093752. https://books.google.com/books?id=luNZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155.
27. ↑ Bonilla, Heraclio (November 2006). [336:RPITAA2.0.CO;2.pdf "Religious Practices in the Andes and their Relevance to Political Struggle and Development: The Case of El Tío and Miners in Bolivia"]. Mountain Research and Development 26 (4): 336 and Fig. 1. doi:10.1659/0276-4741(2006)26[336:RPITAA2.0.CO;2]. https://bioone.org/journals/mountain-research-and-development/volume-26/issue-4/0276-4741_2006_26_336_RPITAA_2.0.CO_2/Religious-Practices-in-the-Andes-and-their-Relevance-to-Political/10.1659/0276-4741(2006)26[336:RPITAA]2.0.CO;2.pdf.
28. ↑ Urban and Sherzer 1991 apud Bonilla[27]
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Claure Covarrubias & Monotoya (2005), p. 73.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Urteaga, Horacio H. (8 February 1911). "Bocetos historicos: El culto de Supay y el de la Virgen Madre" (in es). Illustración peruana (71): 823.
31. ↑ Sallnow, M. J. (1989). "9. Precious metals in the Andean moral economy". in Parry, Jonathan P.; Bloch, Maurice. Money and the Morality of Exchange. Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 9780521367745. https://books.google.com/books?id=LXpBkJTRnSoC&pg=PA213.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Perrin, Marie France (2009) (in es, en). Bolivia vestida de fiesta. Photographs by Jaime Cisneros. La Paz, Bolivia: Impr. Sagitario. p. 104. ISBN 9789995406806. https://books.google.com/books?id=LL5OAQAAIAAJ&q=supay. "Supay, el diablo más importante de la danza Diablada/ Supay, the dance's most important devil.. Virgen de la Candelaria o del Socavón , la que hasta el día de hoy es venerada especialmente por los mineros"
33. ↑ Claure Covarrubias & Monotoya (2005), p. 53:"Los diablos y luciferes representan simbolicamente al Tío en el Carnaval . Lo interesante es cómo este ser demoníaco.. es capaz de bailar a su vez en honor a la Virgen del Socavón"
34. ↑ Sallnow (1989), pp. 249–250 based on the ethnography of June Nash (1979)
35. ↑ Claure Covarrubias & Monotoya (2005), p. 54.
36. ↑ Strong, Mary (2012). "Chapter 6. Home Altars (Retablos)". Art, Nature, and Religion in the Central Andes: Themes and Variations from Prehistory to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 210. ISBN 9780292742901. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAuSlHKClM8C&pg=PA210.
37. ↑ Strong,[36] citing Millones, Luis (2004), Dioses familiares p. 194.

### Bibliography

* Claure Covarrubias, Javier (2005). "Entrevista Con El Escritor Victor Montoya: El Tío De La Mina Se Universaliza en Europa" (in es). Bolivian Studies Journal (12): 48–78. https://books.google.com/books?id=-YLjAAAAMAAJ&q=Supay.
* LeCount, Cynthia Gravelle (1995). Diablos, Morenos Y Caporales: Tradition and Innovation in Bolivian Festival Costume. University of California, Davis. https://books.google.com/books?id=jkUoxhJFlQIC&q=Supay.
* Taylor, Gérald (2000) (in es). Camac, camay y camasca y otros ensayos sobre Huarochirí y Yauyos. Na Officina de Miguel Manescal da Costa. pp. 19–34. ISBN 9789972691355. https://books.google.com/books?id=7_5rAAAAMAAJ&q=supay.

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