A-Hmao language

Short description: Hmongic language spoken in China

A-Hmao

Large Flowery Miao
ad Hmaob lul, A-hmaos
Native to| China
Region| Guizhou, Yunnan
Ethnicity| A-Hmao

Native speakers

| (300,000 cited 1999)[1]

Language family

Hmong–Mien

* Hmongic
* West Hmongic
* A-Hmao

Writing system

| Latin, Pollard
Language codes
ISO 639-3| `hmd`
Glottolog| `larg1235`[2]

The A-Hmao (or Ahmao) language, also known as Large Flowery Miao (pinyin: Dà Huā Miáo), Hua Miao, or Northeast Yunnan (Chinese: 苗语滇东北方言; pinyin: Miáoyǔ Diàndōngběi fāngyán), is a Hmongic language spoken in China. It is the language for which the Pollard script was designed[3][4] and displays extensive tone sandhi.[5]

## Contents

* 1 Classification
* 2 Geographic distribution
* 3 Phonology
* 3.1 Consonants
* 3.2 Vowels
* 3.3 Tones
* 4 Grammar
* 4.1 Morphology and vocabulary
* 4.1.1 Classifier inflections
* 4.2 Syntax
* 4.2.1 Overview
* 4.2.2 Question formation
* 5 Writing system
* 6 References
* 7 Sources
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Classification

The A-Hmao language is a branch of the West Hmongic languages, also known as Chuanqiandian Miao (Chinese: 川黔滇苗; literally: 'Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao') and Western Miao. West Hmongic Languages are a major branch of the Hmongic languages of China and Southeast Asia.

Wang Fushi (1985) grouped the Western Miao languages into eight primary divisions: [6]

1. Chuanqiandian Miao
2. Northeast Yunnan Miao (A-Hmao language)
3. Guiyang Miao
4. Huishui Miao
5. Mashan Miao
6. Luobohe Miao
7. Chong'anjiang Miao
8. Pingtang Miao

## Geographic distribution

The A-Hmao language is spoken in the northeast of Yunnan Province and in the west of Guizhou Province, particularly in Zhaotong, Kunming, Qujing, Chuxiong Yi autonomous prefecture, Weining Yi, Hui, and Miao autonomous county, Hezhang county, Liupanshui, and Ziyun Miao and Buyi autonomous county. There are 300,000 native speakers.[7] The standard dialect is that of Shimenkan (石门坎), Weining County (威宁县).

## Phonology

### Consonants

| Labial  | Alveolar  | Retroflex  | Palatal  | Velar  | Uvular  | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

plain | sibilant | lateral | plain | sibilant | lateral
Plosive /
Affricate  | plain | plain | b /p/ | d /t/ | z /ts/ | dl /tl̥/ | dr /ʈ/ | zh /ʈʂ/ |  | j /tɕ/ | g /k/ | gh /q/ | /ʔ/
prenasal | nb /ᵐp/ | nd /ⁿt/ | nz /ⁿts/ | ndl /ⁿtl̥/ | ndr /ᶯʈ/ | nzh /ᶯʈʂ/ |  | nj /ⁿtɕ/ | ng /ᵑk/ | ngh /ᶰq/ |
aspirated | plain | p /pʰ/ | t /tʰ/ | c /tsʰ/ | tl /tl̥ʰ/ | tr /ʈʰ/ | ch /ʈʂʰ/ |  | q /tɕʰ/ | k /kʰ/ | kh /qʰ/ |
prenasal | np /ᵐpʰ/ | nt /ⁿtʰ/ | nc /ⁿtsʰ/ | ntl /ⁿtl̥ʰ/ | ntr /ᶯʈʰ/ | nch /ᶯʈʂʰ/ |  | nq /ⁿtɕʰ/ | nk /ᵑkʰ/ | nkh /ᶰqʰ/ |
voiced | plain | b /b/ | d /d/ | z /dz/ | dl /dl/  | dr /ɖ/ | zh /ɖʐ/ |  | j /dʑ/ | g /ɡ/ | gh /ɢ/ |
prenasal | nb /ᵐb/ | nd /ⁿd/ | nz /ⁿdz/ | ndl /ⁿdl/ | ndr /ᶯɖ/ | nzh /ᶯɖʐ/ |  | nj /ⁿdʑ/ | ng /ᵑɡ/ | ngh /ᶰɢ/ |
Fricative /
Lateral  | voiceless | f /f/ |  | s /s/ | hl /l̥/ |  | sh /ʂ/ | hlr /ɭ̊/ | x /ɕ/ | hx /x/ | (h /χ/)  | h /h/
voiced | v /v/ |  | r /z/ | l /l/ |  | rh /ʐ/ | lr /ɭ/ | y /ʑ/ | hy /ɣ/ |  |
Nasal  | voiced | m /m/ | n /n/ |  |  | nr /ɳ/ |  |  | ni /n̠ʲ/ | ngg /ŋ/ |  |
voiceless | hm /m̥/ | hn /n̥/ |  |  |  |  |  | hni /n̠̥ʲ/ | hng /ŋ̊/ |  |
Semivowel  | voiced | w /w/ |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

Moreover, Gerner (2022) treats breathiness as a property of the onset, such as [lʱ] in the word lif [lʱi11] 'two,' and reports a fricative aspirated lateral [ɬʰ], as in the word [ɬʰi11] 'become.'[8]

### Vowels

| Front  | Central  | Back

|
|
|

unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded
Close  | i /i/ | yu /y/ |  | w /ɯ/ | u /u/
Mid  | e /e/ |  | e /ə/ |  | o /o/
Open  |  |  |  | a /ɑ/ |
Diphthong  | rising | ai /ai̯/ | eu /œy̯/ |  | ang /ɑɯ̯/ | ao /ɑu̯/
falling | ie /i̯e/ |  |  | iw /i̯ɯ/

ia /i̯ɑ/

| iu /i̯u/

io /i̯o/

Triphthong  | iai /i̯ai̯/ |  |  | iang /i̯ɑɯ̯/ | iao /i̯ɑu̯/

### Tones

Tone  | Symbol  | Value

|
|

1  | b  | ˥˧ 54
2  | x  | ˧˥ 35
3  | d  | ˥ 55
4  | l  | ˩ 11
5  | t  | ˨ 33
6  | s  | ˧˩ 31
7  | k  | ˩ 11
8  | f  | ˧˩ 31

The fourth, sixth, and eighth tones of A-Hmao, in the eastern region, are broken up partially or entirely into two categories based on the eight tones. At most, there can be up to eleven tones. Essentially, nouns and quantifiers are part of the first category, and they are higher in pitch. Other word classes are part of the second category, and they are lower in pitch.

The A-Hmao language displays extensive tone sandhi. Similar to other branches of the West Hmongic languages, the tone sandhi happens on the second syllable when the first syllable of a disyllabic word is a level tone (first and second tone).[9]

## Grammar

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### Morphology and vocabulary

The morphology of the three branches of the Hmong language are very similar. The following examples are from Central Miao.[10] A-Hmao is similar to Hmong, which is an isolating language where most morphemes are monosyllables, resulting in verbs not being overtly inflected. Tense, aspect, mood, person, number, gender, and case are indicated lexically.[11]

Single-morpheme word

1. Monosyllable single-morpheme word. (single-morpheme words are mostly monosyllable in Hmong language)

Example:

naxi 'human being'
xed 'tiger'
et 'tree'
wil 'I'
mongx 'you'
nenx 'he'
hsangb 'thousand'
wangs 'ten thousand'
bat 'hundred'
lol 'come'
mongl go; 'leave'
2. Multisyllable single-morpheme word. (There is a small number of multisyllable single-morpheme words in the Hmong language. Mostly, they are disyllabic, and there are very few with three or more syllables.)
1. Alliterative. Example:

gangt git 'hurry up; quickly'
qut qat 'itchy'
hcud hxangd 'nausea'
2. Vowel rhyme. Example:

Same tone:

bal nial 'girl'
box jox 'run'
bux lux 'boiling'
daib ghaib 'star'
dent ent 'cloud'
vongs nongs 'dirty'
Different tones:

hsab ngas 'clean'
hsangd dangl 'in case'
kak liax 'magpie'
3. Non-alliterative and vowel rhyme. Example:

ak wol 'crow'
bil hsaid 'nearly; almost'
ghob yenl 'chair'
4. Reiterative syllable. Example:

gid gid 'slowly'
seix seix 'together'
nangl nangl 'still'
xangd xangd 'occasionally'

Compound word

1. Coordinating
1. Noun morpheme compound with noun morpheme. Example:

hveb hseid 'language'
haxub khat 'relative'
nangx bit 'name'
niangx hniut 'age'
2. Verb morpheme compound with verb morpheme. Example:

cub nul 'rebuke'
tid xongt 'construct'
khab job 'lesson'
3. Adjective morpheme compound with adjective morpheme. Example:

ghongl jangl 'bend'
khed hxat 'poverty'
2. Modifying
1. Noun morpheme modifying noun morpheme. Example:

det diangx 'candle'
det diux 'key'
eb mais 'tears'
gad wangx 'corn'
2. Adjective morpheme modifying noun morpheme. Example:

bad yut 'uncle'
mais lul 'aunt'
3. Dominating
1. Verb morpheme dominating noun morpheme. Example:

dlangd wangb 'dress up'
qet ves 'rest'
2. Adjective morpheme dominating noun morpheme. Example:

dad hvib 'patience'
hvent ves 'pleasantly cool'
mais bil 'proficiency'
mais ves 'tired'
4. Affixes

Mostly are prefixes, and commonly used prefixes are ghab-, diub-, hangd-, gid-, jib-, daib-, bod-, xuk-, and so on. Ghab- is the most commonly used.
1. Ghab- means human or animal body and part, plant part and things related to plants, natural objects, things related to buildings, utensils, and abstract objectives. Example:

ghab jid 'body'
ghab naix 'ear'
ghab ghaib 'root'
ghab nex 'leaf'
ghab qangb 'living room'
ghab sot 'kicken'[spelling?]
ghab dliux 'soul'
ghabnangs 'destiny'
2. Diub- means location. Example:

diub senx 'provincial capital'
dioub ghaib on the street
diub zaid at home
3. Hangd-/khangd- means aspect and direction. Example:

hangd nongx hangd nangl aspect of eating and wearing
hangd nongd 'here'
hangd momgx 'there'
hangd deis 'where'
4. Gid- means aspect and direction. Example:

gid waix 'above'
gid dab 'below'
gid gux 'outside'
gid niangs 'inside'
5. Jib- means person. Example:

jib daib 'child'
jib hlangb 'grandchild'
jib bad 'man'
6. Daib- means person and some kinship terminology. Example:

daib pik 'girl'
daib jangs 'man, boy, husband'
daib nenl 'uncle'
7. Bod- means round object. Example:

bod vib 'stone'
bod ghof jus 'knee'
bod liul 'fist'
8. Xuk- means uncertain quantity.

xuk laix 'a handful of'

#### Classifier inflections

One unusual feature of A-Hmao morphology is the existence of inflecting classifiers, i.e., classifiers that change form.

### Syntax

As with other Hmongic languages,[12] the basic word order of A-Hmao is subject-verb-object.[13] Within the noun phrase, possessors precede possessed nouns, while relative clauses precede the nouns they modify.[14] Noun phrases have the form (possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative).[15] Question formation in Ahmao does not involve word order change: question words generally remain in situ, rather than appearing in sentence-initial position, and pseudo-clefting is also usually used in questions.[16]

#### Overview

A-Hmao exhibits the grammatical patterns as in the table below.[14][17]

Grammatical Relations by Element Order in A-Hmao  Relation Type | First Element | Second Element

|
|

Possessive | Possessor Noun | Possessed Noun
Restrictive adjectival | Adjective | Noun
Non-restrictive adjectival | Noun | Adjective
Nominalization | Relative clause | Noun
Adpositional | Preposition | Noun phrase
Predicational | Predicate | Arguments
Predicational | Adjunct | Predicate
Negation | Negative particle | Verb
TAM | Verb | Auxiliary
Subordination | Complementizer | Embedded clause

#### Question formation

Questions are typically formed with the wh- question word in situ, i.e., it appears where the corresponding noun would in the sentence, rather than appearing sentence-initially:[16] Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

## Writing system

The A-Hmao do not have an indigenous writing system. At the beginning of the 20th century, missionary Samuel Pollard invented the Pollard script, which was based on the decorative symbols on their clothing. Before the introduction of the Pollard script, the A-Hmao people recorded their history through their ancient songs and weaving the history of their memories on their clothes. Those images formed a history of the A-Hmao.[18]

## References

1. ↑ A-Hmao at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
2. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Diandongbei-Large Flowery Miao". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/larg1235.
3. ↑ Smalley, William A.; Vang, Chia Koua; Yang, Gnia Yee (1990) (in en). Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script. University of Chicago Press.
4. ↑ Duffy, John (2007) (in en). Writing from These Roots: Literacy in a Hmong-American Community. University of Hawaii Press.
5. ↑ Mortensen, David. 2005. "A-Hmao Echo Reduplication as Evidence for Abstract Phonological Scales". LSA Annual Meeting
6. ↑ Wang, Fushi 王辅世 (1985) (in zh). Miáoyǔ jiǎnzhì. Minzu chubanshe.
7. ↑ Wang & Mao (1995), p. 7
8. ↑ Gerner 2022, p. 51.
9. ↑ Liu (1993)
10. ↑ Li (2002), p. 44–50
11. ↑ Strecker, David; Vang, Lopao (1986) (in en). White Hmong Grammar.
12. ↑ Li (2002), p. 50
13. ↑ Gerner 2019, p. 101-102.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Gerner 2019, p. 102.
15. ↑ Ratliff, Martha (1997). "Hmong–Mien Demonstratives and Pattern Persistence". Mon-Khmer Studies 27: 317–328. http://sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/27:317-328.pdf. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Chang 2010, p. 106.
17. ↑ Gerner 2022, p. 65.
18. ↑ Hu, Qirui 胡其瑞. "Xiě zài yīfú shàng de lìshǐ – Dàhuā Miáozú fúshì lǐ de gùshì" (in zh). http://ndaip.sinica.edu.tw/content.jsp?option_id=2441&index_info_id=7744.

## Sources

* Chang, Melody Ya-Yin (2010). "“Sluicing” in Hmong (A-Hmao)". Proceedings of the 22nd North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-22) & the 18th International Conference on Chinese Linguistics (IACL-18). Vol 2.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. pp. 102–116.
* Gerner, Matthias (2019). Highlights from three Language Families in Southwest China. Duisburg, Germany: Research Foundation Language and Religion.
* Gerner, Matthias (2022). "Typologically rare properties of Miao languages". The Routledge Handbook of Asian Linguistics. London: Routledge. pp. 47–71.
* Li, Jinping 李锦平 (2002). Miáozú yǔyán yǔ wénhuà. Guìzhou minzu xueyuan xueshu.
* Liu, Yuanchao 刘援朝 (1993). "Wēiníng Miáoyǔ gǔ diào zhí gòunǐ" (in zh). Zhōngyāng mínzú xuéyuàn xuébào 1993 (3): 85–91. doi:10.15970/j.cnki.1005-8575.1993.03.019.
* Wang, Fushi 王辅世; Mao, Zongwu 毛宗武 (1995) (in zh). Miáo-Yáoyǔ gǔyīn gòunǐ. Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe.

## Further reading

* Ji, Hongli 季红丽 (2021). Dianbei Miaoyu yanjiu 滇北苗语研究. Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press. OCLC 1294549562.
* Li, Hongli 季红丽 (2018). "Diānběi Dàhuā Miáo Miáoyǔ gàikuàng". Mínzú yǔwén 2018 (5): 86–97. https://oversea.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2018&filename=MZYW201805010&v=sQ8x43MjUqDTs6pZr3J%mmd2B0nOc4VzZcEA7lfiNJiVlGxG4Q1qbRIcjXKtHwUS2ZYUj. Retrieved 2021-08-11. [Big Flowery Miao 大花苗 of Sapushan 洒普山, Wulong Village 乌龙村, Shishan Town 狮山镇, Wuding County, Yunnan]

## External links

* A-Hmao (Diandongbei) basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
* 283-word wordlists in the Wuding Jiyi A-Hmao 花苗 dialect, elicited in Standard Mandarin, archived with Kaipuleohone. (KG2-003, KG2-019)

* v
* t
* e

Hmong–Mien languages

(Proto-language)|

* Proto-Hmong-Mien

Hmongic|

| Bahengic|

* Pa-Hng
* Hm Nai

|

Sheic|

* She
* Kiong Nai
* Pa Na
* Younuo?

West Hmongic|

* Hmong
* Small Flowery
* Xixiu
* A-Hmao
* Mashan
* Guiyang
* Mo Piu
* Huishui
* Pingtang
* Luobohe
* Gejia
* Bu-Nao

Xong|

* Xong

Hmuic|

* Hmu
* Raojia
* Ná-Meo

Mienic|

* Iu Mien
* Biao Mon
* Kim Mun
* Biao Min
* Dzao Min

Mixed languages|

* Lingling
* Maojia
* Badong Yao
* Yeheni
* Sanqiao
* Shehua
* Younian

* v
* t
* e

Languages of China

Official|

* Standard Mandarin

Regional|

| ARs / SARs|

* CantoneseHK/MC
* EnglishHK
* MongolianNM
* PortugueseMC
* TibetanXZ
* UyghurXJ
* ZhuangGX

|

Prefecture|

* Hmong
* Kam
* Bouyei
* Tujia
* Korean
* Qiang
* Yi
* Kyrgyz
* Kazakh
* Tai Nüa
* Tai Lü
* Zaiwa
* Lisu
* Bai
* Hani
* Zhuang

Counties/Banners|

numerous

Indigenous|

Sino-Tibetan languages

| Lolo-
Burmese|

| Mondzish|

* Kathu
* Maang
* Manga
* Mango
* Maza
* Mondzi
* Muangphe

|

Burmish|

* Achang
* Xiandao
* Pela
* Lashi
* Chashan
* Lhao Vo
* Zaiwa

Loloish|

| Hanoish|

* Akeu
* Akha
* Amu
* Angluo
* Asuo
* Baihong
* Bisu
* Budu
* Bukong
* Cosao
* Duoni
* Duota
* Enu
* Habei
* Hani
* Honi
* Jino
* Kabie
* Kaduo
* Lami
* Laomian
* Laopin
* Mpi
* Muda
* Nuobi
* Nuomei
* Phana’
* Piyo
* Qidi
* Sadu
* Sangkong
* Suobi
* Tsukong
* Woni
* Yiche

|

Lisoish|

* Eka
* Hlersu
* Kua-nsi
* Kuamasi
* Laizisi
* Lalo
* Lamu
* Lavu
* Lawu
* Limi
* Lipo
* Lisu
* Lolopo
* Mangdi
* Micha
* Mili
* Sonaga
* Toloza
* Xuzhang
* Yangliu
* Zibusi

Nisoish|

* Alingpo
* Alugu
* Aluo
* Axi
* Azha
* Azhe
* Bokha
* Gepo
* Khlula
* Lope
* Moji
* Muji
* Muzi
* Nasu
* Nisu
* Nuosu
* Phala
* Phola
* Phowa
* Phukha
* Phuma
* Phupa
* Phupha
* Phuza
* Samei
* Sani
* Thopho
* Zokhuo

Other|

* Gokhy
* Katso
* Kucong
* Lahu
* Naruo
* Namuyi
* Naxi
* Nusu
* Samu
* Sanie
* Zauzou

Qiangic|

* Baima
* Choyo
* Ersu
* Guiqiong
* Horpa
* Japhug
* Khroskyabs
* Laze
* Lizu
* Na
* Muya
* Namuyi
* Naxi
* Pumi
* Northern Qiang
* Southern Qiang
* Shixing
* Situ
* Tshobdun
* Zbu
* Zhaba

Tibetic|

* Amdo
* Baima
* Basum
* Central Tibetan
* Choni
* Dao
* Dongwang
* Drugchu
* Groma
* Gserpa
* Khalong
* Khams
* Kyirong
* Ladakhi
* Tseku
* Zhongu
* Zitsadegu

Other|

* Bai
* Caijia
* Derung
* Jingpho
* Longjia
* Nung
* Tujia
* Waxianghua

Other languages

| Austroasiatic|

* Bit
* Blang
* Bolyu
* Bugan
* Bumang
* Hu
* Kuan
* Mang
* Man Met
* Muak Sa-aak
* Palaung
* Riang
* U
* Va
* Wa

|

Hmong-Mien|

| Hmongic|

* A-Hmao
* Bu-Nao
* Gejia
* Guiyang
* Hm Nai
* Hmong
* Hmu
* Huishui
* Kiong Nai
* Luobohe
* Mashan
* Pa-Hng
* Pa Na
* Pingtang
* Qo Xiong
* Raojia
* She
* Small Flowery
* Xixiu
* Younuo

|

Mienic|

* Biao Min
* Dzao Min
* Iu Mien
* Kim Mun

Mongolic|

* Bonan
* Buryat
* Daur
* Eastern Yugur
* Kangjia
* Khamnigan
* Monguor
* Oirat
* Ordos
* Santa
* Torgut

Kra-Dai|

| Zhuang|

* Bouyei
* Dai
* Min
* Ningming
* Nong
* Tai Dam
* Tai Dón
* Tai Hongjin
* Tai Lü
* Tai Nüa
* Tai Ya
* Yang
* Yei

|

Other|

* Ai-Cham
* Biao
* Buyang
* Cao Miao
* Chadong
* Cun
* Gelao
* Hlai
* Jiamao
* Kam
* Lakkja
* Mak
* Maonan
* Mulam
* Naxi Yao
* Ong Be
* Paha
* Qabiao
* Sui
* Then

Tungusic|

* Evenki
* Manchu
* Nanai
* Oroqen
* Xibe

Turkic|

* Äynu
* Fuyu Kyrgyz
* Ili Turki
* Lop
* Salar
* Western Yugur

Other|

* Sarikoli (Indo-European)
* Tsat (Austronesian)
* Formosan languages (Austronesian)

Minority|

* Kazakh
* Korean
* Kyrgyz
* Russian
* Tatar
* Tuvan
* Uzbek
* Vietnamese (Kinh)
* Wakhi

Varieties of
Chinese|

* Mandarin
* Southwestern
* Dongbei
* Jiang Huai
* Gan
* Hakka
* Hui
* Jin
* Min
* varieties
* Ping
* Wu
* Wenzhounese
* Xiang
* Yue
* Cantonese

Creole/Mixed|

* E
* Hezhou
* Lingling
* Macanese
* Maojia
* Qoqmončaq
* Sanqiao
* Tangwang
* Wutun

Extinct|

* Ba-Shu
* Jie
* Khitan
* Ruan-ruan
* Saka
* Tangut
* Tocharian
* Tuoba
* Tuyuhun
* Xianbei
* Zhang-Zhung

Sign|

* Chinese Sign
* Hong Kong SignHK/MC
* Tibetan SignXZ

* GX = Guangxi
* HK = Hong Kong
* MC = Macau
* NM = Inner Mongolia
* XJ = Xinjiang
* XZ = Tibet

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