Anarchist economics

Short description: Set of economic theories and practices within anarchism

Part of a series on

Economic systems

By ideology

* Anarchist
* Capitalist
* Corporate
* Dirigist
* Laissez-faire
* Mercantilist
* Neo-mercantilist
* Protectionist
* Social market
* State capitalist
* Democratic
* Fascist
* Feminist
* Georgist
* Green
* Religious
* Christian
* Islamic
* Socialist
* Market socialist
* Mutualist
* Participatory
* Socialist market
* Socialist oriented market
* Syndicalist
* Social credit
* Traditionalist
* Communalist
* Corporatist
* Distributist
* Feudalism

By coordination

* Closed (autarky)
* Decentralized
* Digital
* Dual
* Gift
* Informal
* Market
* Mixed
* Natural
* Open
* Planned
* Robinson Crusoe
* Subsistence
* Underground
* Vertical archipelago
* Virtual

By regional model

* Asian
* East Asian
* Chinese
* Singaporean
* European
* Anglo-Saxon
* German
* Nordic
* Rhenish
* Soviet

* Latin America
* Socialism of the 21st century

Sectors

* Common ownership
* Private
* Public
* Voluntary

Property types

* Collective ownership
* Commons
* Private property
* State ownership
* Social ownership

Transition

* Collectivization
* Communization
* Corporatization
* Demutualization
* Deregulation
* Expropriation
* Financialization
* Liberalization
* Marketization
* Municipalization
* Mutualization
* Nationalization
* Privatization
* Socialization

Coordination

* Barter
* Market
* Free
* Open
* Regulated
* Planning
* In kind
* Cybernetics
* Indicative
* Material balancing
* Price
* Self-managed
* Peer-to-peer
* Sharing
* Open access

Other types

* Commons-based peer production
* Expeditionary
* Hunter-gatherer
* Inclusive Democracy
* Information
* Manorialism
* Newly industrialized
* Palace
* Plantation
* Plutonomy
* Post-capitalist
* Post-industrial
* Post-scarcity
* Resource-based
* Token
* Traditional
* Transition
* World

* v
* t
* e

Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism. Many anarchists are anti-authoritarian anti-capitalists, with anarchism usually referred to as a form of libertarian socialism, i.e. a stateless system of socialism.[1][2][3] Anarchists support personal property (defined in terms of possession and use, i.e. mutualist usufruct)[4][5] and oppose capital concentration, interest, monopoly, private ownership of productive property such as the means of production (capital, land and the means of labor), profit, rent, usury and wage slavery which are viewed as inherent to capitalism.[6][7]

Anarchism is often considered a radical left-wing or far-left movement[8][9] and much of its economics as well as legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist and libertarian interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as communism, collectivism, free-market, individualism, mutualism, participism and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economics.[10] The majority of anarchist theorists do not consider anarcho-capitalism as a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and seen as incompatible with capitalism.[2][11][12][13][excessive citations] Unlike anarcho-capitalists, the free market individualist anarchists retain the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines.[14]

Anarchists argue that characteristic capitalist institutions promote and reproduce various forms of economic activity which they consider oppressive, including private property (as in productive property rather than personal property), hierarchical production relations, collecting rents from private property, taking a profit in exchanges and collecting interest on loans.[1][3][15] Anarchists see the ruling class, including capitalists, landlords and all other forms of involuntary, coercive hierarchy, socio-economic rulership and social stratification, as the primary rulers of society, with workers' self-management, democratic education and cooperative housing seen as removing such authority. Unlike right-libertarians, anarchists endorse possession-based ownership rather than propertarianism.[16][17]

## Contents

* 1 Historical overview
* 1.1 Early views
* 1.2 Economics in organized mass social anarchism
* 1.3 Anarchism economics in practice: the Spanish Revolution
* 2 Theoretical economic systems
* 2.1 Classical theoretical economic systems
* 2.1.1 Mutualism
* 2.1.1.1 Evolution
* 2.1.2 Collectivist anarchism
* 2.1.2.1 Criticism of Marxism and relationship with other anarchist classical currents
* 2.1.3 Anarcho-communism
* 2.1.3.1 Evolution and role in early 20th century revolutions
* 2.2 Post-classical theoretical economic systems
* 2.2.1 Participatory economics
* 2.2.2 Free-market anarchism
* 3 Issues and proposals
* 3.1 Anarchist criticism of capitalism
* 3.2 Economics as anarchist strategy
* 3.3 Anarchist value theory
* 3.3.1 Ethics of pricing
* 3.4 Workers issues and anarcho-syndicalism
* 3.4.1 Concept of wage slavery
* 3.4.2 Collectivizations and workers control
* 3.5 Forms of exchange
* 3.5.1 Labor notes and local exchange trading systems
* 3.6 Credit and banking
* 3.7 Gift economy
* 3.7.1 Free shops
* 3.7.2 Peer-to-peer
* 3.8 Coexistence of economic systems and economic pluralism
* 3.9 Commune, federalism and economic democracy
* 4 See also
* 5 References
* 5.1 Sources
* 6 Further research
* 6.1 Anarchist economics bibliography
* 6.2 Articles
* 6.2.1 Extensive sections of An Anarchist FAQ on economics

## Historical overview

### Early views

The early English anarchist William Godwin's views on economics could be summarized as follows: "[H]e envisages the possibility of specialization in the various crafts, which would lead to a man's following the task for which he had the greatest aptitude, and distributing his surplus products to whoever may need them, receiving what he himself needs of other things from the surplus produced by his neighbours, but always on the basis of free distribution, not of exchange. It is evident that, despite his speculations on the future of machinery, Godwin's ideal society is based on the economics of handcrafts and cultivation".[18]

For the influential German individualist anarchist philosopher Max Stirner, "private property is a spook which "lives by the grace of law" and it "becomes 'mine' only by effect of the law". In other words, private property exists purely "through the protection of the State, through the State's grace". Recognising its need for state protection, Stirner is also aware that "[i]t need not make any difference to the 'good citizens' who protects them and their principles, whether an absolute King or a constitutional one, a republic, if only they are protected. And what is their principle, whose protector they always 'love'? Not that of labour", rather it is "interest-bearing possession [...] labouring capital, therefore [...] labour certainly, yet little or none at all of one's own, but labour of capital and of the – subject labourers".[19]

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings.[20] In What Is Mutualism?, Clarence Lee Swartz gives his own account of the origin of the term, claiming that "[t]he word "mutualism" seems to have been first used by John Gray, an English writer, in 1832".[21]

Josiah Warren

Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist[22] and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published.[23] Warren termed the phrase "Cost the limit of price", with "cost" here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item.[24] Therefore, "[h]e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce".[22]

Warren put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental "labor for labor store" called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism. These included Utopia and Modern Times. Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews' The Science of Society, published in 1852, was the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories.[25]

In Europe, an early anarcho-communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as "libertarian".[26] Unlike and against Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature".[27][28][29]

### Economics in organized mass social anarchism

Mikhail Bakunin

The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International proclaimed at the St. Imier Congress (1872) that "the aspirations of the proletariat can have no purpose other than the establishment of an absolutely free economic organization and federation, founded upon the labour and equality of all and absolutely independent of all political government" in which each worker will have the "right to the enjoyment of the gross product of his labours and thereby the means of developing his full intellectual, material and moral powers in a collective setting". This revolutionary transformation could "only be the outcome of the spontaneous action of the proletariat itself, its trades bodies and the autonomous communes".[30] Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.[31][32]

In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the League of Peace and Freedom (LPF), Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin and his collectivist anarchist associates joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF).[33] They allied themselves with the federalist socialist sections of the International,[34] who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. A similar position was adopted by the Federation of Workers of the Spanish Region in 1882 as articulated by anarchist veteran of the First International Josep Llunas i Pujals in his essay, "Collectivism".[30] The collectivist anarchists advocated remuneration for the type and amount of labor adhering to the principle "to each according to deeds".[35]

Peter Kropotkin

By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarcho-communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need. Ironically, the "collectivist" label then became more commonly associated with Marxist state socialists who advocated the retention of some sort of wage system during the transition to full communism. Anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin attacked this position in his essay, "The Collectivist Wages System", which was reprinted in his book The Conquest of Bread in 1892. Cafiero explains in Anarchy and Communism (1880) that private property in the product of labor will lead to unequal accumulation of capital and therefore the reappearance of social classes and their antagonisms; and thus the resurrection of the state: "If we preserve the individual appropriation of the products of labour, we would be forced to preserve money, leaving more or less accumulation of wealth according to more or less merit rather than need of individuals".[27]

### Anarchism economics in practice: the Spanish Revolution

In the strong anarchist movement in Spain, the debate between collectivism and anarcho-communism was revived: "This double base, both industrial and rural, had turned the libertarian communism of Spanish anarcho-syndicalism in somewhat divergent directions, the one communalist, the other syndicalist. The communalism was expressed in a more local, more rural spirit, one might almost say: more southern, for one of its principal bastions was in Andalusia. Syndicalism, on the other hand, was more urban and unitarian in spirit – more northerly, too, since its main center was Catalonia".[36]

Spanish anarchist theoreticians were somewhat divided on this subject. A section of them had given their hearts to Peter Kropotkin and his erudite yet simplistic idealization of the communes of the Middle Ages which they identified with the Spanish tradition of the primitive peasant community. Their favorite slogan was the "free commune". Mikhail Bakunin was the founder of the Spanish collectivist, syndicalist and internationalist workers' movement. Those anarchists tended to follow him and his disciple Ricardo Mella.[36] They were concerned with economic unification and believed that a long transitional period would be necessary during which it would be wiser to reward labor according to the hours worked and not according to need. They envisaged the economic structure of the future as a combination of local trade-union groupings and federations of branches of industry.[36]

In 1932, the Spanish anarchist theoretician Isaac Puente published an outline of anarcho-communism and its ideas were taken up by the Saragossa congress of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo in May 1936.[36] The Spanish anarchist economist Diego Abad de Santillan published an influential treatise on economics, El Organismo Economico de la Revolucion (The Economic Organization of the Revolution).[36] He saw the following:

> "Our ideal is the commune which is associated, federated, integrated into the total economy of the country, and of other countries in a state of revolution." To replace the single owner by a hydra-headed owner is not collectivism, is not self-management. The land, the factories, the mines, the means of transport are the product of the work of all and must be at the service of all. Nowadays the economy is neither local, nor even national, but world-wide. The characteristic feature of modern life is the cohesion of all the productive and distributive forces. "A socialized economy, directed and planned, is an imperative necessity and corresponds to the trend of development of the modern economic world."[36]

Santillan was to play an important part in the Spanish Revolution. He became a member of the central committee of the anti-fascist militia, a member of the Catalan Economic Council and Economics Minister of the Catalan government.[36] Anarchist historian George Woodcock reports the following:

> For several months the armed forces in these regions were mostly anarchist controlled militia units. The factories were largely taken over by the workers and run by C.N.T. committees, while hundreds of villages either shared out or collectivized the land, and many of them attempted to set up libertarian communes of the kind advocated by Kropotkin. The beginnings of collectivization seem to have been similar in villages and factories. The landlords in the villages had fled, the Civil Guards had been killed or chased away, and the village syndicate would transform itself into a popular assembly in which every villager could participate directly in the affairs of the community. An administrative committee would be elected, but this would operate under the constant supervision of the population, meeting at least once a week in full assembly to hasten the achievement of free communism. In the factories the process was similar, with a workers' committee becoming responsible to the general assembly of the syndicate, and technicians (in a few cases the former owners or managers) planning production in accordance with the workers' views.[18]

## Theoretical economic systems

In a chronological and theoretical sense, there are classical—those created throughout the 19th century—and post-classical anarchist schools–those created since the mid-20th century and after.

### Classical theoretical economic systems

#### Mutualism

Main article: Social:Mutualism (economic theory)

Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought which can be traced to the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market.[37] Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank which would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate only high enough to cover the costs of administration.[38] Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility".[39]

Some mutualists believe that if the state did not intervene as a result of increased competition in the marketplace, individuals would receive no more income than that in proportion to the amount of labor they exert.[40] Mutualists oppose the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments and rent as they believe these individuals are not laboring. Some of them argue that if state intervention ceased, these types of incomes would disappear due to increased competition in capital.[41]

Although Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed: "[...] I never meant to [...] forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I believe that all these forms of human activity should remain free and optional for all".[42] Insofar as they ensure the workers right to the full product of their labor, mutualists support markets and private property in the product of labor. However, they argue for conditional titles to land, whose private ownership is legitimate only so long as it remains in use or occupation (which Proudhon called "possession").[43]

Proudhon's mutualism supports labor-owned cooperative firms and associations[44] for "we need not hesitate, for we have no choice [...] it is necessary to form an ASSOCIATION among workers [...] because without that, they would remain related as subordinates and superiors, and there would ensue two [...] castes of masters and wage-workers, which is repugnant to a free and democratic society" and so "it becomes necessary for the workers to form themselves into democratic societies, with equal conditions for all members, on pain of a relapse into feudalism".[45] As for capital goods (man-made, non-land "means of production"), mutualist opinion differs on whether these should be commonly managed public assets or private property.

##### Evolution

What Is Property?, influential anarchist work by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

As a term, "mutualism" has seen a variety of related uses. Charles Fourier first used the French term mutualisme in 1822,[46] although the reference was not to an economic system. The first use of the noun "mutualist" was in the New-Harmony Gazette by an American Owenite in 1826.[47] In the early 1830s, a labor organization in Lyons, France called themselves the Mutuellists. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings.[20]

In What Is Mutualism?, Clarence Lee Swartz gives his own account of the origin of the term, claiming that "[t]he word "mutualism" seems to have been first used by John Gray, an English writer, in 1832".[21]

By 1846, Proudhon was speaking of mutualité in his writings and used the term mutuellisme at least as early as 1848 in his "Programme Révolutionnaire". In 1850, William Batchelder Greene used the term "mutualism" to describe a mutual credit system similar to that of Proudhon. Also in 1850, the American newspaper The Spirit of the Age, edited by William Henry Channing, published proposals for a "mutualist township" by Joshua King Ingalls[48] and Albert Brisbane,[49] together with works by Proudhon,[50] Greene, Pierre Leroux and others.

For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent...that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews...William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".[51]

Mutualists argue that free banking should be taken back by the people to establish systems of free credit. They contend that banks have a monopoly on credit, just as capitalists have a monopoly on land. Kevin Carson is a contemporary mutualist and author of Studies in Mutualist Political Economy.[52] Carson holds that capitalism[4] has been founded on "an act of robbery as massive as feudalism" and argues that capitalism could not exist in the absence of a state. He says that "[i]t is state intervention that distinguishes capitalism from the free market".[53] As Robert Graham notes, "Proudhon's market socialism is indissolubly linked to his notions of industry democracy and workers' self-management".[54] K. Steven Vincent notes in his in-depth analysis of this aspect of Proudhon's ideas that "Proudhon consistently advanced a program of industrial democracy which would return control and direction of the economy to the workers". For Proudhon, "strong workers' associations [...] would enable the workers to determine jointly by election how the enterprise was to be directed and operated on a day-to-day basis".[55]

#### Collectivist anarchism

Main article: Social:Collectivist anarchism

Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary[56] doctrine that advocates the abolition of both the state and private ownership of the means of production. Instead, it envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. For the collectivization of the means of production, it was originally envisaged that workers will revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.[56] Once collectivization takes place, workers' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market.[57]

This contrasts with anarcho-communism, where wages would be abolished and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods "to each according to his need". Notwithstanding the title, Mikhail Bakunin's collectivist anarchism is thus seen as a blend of individualism and collectivism.[58]

##### Criticism of Marxism and relationship with other anarchist classical currents

Mikhail Bakunin with fellow members of the International Workingmen's Association in Basel

The collectivist anarchists at first used the term "collectivism" to distinguish themselves from the mutualism of the followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and the state socialists associated with Karl Marx. Mikhail Bakunin wrote that "we shall always protest against anything that may in any way resemble communism or state socialism", which Bakunin regarded as fundamentally authoritarian ("Federalism, Socialism, and Anti-Theologism", 1867).[59]

The dispute between Bakunin and Marx highlighted the differences between anarchism and Marxism. Bakunin argued—against certain ideas of a number of Marxists—that not all revolutions need be violent. He also strongly rejected Marx's concept of the "dictatorship of the proletariat", a concept that vanguardist socialism including Marxism–Leninism would use to justify one-party rule from above by a party claiming to represent the proletariat.[60] Bakunin insisted that revolutions must be led by the people directly while any "enlightened elite" must only exert influence by remaining "invisible...not imposed on anyone...[and] deprived of all official rights and significance".[61] He held that the state should be immediately abolished because all forms of government eventually lead to oppression.[60] Bakunin has sometimes been called the first theorist of the "new class", meaning that a class of intellectuals and bureaucrats running the state in the name of the people or the proletariat—but in reality in their own interests alone. Bakunin argued that the "[s]tate has always been the patrimony of some privileged class: a priestly class, an aristocratic class, a bourgeois class. And finally, when all the other classes have exhausted themselves, the State then becomes the patrimony of the bureaucratic class and then falls – or, if you will, rises – to the position of a machine".[62] Bakunin also had a different view as compared to Marx's on the revolutionary potential of the lumpenproletariat and the proletariat. As such, "[b]oth agreed that the proletariat would play a key role, but for Marx the proletariat was the exclusive, leading revolutionary agent while Bakunin entertained the possibility that the peasants and even the lumpenproletariat (the unemployed, common criminals, etc.) could rise to the occasion".[63] Bakunin "considers workers' integration in capital as destructive of more primary revolutionary forces. For Bakunin, the revolutionary archetype is found in a peasant milieu (which is presented as having longstanding insurrectionary traditions, as well as a communist archetype in its current social form – the peasant commune) and amongst educated unemployed youth, assorted marginals from all classes, brigands, robbers, the impoverished masses, and those on the margins of society who have escaped, been excluded from, or not yet subsumed in the discipline of emerging industrial work...in short, all those whom Marx sought to include in the category of the lumpenproletariat".[64]

The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International proclaimed at the St. Imier Congress (1872) that "the aspirations of the proletariat can have no purpose other than the establishment of an absolutely free economic organization and federation, founded upon the labour and equality of all and absolutely independent of all political government" in which each worker will have the "right to the enjoyment of the gross product of his labours and thereby the means of developing his full intellectual, material and moral powers in a collective setting". This revolutionary transformation could "only be the outcome of the spontaneous action of the proletariat itself, its trades bodies and the autonomous communes".[30] A similar position was adopted by the Workers' Federation of the Spanish Region in 1882 as articulated by anarchist veteran of the First International Jose Llunas Pujols in his essay, "Collectivism".[30]

The difference between collectivist anarchism and anarcho-communism is that collectivist anarchism stresses collective ownership of productive, subsistence and distributary property while anarcho-communism negates the concept of ownership in favor of usage or possession with productive means being a possession not owned by any individual or particular group.[16][65] Anarcho-communists believe that subsistence, productive and distributive property should be common or social possessions while personal property should be private possessions.[17] Collectivist anarchists agree with this, but they disagree on the subject of remuneration—some collectivist anarchists, such as Mikhail Bakunin, believe in the remuneration of labor while anarcho-communists such as Peter Kropotkin believe that such remuneration would lead to the recreation of currency and that this would need a state.[66]

The Anarchist FAQ compares and contrasts collectivist anarchism with communist anarchism this way:

> The major difference between collectivists and communists is over the question of "money" after a revolution. Anarcho-communists consider the abolition of money to be essential, while anarcho-collectivists consider the end of private ownership of the means of production to be the key. As Kropotkin noted, "[collectivist anarchism] express[es] a state of things in which all necessaries for production are owned in common by the labour groups and the free communes, while the ways of retribution [i.e. distribution] of labour, communist or otherwise, would be settled by each group for itself."[67] Thus, while communism and collectivism both organise production in common via producers' associations, they differ in how the goods produced will be distributed. Communism is based on free consumption of all while collectivism is more likely to be based on the distribution of goods according to the labour contributed. However, most anarcho-collectivists think that, over time, as productivity increases and the sense of community becomes stronger, money will disappear.[68]

#### Anarcho-communism

Main article: Social:Anarcho-communism

Anarcho-communism, also known as anarchist communism and occasionally as free communism or libertarian communism,[69] is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, capitalism and private property (while retaining respect for personal property)[70] and in favor of common ownership of the means of production,[71][72] direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".[73][74] Some forms of anarcho-communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.[75][76][77][78][excessive citations] Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.[79][80][81][82][83][excessive citations]

The abolition of wage labor is central to anarchist communism. With distribution of wealth being based on self-determined needs, people would be free to engage in whatever activities they found most fulfilling and would no longer have to engage in work for which they have neither the temperament nor the aptitude.[83] Anarcho-communists argue that there is no valid way of measuring the value of any one person's economic contributions because all wealth is a collective product of current and preceding generations.[84]

##### Evolution and role in early 20th century revolutions

The Conquest of Bread by Peter Kropotkin, an influential work which presents the economic vision of anarcho-communism

Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution ,[27][85] but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International.[86] An early anarcho-communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as "libertarian".[26] Unlike Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature".[27][28]

Anarcho-communism as a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex Mazzinian republicans.[86] Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin's death.[87] The collectivist anarchists sought to collectivize ownership of the means of production while retaining payment proportional to the amount and kind of labor of each individual, but the anarcho-communists sought to extend the concept of collective ownership to the products of labor as well.

While both groups argued against capitalism, the anarchist communists departed from Proudhon and Bakunin, who maintained that individuals have a right to the product of their individual labor and to be remunerated for their particular contribution to production. As Malatesta put it, "instead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work and put everything in common. In this way each will give to society all that his strength permits until enough is produced for every one; and each will take all that he needs, limiting his needs only in those things of which there is not yet plenty for every one".[88] The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections.[89]

During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend anarcho-communism in Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. A commander of the peasant Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine, Makhno led a guerrilla campaign opposing both the Bolshevik "Reds" and monarchist "Whites". The revolutionary autonomous movement of which he was a part made various tactical military pacts while fighting various forces of reaction and organizing the Makhnovshchina, an anarchist society committed to resisting state authority, whether capitalist or Bolshevik.[90][91]

After successfully repelling Austro-Hungarian, White and Ukrainian nationalist forces, the Makhnovist militia forces and anarcho-communist territories in Ukraine were eventually crushed by Bolshevik military forces. In the Mexican Revolution, the Mexican Liberal Party was established and during the early 1910s led a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in Baja California with the leadership of anarcho-communist Ricardo Flores Magón.[92] Kropotkin's The Conquest of Bread, which Flores Magón considered a kind of anarchist bible, served as basis for the short-lived revolutionary communes in Baja California during the Magónista Revolt of 1911.[92]

To date, the best-known examples of an anarcho-communist society (i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution[93] and the Makhnovshchina during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War starting in 1936, anarcho-communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia as well as in the stronghold of anarchist Catalonia before being crushed by the combined forces of the regime that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the Soviet Union) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.[94]

### Post-classical theoretical economic systems

#### Participatory economics

Michael Albert, contemporary anarchist economist proponent of the parecon system

Participatory economics, often abbreviated parecon, is an economic system proposed by activist and political theorist Michael Albert and radical economist Robin Hahnel. For Albert, "participatory economics and participatory society provide a worthy, viable, and even necessary and potentially sufficient anarchist revolutionary vision".[95] It uses participatory decision making as an economic mechanism to guide the production, consumption and allocation of resources in a given society. Proposed as an alternative to contemporary capitalist market economies and also an alternative to centrally planned socialism, it is described as "an anarchistic economic vision".[96]

#### Free-market anarchism

Main article: Social:Free-market anarchism

Free-market anarchism, based on the economic theories of mutualism and individualist anarchism, is a revival of such free-market anarchist theories. It encompasses diverse economic theories like those proposed by individualist anarchists and libertarian socialists such as the Europeans Émile Armand, Thomas Hodgskin, Miguel Giménez Igualada and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, or the Americans Stephen Pearl Andrews, William Batchelder Greene, Lysander Spooner, Benjamin Tucker and Josiah Warren, among others;[97][98][99][100][excessive citations] and various anti-capitalists, left-libertarians and left-wing market anarchists such as Kevin Carson,[101][102][103] Gary Chartier,[104][105] Samuel Edward Konkin III,[106][107] and Chris Matthew Sciabarra.[108]

Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of the public sector in favor of a laissez-faire economic system[109][110] and is associated with individuals such as David D. Friedman[111] and Murray Rothbard.[112] In an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts and all other security services would be funded through the marketplace rather than through confiscatory taxation and money would be privately and competitively provided in an open market. Anarcho-capitalism developed from Austrian School economics, study of law and economics and public choice theory.[113] Since employers are generally categorised as rulers in political sociology and always in anarchist theory, anarchists do not associate anarcho-capitalism with anarchist thought. The belief in the need of a police force, a kind of centralised law enforcement, to prevent crime, whether privatised or not, has been criticised by anarchists as constituting a state since police are a group with a monopoly on force. The majority of anarchist theorists do not consider anarcho-capitalism as a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and see it incompatible with capitalism.[2][11][12][13][excessive citations] While inspired by individualist anarchists such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker, both espoused mutualism and criticised wage labour.[114][115] Rothbard argued that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and capitalism because the individualist anarchists retained the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines.[116][117]

The Really Really Free Market movement is a horizontally organized collective of individuals who form a temporary market based on an alternative gift economy. The movement aims to counteract capitalism in a proactive way by creating a positive example to challenge the myths of scarcity and competition. The name itself is a play on words as it is a reinterpretation and re-envisioning of free market, a term which generally refers to an economy of consumerism governed by supply and demand.[118]

## Issues and proposals

### Anarchist criticism of capitalism

This section is duplicated in Criticism of capitalism.

Emma Goldman famously denounced wage slavery by saying: "The only difference is that you are hired slaves instead of block slaves"[119]

The authors of An Anarchist FAQ state that anarchists have long recognised that capitalism is by its very nature hierarchical.[1] The worker is subjected to the authority of the boss during working hours (sometimes outside work too). They state: "This hierarchical control of wage labour has the effect of alienating workers from their own work, and so from themselves. Workers no longer govern themselves during work hours and so are no longer free".[1] So this is why capitalism, "by treating labour as analogous to all other commodities denies the key distinction between labour and other "resources"—that is to say its inseparability from its bearer—labour, unlike other "property", is endowed with will and agency. Thus when one speaks of selling labour there is a necessary subjugation of will (hierarchy)... Creative, self-managed work is a source of pride and joy and part of what it means to be fully human. Wrenching control of work from the hands of the worker profoundly harms his or her mental and physical health".[120] They also establish the following:

> [...] capitalism itself was created by state violence and the destruction of traditional ways of life and social interaction was part of that task. From the start, bosses spent considerable time and energy combating attempts of working people to join together to resist the hierarchy they were subjected to and reassert human values. Such forms of free association between equals (such as trade unions) were combated, just as attempts to regulate the worse excesses of the system by democratic governments. Indeed, capitalists prefer centralised, elitist and/or authoritarian regimes precisely because they are sure to be outside of popular control (see section B.2.5). They are the only way that contractual relations based on market power could be enforced on an unwilling population. Capitalism was born under such states and as well as backing fascist movements, they made high profits in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Today many corporations "regularly do business with totalitarian and authoritarian regimes – again, because it is profitable to do so." Indeed, there is a "trend by US corporations to invest in" such countries... Perhaps unsurprisingly, as such regimes are best able to enforce the necessary conditions to commodify labour fully.[1]

For the influential German individualist anarchist philosopher Max Stirner, "private property is a spook which "lives by the grace of law" and it "becomes 'mine' only by effect of the law". In other words, private property exists purely "through the protection of the State, through the State's grace". Recognising its need for state protection, Stirner is also aware that "[i]t need not make any difference to the 'good citizens' who protects them and their principles, whether an absolute King or a constitutional one, a republic, if only they are protected. And what is their principle, whose protector they always 'love'? Not that of labour", rather it is "interest-bearing possession [...] labouring capital, therefore [...] labour certainly, yet little or none at all of one's own, but labour of capital and of the – subject labourers".[19] French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon opposed government privilege that protects capitalist, banking and land interests as well as the accumulation or acquisition of property (and any form of coercion that led to it) which he believed hampers competition and keeps wealth in the hands of the few. The Spanish individualist anarchist Miguel Giménez Igualada sees "capitalism is an effect of government; the disappearance of government means capitalism falls from its pedestal vertiginously...That which we call capitalism is not something else but a product of the State, within which the only thing that is being pushed forward is profit, good or badly acquired. And so to fight against capitalism is a pointless task, since be it State capitalism or Enterprise capitalism, as long as Government exists, exploiting capital will exist. The fight, but of consciousness, is against the State".[15]

Within anarchism there emerged a critique of wage slavery which refers to a situation perceived as quasi-voluntary slavery,[3] where a person's livelihood depends on wages, especially when the dependence is total and immediate.[121][122] It is a negatively connoted term used to draw an analogy between slavery and wage labor by focusing on similarities between owning and renting a person. The term "wage slavery" has been used to criticize economic exploitation and social stratification, with the former seen primarily as unequal bargaining power between labor and capital (particularly when workers are paid comparatively low wages, e.g. in sweatshops),[123] and the latter as a lack of workers' self-management, fulfilling job choices and leisure in an economy.[124][125][126] Libertarian socialists believe that if freedom is valued, then society must work towards a system in which individuals have the power to decide economic issues along with political issues. Libertarian socialists seek to replace unjustified authority with direct democracy, voluntary federation and popular autonomy in all aspects of life,[127] including physical communities and economic enterprises. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, thinkers such as Proudhon and Marx elaborated the comparison between wage labor and slavery in the context of a critique of societal property not intended for active personal use,[128][129] Luddites emphasized the dehumanization brought about by machines while later Emma Goldman famously denounced wage slavery by saying: "The only difference is that you are hired slaves instead of block slaves".[130] Goldman believed that the economic system of capitalism was incompatible with human liberty. "The only demand that property recognizes", she wrote in Anarchism and Other Essays, "is its own gluttonous appetite for greater wealth, because wealth means power; the power to subdue, to crush, to exploit, the power to enslave, to outrage, to degrade".[131] She also argued that capitalism dehumanized workers, "turning the producer into a mere particle of a machine, with less will and decision than his master of steel and iron".[131]

Noam Chomsky contends that there is little moral difference between chattel slavery and renting one's self to an owner or "wage slavery". He feels that it is an attack on personal integrity that undermines individual freedom. He holds that workers should own and control their workplace.[132] Many libertarian socialists argue that large-scale voluntary associations should manage industrial manufacture while workers retain rights to the individual products of their labor.[133] As such, they see a distinction between the concepts of "private property" and "personal possession". Whereas "private property" grants an individual exclusive control over a thing whether it is in use or not and regardless of its productive capacity, "possession" grants no rights to things that are not in use.[134]

In addition to anarchist Benjamin Tucker's "big four" monopolies (land, money, tariffs and patents) that have emerged under capitalism, neo-mutualist economist Kevin Carson argues that the state has also transferred wealth to the wealthy by subsidizing organizational centralization in the form of transportation and communication subsidies. He believes that Tucker overlooked this issue due to Tucker's focus on individual market transactions whereas Carson also focuses on organizational issues. The theoretical sections of Studies in Mutualist Political Economy are presented as an attempt to integrate marginalist critiques into the labor theory of value.[135] Carson holds that "arising as a new class society directly from the old class society of the Middle Ages, [capitalism] was founded on an act of robbery as massive as the earlier feudal conquest of the land. It has been sustained to the present by continual state intervention to protect its system of privilege without which its survival is unimaginable".[136] Carson coined the pejorative term "vulgar libertarianism", a phrase that describes the use of a free market rhetoric in defense of corporate capitalism and economic inequality (see economic liberalism and right-libertarianism). According to Carson, the term is derived from the phrase "vulgar political economy", which Karl Marx described as an economic order that "deliberately becomes increasingly apologetic and makes strenuous attempts to talk out of existence the ideas which contain the contradictions [existing in economic life]".[137]

### Economics as anarchist strategy

Main article: Social:Economic secession

Economic secession has been variously defined by sources. In its narrowest sense, it is abstention from the state's economic system—for instance by replacing the use of government money with barter, local exchange trading systems, or commodity money (such as gold). As such, "anarchists can often be found advocating for mass refusal and the withdrawal of our participation-sometimes in the form of general strikes; sometimes as in the case of the illegalists, in the forms of direct expropriations – with the support and participation of social movements or not; sometimes in the forms of occupations and the taking of space; and still other times in advocating for creating alternatives to capitalist relations in the here and now; and so on".[138]

Some anarchists believe that it is not radical political activity that will transform society, but radical economic activity that will make true change.[139] They regard boycotts, consumer advocacy and class action lawsuits to be merely liberal actions that do not address the core problem which is capitalism itself. Italian anarcho-communist Errico Malatesta argued that "each victory, however small, gained by the workers against their exploiters, each decrease of profit, every bit of wealth taken from the individual owners and put at the disposal of all, shall be a progress – a forward step towards Anarchism".[140]

Participatory economics addresses the division of labor question by advocating balanced job complexes wherein all workers at a production facility share in all aspects of labor, i.e. everyone takes part in labor, management, maintenance and all related work to ensure equality and that skills are shared amongst workers. Some anarchists contend that changing personal consumption habits to minimize (or eliminate) involvement in the prevailing capitalist economy is essential to practicing anarchism in their lives. Withdrawing from the system by living on scavenged, stolen, or scammed resources is often touted by individuals and groups influenced by the Situationists such as CrimethInc. as a viable means of survival and non-participation in the system.[141]

### Anarchist value theory

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's mutualism[142] and American individualist anarchists such as Josiah Warren, Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker[143] adopted the liberal labor theory of value of classical economics, but they used it to criticize capitalism—instead favoring a non-capitalist market system.[144]

Egoist anarchist Max Stirner did not adhere to anything close to the labor theory of value and affirmed that the only real base for possession is might over it.[145]

Collectivist anarchism, as defended by Mikhail Bakunin, defended a form of the labour theory of value when it advocated a system where "all necessaries for production are owned in common by the labour groups and the free communes...based on the distribution of goods according to the labour contributed".[146]

Anarcho-communism, as defended by Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta, rejected the labor theory of value and exchange value itself, advocated a gift economy and to base distribution on need.[147]

#### Ethics of pricing

Main article: Social:Cost the limit of price

Sample labor for labor note for the Cincinnati Time Store, scanned from Equitable Commerce (1846) by Josiah Warren

Josiah Warren termed the phrase "Cost the limit of price", with "cost" here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item.[24] This understanding of cost is congruent with that of the classical economist Adam Smith who said: "The real price of every thing, what every thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it". However, Warren reached different conclusions as he believed that goods and services should trade according to how much labor was exerted to produce them and bring them to market, instead of according to how individuals believed them to be subjectively worth. Therefore, "[h]e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce".[22] To charge more labor for something that entailed less labor was "cannibalism", according to him.[148] Moreover, he believed that trading according to "cost the limit of price" would promote increasing efficiency in an economy, as he explains in Equitable Commerce:

> If cost is made the limit of price, every one becomes interested in reducing COST, by bringing in all the economies, all the facilities to their aid. But, on the contrary, if cost does not govern the price, but every thing is priced at what it will bring, there are no such co-operating interests. If I am to have my supply of flour at cost, then, any facility I can afford to the wheat grower, reduces the cost to me, and it does the same for all who have any portion of the wheat, I am promoting all their interests while pursuing my own...Now if the wheat were NOT TO BE SOLD TO us AT COST, but at "whatever it would bring" according to our necessities, then none of us would have any interest in affording facilities, repairing breaches, nor in any other way co-operating with the producer of it. The same motive would act in the production, preservation, and use of every thing."[149]

He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental "labor for labor store" called the Cincinnati Time Store at the corner of 5th and Elm Streets in what is now downtown Cincinnati, where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor: "All the goods offered for sale in Warren's store were offered at the same price the merchant himself had paid for them, plus a small surcharge, in the neighborhood of 4 to 7 percent, to cover store overhead".[150] The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism. These included Utopia and Modern Times. Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews' The Science of Society, published in 1852, was the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories.[25]

### Workers issues and anarcho-syndicalism

Main article: Social:Anarcho-syndicalism

Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism which focuses on the labour movement.[151]

Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system, regarding it as "wage slavery" and state or private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Not all seek to abolish money per se. Ralph Chaplin states that "the ultimate aim of the General Strike as regards wages is to give to each producer the full product of his labor. The demand for better wages becomes revolutionary only when it is coupled with the demand that the exploitation of labor must cease".[152]

Additionally, anarcho-syndicalists regard the state as a profoundly anti-worker institution. They view the primary purpose of the state as being the defence of private property and therefore of economic, social and political privilege, even when such defence denies its citizens the ability to enjoy material independence and the social autonomy which springs from it.[153] In contrast to other bodies of thought (Marxism–Leninism being a prime example), anarcho-syndicalists deny that there can be any kind of workers' state, or a state which acts in the interests of workers, as opposed to those of the rich and powerful. Reflecting the anarchist philosophy from which it draws its primary inspiration, anarcho-syndicalism holds to the idea that power corrupts.[154]

Although anarcho-syndicalism originated close to the beginning of the twentieth century, it remains a popular and active school of anarchism today and has many supporters as well as many currently active organizations. Anarcho-syndicalist trade unionists, being social anarchists, vary in their points of view on anarchist economic arrangements from a collectivist anarchism type economic system to an anarcho-communist economic system.[155]

#### Concept of wage slavery

Main article: Social:Wage slavery

Wage slavery refers to a situation perceived as quasi-voluntary slavery,[3] where a person's livelihood depends on wages, especially when the dependence is total and immediate.[121][156] It is a negatively connoted term used to draw an analogy between slavery and wage labor by focusing on similarities between owning and renting a person. The term "wage slavery" has been used to criticize economic exploitation and social stratification, with the former seen primarily as unequal bargaining power between labor and capital (particularly when workers are paid comparatively low wages, e.g. in sweatshops)[157] and the latter as a lack of workers' self-management, fulfilling job choices and leisure in an economy.[124][125][126] The criticism of social stratification covers a wider range of employment choices bound by the pressures of a hierarchical society to perform otherwise unfulfilling work that deprives humans of their "species character"[158] not only under threat of starvation or poverty, but also of social stigma and status diminution.[159][160][161]

The exchange of money and debt for work traces back to the disintegration of the "playful"[162] work in hunter-gatherer gift economies and the establishment of prostitution as a "fundamental feature of human civilization".[163] Similarities between wage labor and slavery were noted in ancient Rome by Cicero[164] while the pervasive practice of voluntary slavery in Medieval Russia indicates the previous historical coexistence of slavery and voluntary choice.[165] Before the American Civil War, Southern defenders of African American slavery invoked the concept of wage slavery to favorably compare the condition of their slaves to workers in the North.[166][167] With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, thinkers such as Proudhon and Marx elaborated the comparison between wage labor and slavery in the context of a critique of societal property not intended for active personal use[128][129] while Luddites emphasized the dehumanization brought about by machines. Emma Goldman famously denounced wage slavery by saying: "The only difference is that you are hired slaves instead of block slaves".[119]

The introduction of wage labor in 18th-century Britain was met with resistance—giving rise to the principles of syndicalism.[168][169][170][171][excessive citations] Historically, some labor organizations and individual social activists have espoused workers' self-management or worker cooperatives as possible alternatives to wage labor.[125][170]

#### Collectivizations and workers control

For Proudhon, mutualism involved creating "industrial democracy", a system where workplaces would be "handed over to democratically organised workers' associations [...] We want these associations to be models for agriculture, industry and trade, the pioneering core of that vast federation of companies and societies woven into the common cloth of the democratic social Republic".[172] He urged "workers to form themselves into democratic societies, with equal conditions for all members, on pain of a relapse into feudalism". This would result in "[c]apitalistic and proprietary exploitation, stopped everywhere, the wage system abolished, equal and just exchange guaranteed".[173]

Workers' control can be contrasted to control of the economy via the state such as nationalisation and central planning (see state socialism) and private control of the means of production as found in capitalism. A worker cooperative is a cooperative owned and democratically managed by its worker-owners. This control may be exercised in a number of ways. A cooperative enterprise may mean a firm where every worker-owner participates in decision making in a democratic fashion, or it may refer to one in which managers and administration is elected by every worker-owner and finally it can refer to a situation in which managers are considered and treated as, workers of the firm.[174]

In traditional forms of worker cooperative, all shares are held by the workforce with no outside or consumer owners and each member has one voting share. In practice, control by worker owners may be exercised through individual, collective or majority ownership by the workforce, or the retention of individual, collective or majority voting rights (exercised on a one-member one-vote basis).[174] A worker cooperative therefore has the characteristic that the majority of its workforce own shares, and the majority of shares are owned by the workforce.[175]

Nevertheless, anarcho-communism has been critical of workers ownership of large means of production for the following reasons: "Whereas the syndicalist alternative re-privatizes the economy into "self-managed" collectives and opens the way to their degeneration into traditional forms of private property – whether "collectively" owned or not – libertarian municipalism politicizes the economy and dissolves it into the civic domain. Neither factory or land appear as separate interests within the communal collective. Nor can workers, farmers, technicians, engineers, professionals, and the like perpetuate their vocational identities as separate interests that exist apart from the citizen body in face-to-face assemblies. "Property" is integrated into the commune as a material constituent of its libertarian institutional framework, indeed as a part of a larger whole that is controlled by the citizen body in assembly as citizens – not as vocationally oriented interest groups".[176]

### Forms of exchange

Anarchist economist Kevin Carson manifests that "[l]ocal currencies, barter networks and mutual credit‐clearing systems are a solution to a basic problem: a world in which there is a lot of work to be done, but there is simply no money around to bring the people and the work together".[177]

#### Labor notes and local exchange trading systems

Main articles: Finance:Labor notes (currency) and Finance:Local exchange trading system

Labour notes are an alternative currency based on exchange of hours of labor. Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist.[22] Josiah Warren termed the phrase "Cost the limit of price", with "cost" here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item.[24] Therefore, "[h]e proposed a system to pay people with labour notes indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce".[22]

### Credit and banking

Main articles: Social:Free banking and Social:Mutual credit

William Batchelder Greene, American individualist anarchist activist and theorist for free banking

In a session of the French legislature, Proudhon proposed a government-imposed income tax to fund his mutual banking scheme, with some tax brackets reaching as high as 33​1⁄3 percent and 50 percent, which was turned down by the legislature.[178] This income tax Proudhon proposed to fund his bank was to be levied on rents, interest, debts and salaries.[179][180] Specifically, Proudhon's proposed law would have required all capitalists and stockholders to disburse one sixth of their income to their tenants and debtors and another sixth to the national treasury to fund the bank.[181] This scheme was vehemently objected to by others in the legislature, including Frédéric Bastiat;[181] the reason given for the income tax's rejection was that it would result in economic ruin and that it violated "the right of property".[182] In his debates with Bastiat, Proudhon did once propose funding a national bank with a voluntary tax of 1%.[183] Proudhon also argued for the abolition of all taxes.[184]

During the episode known as the Spanish Revolution, contemporary anarchist theorist Peter Gelderloos reports the following:

“  | [...] For better or worse, the Spanish revolutionaries also experimented with Peasant Banks, Labor Banks, and Councils of Credit and Exchange. The Levant Federation of Peasant Collectives started a bank organized by the Bank Workers Union to help farmers draw from a broad pool of social resources needed for certain infrastructure- or resource-intensive types of farming. The Central Labor Bank of Barcelona moved credit from more prosperous collectives to socially useful collectives in need. Cash transactions were kept to a minimum, and credit was transferred as credit. The Labor Bank also arranged foreign exchange, and importation and purchase of raw materials. Where possible, payment was made in commodities, not in cash. The bank was not a for-profit enterprise; it charged only 1% interest to defray expenses. Diego Abad de Santillan, the anarchist economist, said in 1936: "Credit will be a social function and not a private speculation or usury... Credit will be based on the economic possibilities of society and not on interests or profit... The Council of Credit and Exchange will be like a thermometer of the products and needs of the country."[52] In this experiment, money functioned as a symbol of social support and not as a symbol of ownership – it signified resources being transferred between unions of producers rather than investments by speculators. Within a complex industrial economy such banks make exchange and production more efficient, though they also present the risk of centralization or the reemergence of capital as a social force. Furthermore, efficient production and exchange as a value should be viewed with suspicion, at the least, by people interested in liberation. There are a number of methods that could prevent institutions such as labor banks from facilitating the return of capitalism, though unfortunately the onslaught of totalitarianism from both the fascists and Communists deprived Spanish anarchists of the chance to develop them. These might include rotating and mixing tasks to prevent the emergence of a new managing class, developing fragmented structures that cannot be controlled at a central or national level, promoting as much decentralization and simplicity as possible, and maintaining a firm tradition that common resources and instruments of social wealth are never for sale.  | ”

|
|

— Peter Gelderloos, Anarchy Works[185]

### Gift economy

Main article: Finance:Gift economy

Watercolor by James G. Swan depicting the Klallam people of chief Chetzemoka at Port Townsend, with one of Chetzemoka's wives distributing potlatch

In anthropology and the social sciences, a gift economy (or gift culture) is a mode of exchange where valuable goods and services are regularly given without any explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards (i.e. no formal quid pro quo exists).[186] Ideally, voluntary and recurring gift exchange circulates and redistributes wealth throughout a community and serves to build societal ties and obligations.[187] In contrast to a barter economy or a market economy, social norms and custom governs gift exchange, rather than an explicit exchange of goods or services for money or some other commodity.[188]

Traditional societies dominated by gift exchange were small in scale and geographically remote from each other. As states formed to regulate trade and commerce within their boundaries, market exchange came to dominate. Nonetheless, the practice of gift exchange continues to play an important role in modern society.[189] One prominent example is scientific research, which can be described as a gift economy.[190]

Contrary to popular conception, there is no evidence that societies relied primarily on barter before using money for trade.[191] Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economics and in more complex economies on debt.[192][193] When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or would-be enemies.[194]

#### Free shops

Inside Utrecht Giveaway shop, where the banner reads: "The earth has enough for everyone's need, but not for everyone's greed"

The anarchist 1960s countercultural group The Diggers[195] opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.[196] The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers led by Gerrard Winstanley[197] and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism.[198]

#### Peer-to-peer

The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. P2P human dynamic affords a critical look at current authoritarian and centralized social structures. Peer-to-peer is also a political and social program for those who believe that in many cases, peer-to-peer modes are a preferable option. Anarchist scholar Uri Gordon has said that "the collaborative development of free software like the Linux operating system and applications such as OpenOffice clearly approximate an informational anarchist communism. Moreover, for anarchists it is precisely the logic of expropriation and electronic piracy that enables a radical political extension of the cultural ideals of the free manipulation, circulation and use of information associated with the "hacker ethic" (Himanen 2001). The space of illegality created by P2P (peer-to-peer) file-sharing opens up the possibility, not only of the open circulation of freely-given information and software as it is on the Internet today, but also of conscious copyright violation. The Internet, then, enables not only communist relations around information, but also the militant contamination and erosion of non-communist regimes of knowledge—a technological "weapon" to equalise access to information, eating away at intellectual property rights by rendering them unenforceable".[199]

P2P is a specific form of relational dynamic, based on the assumed equipotency of its participants, organized through the free cooperation of equals in view of the performance of a common task, for the creation of a common good, with forms of decision-making and autonomy that are widely distributed throughout the network. There are three fundamental aspects of social P2P processes:

1. Peer production: the collaborative production of use value is open to participation and use to the widest possible number (as defined by Yochai Benkler, in his essay Coase's Penguin).[200]
2. Peer governance: production or project is governed by the community of producers themselves, not by market allocation or corporate hierarchy.
3. Peer property: the use-value of property is freely accessible on a universal basis; peer services and products are distributed through new modes of property, which are not exclusive, though recognize individual authorship (i.e. the GNU General Public License or the Creative Commons licenses).

While many anarcho-communists are opposed to trade, some post-left, post-scarcity anarcho-communists and ones with syndicalist sympathies are not opposed to trade. Some support a non-monetary form of trade in the form of post-monetary trade unions and commons. Others such as Tiziana Terranova easily see anarcho-communism being compatible with a non-hierarchical, open access, free association, post-monetary form of trade such as P2P.[201]

### Coexistence of economic systems and economic pluralism

French anarchist without adjectives Max Nettlau addressed the issue of the coexistence of different economic systems as follows:

> Let me imagine myself for a moment living in a free society. I should certainly have different occupations, manual and mental, requiring strength or skill. It would be very monotonous if the three or four groups with whom I would work (for I hope there will be no Syndicates then!) would be organized on exactly the same lines; I rather think that different degrees or forms of Communism will prevail in them. But might I not become tired of this, and wish for a spell of relative isolation, of Individualism? So I might turn to one of the many possible forms of "equal exchange" Individualism. Perhaps people will do one thing when they are young and another thing when they grow older. Those who are but indifferent workers may continue with their groups; those who are efficient will lose patience at always working with beginners and will go ahead by themselves, unless a very altruist disposition makes it a pleasure to them to act as teachers or advisers to younger people. I also think that at the beginning I should adopt Communism with friends and Individualism with strangers, and shape my future life according to experience. Thus, a free and easy change from one variety of Communism to another, thence to any variety of Individualism, and so on, would be the most obvious and elementary thing in a really free society; and if any group of people tried to check this, to make one system predominant, they would be as bitterly fought as revolutionists fight the present system.[202]

French individualist anarchist Émile Armand argued for a pluralistic economic logic when he said: "Here and there everything happening – here everyone receiving what they need, there each one getting whatever is needed according to their own capacity. Here, gift and barter – one product for another; there, exchange – product for representative value. Here, the producer is the owner of the product, there, the product is put to the possession of the collectivity".[62]

At the time of the Spanish Revolution led by the anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT and by the FAI, the issue of the coexistence of different economic systems was addressed. Daniel Guérin in Anarchism: From Theory to Practice reports the following:

> Spanish anarcho-syndicalism had long been concerned to safeguard the autonomy of what it called "affinity groups." There were many adepts of naturism and vegetarianism among its members, especially among the poor peasants of the south. Both these ways of living were considered suitable for the transformation of the human being in preparation for a libertarian society. At the Saragossa congress the members did not forget to consider the fate of groups of naturists and nudists, "unsuited to industrialization." As these groups would be unable to supply all their own needs, the congress anticipated that their delegates to the meetings of the confederation of communes would be able to negotiate special economic agreements with the other agricultural and industrial communes. On the eve of a vast, bloody, social transformation, the CNT did not think it foolish to try to meet the infinitely varied aspirations of individual human beings.[203]

### Commune, federalism and economic democracy

Anarcho-communism has been critical of a simple call for worker's ownership of workplaces and their administration as cooperatives. Murray Bookchin has put it this way "what of the syndicalist ideal of "collectivized" self-managed enterprises that are coordinated by like occupations on a national level and coordinated geographically by "collectives" on a local level?...Here, the traditional socialist criticism of this syndicalist form of economic management is not without its point: the corporate or private capitalist, "worker-controlled" or not – ironically, a technique in the repertoire of industrial management that is coming very much into vogue today as "workplace democracy" and "employee ownership" and constitutes no threat whatever to private property and capitalism...In any case, "economic democracy" has not simply meant "workplace democracy" and "employee ownership." Many workers, in fact, would like to get away from their factories if they could and find more creative artisanal types of work, not simply "participate" in "planning" their own misery. What "economic democracy" meant in its profoundest sense was free, "democratic" access to the means of life, the counterpart of political democracy, that is, the guarantee of freedom from material want. It is a dirty bourgeois trick, in which many radicals unknowingly participate, that "economic democracy" has been re-interpreted as "employee ownership" and "workplace democracy" and has come to mean workers' "participation" in profit sharing and industrial management rather than freedom from the tyranny of the factory, rationalized labor, and "planned production", which is usually exploitative production with the complicity of the workers".[176]

A common call within anarchism is for a confederal form in relationships of mutual aid and free association between communes as an alternative to the centralism of the nation-state. Peter Kropotkin thus suggested: "Representative government has accomplished its historical mission; it has given a mortal blow to court-rule; and by its debates it has awakened public interest in public questions. But to see in it the government of the future socialist society is to commit a gross error. Each economic phase of life implies its own political phase; and it is impossible to touch the very basis of the present economic life – private property – without a corresponding change in the very basis of the political organization. Life already shows in which direction the change will be made. Not in increasing the powers of the State, but in resorting to free organization and free federation in all those branches which are now considered as attributes of the State".[204]

As such, "no community can hope to achieve economic autarchy, nor should it try to do so unless it wishes to become self-enclosed and parochial, not only "self-sufficient." Hence the confederation of communes—the Commune of communes—is reworked economically as well as politically into a shared universe of publicly managed resources. The management of the economy, precisely because it is a public activity, does not degenerate into privatized interactions between enterprises; rather it develops into confederalized interactions between municipalities. That is to say, the very elements of societal interaction are expanded from real or potential privatized components to institutionally real public components. Confederation becomes a public project by definition, not only because of shared needs and resources. If there is any way to avoid the emergence of the city-state, not to speak of self-serving bourgeois "cooperatives", it is through a municipalization of political life that is so complete that politics embraces not only what we call the public sphere but material means of life as well".[176]

Economic democracy as proposed by Takis Fotopoulos[205] and Bookchin[206] is a socioeconomic philosophy that proposes to shift decision-making power from corporate shareholders to a larger group of public stakeholders that includes workers, customers, suppliers, neighbors and the broader public. No single definition or approach encompasses economic democracy, but most proponents claim that modern property relations externalize costs, subordinate the general well-being to private profit and deny the polity a democratic voice in economic policy decisions.[207] In addition to these moral concerns, economic democracy makes practical claims, such as that it can compensate for capitalism's claimedly inherent effective demand gap.[208]

Proponents of economic democracy generally argue that modern capitalism tends to hinder or prevent society from earning enough income to purchase its output production. Corporate monopoly of common resources typically creates artificial scarcity, resulting in socio-economic imbalances that restrict workers from access to economic opportunity and diminish consumer purchasing power.[209] Economic democracy has been proposed as a component of larger socioeconomic ideologies, as a stand-alone theory and as a variety of reform agendas. For example, as a means to securing full economic rights, it opens a path to full political rights, defined as including the former.[207]

## See also

* Autonomism
* Community-based economics
* Decentrally planned economy
* Distributism
* Gandhian economics
* Political economy
* Prosumer
* Socialist economics

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 "B.1.2 Is capitalism hierarchical? by An Anarchist FAQ". http://www.infoshop.org/AnarchistFAQSectionB1#secb12.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Meltzer, Albert (2000). Anarchism: Arguments For and Against. AK Press. p. 50. "The philosophy of "anarcho-capitalism" dreamed up by the "libertarian" New Right, has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper."
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Ellerman 1992.
4. ↑ Crowder, George (1991). Classical Anarchism: The Political Thought of Godwin, Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 85–86. ISBN 9780198277446. "The ownership [anarchists oppose] is basically that which is unearned [...] including such things as interest on loans and income from rent. This is contrasted with ownership rights in those goods either produced by the work of the owner or necessary for that work, for example his dwelling-house, land and tools. Proudhon initially refers to legitimate rights of ownership of these goods as 'possession,' and although in his latter work he calls this 'property,' the conceptual distinction remains the same."
5. ↑ Hargreaves, David H. London (2019). Beyond Schooling: An Anarchist Challenge. London: Routledge. pp. 90–91. ISBN 9780429582363. "Ironically, Proudhon did not mean literally what he said. His boldness of expression was intended for emphasis, and by 'property' he wished to be understood what he later called 'the sum of its abuses'. He was denouncing the property of the man who uses it to exploit the labour of others without any effort on his own part, property distinguished by interest and rent, by the impositions of the non-producer on the producer. Towards property regarded as 'possession' the right of a man to control his dwelling and the land and tools he needs to live, Proudhon had no hostility; indeed, he regarded it as the cornerstone of liberty, and his main criticism of the communists was that they wished to destroy it."
6. ↑ McKay, Iain (2008). An Anarchist FAQ. I. "Why do anarchists oppose the current system?" "Why are anarchists against private property?" Oakland/Edinburgh: AK Press. ISBN 978-1902593906.
7. ↑ McKay, Iain (2008). An Anarchist FAQ. I. "Anarchism and 'anarcho'-capitalism" Oakland/Edinburgh: AK Press. ISBN 978-1902593906.
8. ↑ Brooks, Frank H. (1994). The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. xi. ISBN 1-56000-132-1.
9. ↑ Kahn, Joseph (2000). "Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement". The New York Times (5 August). Moynihan, Colin (2007). "Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway". The New York Times (16 April).
10. ↑ Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. New York: Monthly Review Press. http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice#toc2. "The anarchists were unanimous in subjecting authoritarian socialism to a barrage of severe criticism. At the time when they made violent and satirical attacks these were not entirely well founded, for those to whom they were addressed were either primitive or "vulgar" communists, whose thought had not yet been fertilized by Marxist humanism, or else, in the case of Marx and Engels themselves, were not as set on authority and state control as the anarchists made out."
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists." Peter Marshall. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. Harper Perennial. London. 2008. p. 565
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)."Saul Newman, The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press, 2010, p. 43 ISBN 0748634959
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition." Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward by David Goodway. Liverpool University Press. Liverpool. 2006
14. ↑ Section F – Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism? at An Anarchist FAQ
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "el capitalismo es sólo el efecto del gobierno; desaparecido el gobierno, el capitalismo cae de su pedestal vertiginosamente...Lo que llamamos capitalismo no es otra cosa que el producto del Estado, dentro del cual lo único que se cultiva es la ganancia, bien o mal habida. Luchar, pues, contra el capitalismo es tarea inútil, porque sea Capitalismo de Estado o Capitalismo de Empresa, mientras el Gobierno exista, existirá el capital que explota. La lucha, pero de conciencias, es contra el Estado." Anarquismo by Miguel Giménez Igualada
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Proudhon. What is Property, pp. 395–96
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 What is Anarchism?, p. 217
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 George Woodcock. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. 1962
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Ervin, Lorenzo Kom'boa. "G.6 What are the ideas of Max Stirner? in An Anarchist FAQ". Infoshop.org. http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG6.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements. Broadview Press. p. 100.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism?.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Palmer, Brian (2010-12-29). "What do anarchists want from us?". Slate.com. http://www.slate.com/id/2279457/.
23. ↑ William Bailie, Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist – A Sociological Study , Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 "A watch has a cost and a value. The COST consists of the amount of labor bestowed on the mineral or natural wealth, in converting it into metals…". Warren, Josiah. Equitable Commerce
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Madison, Charles A. (January 1945). "Anarchism in the United States". Journal of the History of Ideas 6 (1): 53. doi:10.2307/2707055.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Joseph Déjacque, De l'être-humain mâle et femelle – Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque (in French)
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Robert Graham, Anarchism – A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas – Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939), Black Rose Books, 2005
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "l'Echange", article in Le Libertaire no 6, September 21, 1858, New York.
29. ↑ Déjacque criticized French mutualist anarchist Pierre Joseph Proudhon as far as "the Proudhonist version of Ricardian socialism, centred on the reward of labour power and the problem of exchange value. In his polemic with Proudhon on women's emancipation, Déjacque urged Proudhon to push on 'as far as the abolition of the contract, the abolition not only of the sword and of capital, but of property and authority in all their forms,' and refuted the commercial and wages logic of the demand for a 'fair reward' for 'labour' (labour power). Déjacque asked: 'Am I thus... right to want, as with the system of contracts, to measure out to each – according to their accidental capacity to produce – what they are entitled to?' The answer given by Déjacque to this question is unambiguous: 'it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.' [...] For Déjacque, on the other hand, the communal state of affairs – the phalanstery 'without any hierarchy, without any authority' except that of the 'statistics book' – corresponded to 'natural exchange,' i.e. to the 'unlimited freedom of all production and consumption; the abolition of any sign of agricultural, individual, artistic or scientific property; the destruction of any individual holding of the products of work; the demonarchisation and the demonetarisation of manual and intellectual capital as well as capital in instruments, commerce and buildings."Alain Pengam. "Anarchist-Communism"
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 "Table Of Contents". Blackrosebooks.net. http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm.
31. ↑ Dodson, Edward (2002). The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2. Authorhouse. p. 312. ISBN 0-595-24912-4.
32. ↑ Thomas 1985, p. 187.
33. ↑ Thomas 1985, p. 304.
34. ↑ Bak, Jǹos (1991). Liberty and Socialism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 236. ISBN 0-8476-7680-3.
35. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter. The Wages System. 1920. Also available: http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/kropotkin-peter/1920/wage.htm quote: "Such, in a few words, is the organization which the Collectivists desire ... their principles are: collective property in the instruments of labor and remuneration of each worker according to the time spent in productive toil, taking into account the productiveness of his work."
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 36.6 Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. New York: Monthly Review Press. http://libcom.org/library/anarchism-daniel-guerin-3c.
37. ↑ "Introduction". Mutualist.org. http://www.mutualist.org/.
38. ↑ Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11
39. ↑ Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 15.
40. ↑ Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraphs 9, 10 & 22.
Carson, Kevin, 2004, Studies in Mutualist Political Economy, chapter 2 (after Meek & Oppenheimer).
41. ↑ Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 19.
Carson, Kevin, 2004, Studies in Mutualist Political Economy, chapter 2 (after Ricardo, Dobb & Oppenheimer).
42. ↑ Solution of the Social Problem, 1848–49.
43. ↑ Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism? VI. Land and Rent
44. ↑ Hymans, E., Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, pp. 190–91,
Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements, Broadview Press, 2004, pp. 110, 112
45. ↑ General Idea of the Revolution, Pluto Press, pp. 215–16, 277
46. ↑ Fourier, Charles, Traité (1822), cited in Arthur E. Bestor, Jr., "The Evolution of the Socialist Vocabulary", Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 9, No. 3 (Jun., 1948), 259–302.
47. ↑ New-Harmony Gazette, I, 301–02 (14 June 1826) cited in Arthur E. Bestor, Jr., "The Evolution of the Socialist Vocabulary", Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 9, No. 3 (Jun., 1948), 259–302.
48. ↑ Joshua King Ingalls, "A Practical Movement for Transition", Spirit of the Age, II, 13 (March 30, 1850), pp. 202–04.
49. ↑ Albert Brisbane, "The Mutualist Township", The Spirit of the Age, II, 12 (March 23, 1850), 179–83.; II, 13 (March 30, 1850), 200–02.
50. ↑ Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, "The Coming Era of Mutualism", Spirit of the Age, I, 7 (August 18, 1849), 107–08.
51. ↑ Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism by Eunice Minette Schuster
52. ↑ Kevin Carson . Studies in Mutualist Political Economy.
53. ↑ Carson, Kevin. Mutualist Political Economy , Preface
54. ↑ "Introduction", General Idea of the Revolution, p. xxxii
55. ↑ Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and the Rise of French Republican Socialism, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984, pp. 156, 230
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54
57. ↑ Bakunin Mikail. Bakunin on Anarchism. Black Rose Books. 1980. p. 369
58. ↑ Morriss, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 115
59. ↑ Bakunin, Mikhail. "Federalism, Socialism, Anti-Theologism by Michael Bakunin". http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/various/reasons-of-state.htm.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Woodcock, George (1962, 1975). Anarchism, 158. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-020622-1.
61. ↑ Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings, pp. 191-2
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Émile Armand. Anarchist Individualism and Amorous Comradeship
63. ↑ "Marxism and Anarchism: The Philosophical Roots of the Marx-Bakunin Conflict - WorkersCompass.org - Published by Workers Action". 21 June 2002. http://workerscompass.org/marxism-and-anarchism-the-philosophical-roots-of-the-marx-bakunin-conflict/.
64. ↑ Nicholas Thoburn. "The lumpenproletariat and the proletarian unnameable" in Deleuze, Marx and Politics
65. ↑ Berkman, Alexander. The ABC of Anarchism, p. 68
66. ↑ Kropotkin. Kropotkin's Revolutionary Pamphlets, p. 162
67. ↑ [Anarchism, p. 295]
68. ↑ A.3 What types of anarchism are there?
69. ↑ Bolloten, Burnett (1991). The Spanish Civil War: revolution and counterrevolution. UNC Press Books. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8078-1906-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=-VarDLHA3_YC&q="libertarian communism"&pg=PA65. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
70. ↑ "The revolution abolishes private ownership of the means of production and distribution, and with it goes capitalistic business. Personal possession remains only in the things you use. Thus, your watch is your own, but the watch factory belongs to the people."[1] Alexander Berkman. "What Is Communist Anarchism?"
71. ↑ Mayne, Alan James (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms Alan James Mayne Published 1999 Greenwood Publishing Group. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&q=Communist+anarchism+belives+in+collective+ownership&pg=PA131. Retrieved 2010-09-20.
72. ↑ Anarchism for Know-It-Alls. Filiquarian Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1-59986-218-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=bKCOtAEACAAJ. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
73. ↑ Fabbri, Luigi. "Anarchism and Communism." Northeastern Anarchist #4. 1922. 13 October 2002. http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html
74. ↑ Makhno, Mett, Arshinov, Valevski, Linski (Dielo Trouda). "The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists". 1926. Constructive Section: available here http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/constructive.htm
75. ↑ Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88.
76. ↑ "Towards the creative Nothing" by Renzo Novatore
77. ↑ Post-left anarcho-communist Bob Black after analysing insurrectionary anarcho-communist Luigi Galleani's view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of individualism...The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both...Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of "emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,"...You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a "method of individualization." It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."Bob Black. Nightmares of Reason.
78. ↑ "Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved – and how enslaved!...Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand – that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."[2]Max Baginski. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on Mother Earth. Vol. 2. No. 3 MAY, 1907
79. ↑ "Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty – provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy...Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work." "Communism and Anarchy" by Peter Kropotkin
80. ↑ This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony.Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists by Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)
81. ↑ "I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle.""MY PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12
82. ↑ L. Susan Brown, 'The Politics of Individualism,' Black Rose Books (2002)
83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 L. Susan Brown, Does Work Really Work?
84. ↑ Alexander Berkman. What Is Communist Anarchism?
85. ↑ "Chapter 41: The "Anarchists"" in The Great French Revolution 1789–1793 by Peter Kropotkin
86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864–1892", pp. 111–13, AK Press 2009.
87. ↑ James Guillaume, "Michael Bakunin – A Biographical Sketch"
88. ↑ Malatesta, Errico. A Talk About Anarchist Communism Between Two Workers. Also available at: http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_Archives/malatesta/MalatestaATAC.html
89. ↑ Pengam, Alain (21 May 2012). "Anarchist-Communism". The Anarchist Library. http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alain-pengam-anarchist-communism.
90. ↑ Yekelchyk 2007, p 80.
91. ↑ Charles Townshend; John Bourne; Jeremy Black (1997). The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820427-2. https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate0000unse_i3j8.
92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 ""The Magonista Revolt in Baja California Capitalist Conspiracy or Rebelion de los Pobres?" by Lawrence D. Taylor". http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/99winter/magonista.htm.
93. ↑ "This process of education and class organization, more than any single factor in Spain, produced the collectives. And to the degree that the CNT-FAI (for the two organizations became fatally coupled after July 1936) exercised the major influence in an area, the collectives proved to be generally more durable, communist and resistant to Stalinist counterrevolution than other republican-held areas of Spain." Murray Bookchin, To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936
94. ↑ Murray Bookchin, To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936
95. ↑ "Porous Borders of Anarchist Vision and Strategy" by Michael Albert in The Accumulation of Freedom: Writings on Anarchist Economics. AK Press. (2012), p. 327
96. ↑ Albert, Michael Parecon: Life After Capitalism Chapter 19 Individuals / Society
97. ↑ Woodcock, George (1962). Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Melbourne: Penguin.
98. ↑ Martin, James J. (1970). Men Against the State. Colorado Springs: Ralph Myles Publisher Inc. pp. 153, 172.
99. ↑ Woodcock, George (1986). The Anarchist Reader. London: Fontana. p. 150. ISBN 0006861067.
100. ↑ McKay, Iain, ed (2008). An Anarchist FAQ. Stirling: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6. OCLC 182529204.
101. ↑ Carson, Kevin A. (2008). Organization Theory: A Libertarian Perspective. Charleston, SC: BookSurge.
102. ↑ Carson, Kevin (19 June 2009). "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated". Center for a Stateless Society. "But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on Jesse Walker's link to the Kelly article, put it: "every trade is a cooperative act." In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label "socialism."
103. ↑ Carson, Kevin (2010). The Homebrew Industrial Revolution: A Low-Overhead Manifesto. Charleston, SC: BookSurge.
104. ↑ Chartier, Gary (2009). Economic Justice and Natural Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
105. ↑ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. "It introduces an eye-opening approach to radical social thought, rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism."
106. ↑ D'Amato, David S. (27 November 2018). "Black-Market Activism: Samuel Edward Konkin III and Agorism".
107. ↑ Broze, Derrick (13 September 2016). "Agorism is Not Anarcho-Capitalism". Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
108. ↑ Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (2000). Total Freedom: Toward a Dialectical Libertarianism. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
109. ↑ Caplan, Bryan (2008). Hamowy, Ronald. ed. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 10–13. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n7. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. OCLC 750831024. https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC.
110. ↑ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, p. 51
111. ↑ Gerald F. Gaus, Chandran Kukathas. 2004. Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications. pp. 118–119. Source refers to Friedman's philosophy as "market anarchism."
112. ↑ Editor's note in "Taxation: Voluntary or Compulsory". Formulations. Free Nation Foundation. Summer 1995 "Taxation: Voluntary or Compulsory?". http://libertariannation.org/a/f24r1.html.
113. ↑ Edward Stringham, Anarchy, State, and Public Choice, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.
114. ↑ Boraas, Ed; Elkin, Gary; McKay, Iain; Neal, Dave (18 June 2009). "Benjamin Tucker: Capitalist or Anarchist?" ; "Lysander Spooner: right-"libertarian" or libertarian socialist?" An Anarchist FAQ. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
115. ↑ MacSaorsa, Iain (3 December 2009). "The Ideas of Lysander Spooner—Libertarian or libertarian socialist?" Spunk. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
116. ↑ Rothbard, Murray. "Are Libertarians 'Anarchists'?". Lew Rockwell.com. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
117. ↑ Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc. eds. "Anarchism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies (Oxford University Press): 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001.
118. ↑ CrimethInc.. "The Really Really Free Market: Instituting the Gift Economy". Rolling Thunder (4). http://www.crimethinc.com/texts/atoz/reallyreally.php. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 Goldman 2003, p. 283.
120. ↑ ""B.1.2 Is capitalism hierarchical?" by An Anarchist FAQ". http://www.infoshop.org/AnarchistFAQSectionB1#secb12.
121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 "wage slave". merriam-webster.com. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wage slave.
122. ↑ "wage slave". dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/wage slave.
123. ↑ Sandel 1996, p. 184
124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 "Conversation with Noam Chomsky". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. p. 2. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con2.html.
125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 125.2 Hallgrimsdottir & Benoit 2007.
126. ↑ 126.0 126.1 "The Bolsheviks and Workers Control, 1917–1921: The State and Counter-revolution". Spunk Library. http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/bolintro.html.
127. ↑ Harrington, Austin, et al. 'Encyclopedia of Social Theory' Routledge (2006) p. 50
128. ↑ 128.0 128.1 Proudhon 1890.
129. ↑ 129.0 129.1 Marx 1969, Chapter VII
130. ↑ Goldman 2003, p. 283
131. ↑ 131.0 131.1 Goldman, Emma. Anarchism and Other Essays. 3rd ed. 1917. New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1969., p. 54.
132. ↑ "Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 2 of 5". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con2.html.
133. ↑ Lindemann, Albert S. 'A History of European Socialism' Yale University Press (1983) p. 160
134. ↑ Ely, Richard et al. 'Property and Contract in Their Relations to the Distribution of Wealth' The Macmillan Company (1914)
135. ↑ Kevin A. Carson, Studies in Mutualist Political Economy chs. 1–3
136. ↑ Richman, Sheldon, Libertarian Left , The American Conservative (March 2011)
137. ↑ Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, III, p. 501.
138. ↑ Various Authors. The Accumulation of Freedom: Writings on Anarchist Economics. AK Press. (2012), p. 22
139. ↑ e.g. Hallam, Roger (1995) Anarchist Economics: Building Successful Social Alternatives.
140. ↑ "Towards Anarchism". http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/errico-malatesta-towards-anarchism.
141. ↑ Days of War, Nights of Love (2001), Crimethinc.Workers Collective, ISBN 0-9709101-0-X
142. ↑ "Thus, the classical solution of expressing the value of goods and services in terms of man hours, which was developed by the orthodox (political) economists of the time, was adopted by both Proudhon and Marx." http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/dn/vol6/takis_proudhon.htm "Beyond Marx and Proudhon" by Takis Fotopoulos
143. ↑ "The most basic difference is that the individualist anarchists rooted their ideas in the labour theory of value while the "anarcho"-capitalists favour mainstream marginalist theory." An Anarchist FAQ
144. ↑ "Like Proudhon, they desired a (libertarian) socialist system based on the market but without exploitation and which rested on possession rather than capitalist private property""Are individualist anarchists anti-capitalist?". http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG1. An Anarchist FAQ
145. ↑ "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." He says, "I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property!"Max Stirner, The Ego and his Own p. 248.
146. ↑ Darby Tillis. "An Anarchist FAQ". Infoshop.org. http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionA3.
147. ↑ "Communism is based on free consumption of all while collectivism is more likely to be based on the distribution of goods according to the labour contributed. An Anarchist FAQ
148. ↑ "If a priest is required to get a soul out of purgatory, he sets his price according to the value which the relatives set upon his prayers, instead of their cost to the priest. This, again, is cannibalism. The same amount of labor equally disagreeable, with equal wear and tear, performed by his customers, would be a just remuneration". Warren, Josiah. Equitable Commerce
149. ↑ Warren, Josiah. Equitable Commerce. pp. 77–78.
150. ↑ Riggenbach, Jeff (2011-02-25) Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist, Mises Institute
151. ↑ Georges Sorel in Stuart Isaacs & Chris Sparks, Political Theorists in Context (Routledge, 2004), p. 248. ISBN 0-415-20126-8
152. ↑ Chaplin, Ralph, 1933, The General Strike for Industrial Freedom, p. 6.
153. ↑ Anarchosyndicalism.net: "Why do anarcho-syndicalists oppose participation in statist politics?". http://www.anarchosyndicalism.net/faq/1c.htm.
154. ↑ Ibid: "Why do anarcho-syndicalists oppose participation in statist politics?". http://www.anarchosyndicalism.net/faq/1c.htm.
155. ↑ Iain Mckay, ed (2008). "What types of anarchism are there?". An Anarchist FAQ. Stirling: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6. OCLC 182529204. http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA3.html.
156. ↑ "wage slave". dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/wage slave.
157. ↑ Sandel 1996, p. 184.
158. ↑ Avineri 1968, p. 142.
159. ↑ Fitzhugh 1857.
160. ↑ George 1981, Chapter 15.
161. ↑ "Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 2 of 5". http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con2.html.
162. ↑ Gray, Peter (2 July 2009). "Play Makes Us Human V: Why Hunter-Gatherers' Work is Play". psychologytoday.com. http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedom-learn/200907/play-makes-us-human-v-why-hunter-gatherers-work-is-play.
163. ↑ Graeber 2011.
164. ↑ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labor, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis [3]
165. ↑ Klein 1986.
166. ↑ Foner 1995, p. xix.
167. ↑ Jensen 2002.
168. ↑ Thompson 1966, p. 599.
169. ↑ Thompson 1966, p. 912.
170. ↑ 170.0 170.1 Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
171. ↑ Lazonick 1990, p. 37.
172. ↑ Guerin, Daniel (ed.) No Gods, No Masters, AK Press, vol. 1, p. 62
173. ↑ The General Idea of the Revolution, Pluto Press, pp. 277, 281
174. ↑ 174.0 174.1 Ridley-Duff, R. J. (2009) "Cooperative Social Enterprises: Company Rules, Access to Finance and Management Practice", Social Enterprise Journal, 5(1), forthcoming
175. ↑ ICA (2005) World Declaration on Worker Cooperatives, Approved by the ICA General Assembly in Cartagena, Colombia, 23 September 2005 .
176. ↑ 176.0 176.1 176.2 Bookchin, Murray (3 July 2005). Municipalization: Community Ownership of the Economy. http://libcom.org/library/municipalization-murray-bookchin.
177. ↑ Kevin Carson. The Homebrew Industrial Revolution: A Low‐Overhead Manifesto. BOOSURGE. 2010. p. 274
178. ↑ Anderson, Edwin Robert. 1911. The Income Tax: A Study of the History, Theory and Practice of Income Taxation at Home and Abroad. The MacMillan Company. p. 279
179. ↑ Burton, Richard D. E. 1991. Baudelaire and the Second Republic: Writing and Revolution. Oxford University Press. p. 122
180. ↑ Corkran, John Frazer. 1849. History of the National Constituent Assembly, from May, 1848. Harper & Brothers. p. 275
181. ↑ 181.0 181.1 Martin, Henri, & Alger, Abby Langdon. A Popular History of France from the First Revolution to the Present Time. D. Estes and C.E. Lauria. p. 189
182. ↑ Augello, Massimo M., Luigi, Marco Enrico. 2005. Economists in Parliament in the Liberal Age. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 123
183. ↑ "Suppose that all the producers in the republic, numbering more than ten millions, tax themselves, each one, to the amount of only one per cent of their capital... . Suppose that by means of this tax a bank be founded, in Competition with the Bank (miscalled) of France, discounting and giving credit on mortgages at the rate of one-half of one per cent." Henry Cohen, ed. Proudhon's Solution of the Social Problem. Vanguard Press, 1927. pp 118–19.
184. ↑ Henry Cohen, ed. Proudhon's Solution of the Social Problem. Vanguard Press, 1927. p 46.
185. ↑ Peter Gelderloos. "Anarchy Works".
186. ↑ Cheal, David J (1988). "1. Moral Economy". The Gift Economy. New York: Routledge. pp. 1–19. ISBN 0415006414. https://books.google.com/books?id=o-wNAAAAQAAJ&q=Cheal,+David+J.+'The+Gift+Economy'&pg=PP1. Retrieved 2009-06-18.
187. ↑ Bollier, David. "The Stubborn Vitality of the Gift Economy." Silent Theft: The Private Plunder of Our Common Wealth. First Printing ed. New York: Routledge, 2002. 38–39. Print.
188. ↑ R. Kranton: Reciprocal exchange: a self-sustaining system, American Economic Review, V. 86 (1996), Issue 4 (September), pp. 830–51
189. ↑ Lewis Hyde: The Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Property
190. ↑ Hagstrom, Warren (1982). "Gift giving as an organizing principle in science". In Barry Barnes and David Edge. Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science. MIT Press (Cambridge, Massachusetts).
191. ↑ Mauss, Marcel. 'The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies.' pp. 36–37.
192. ↑ "What is Debt? – An Interview with Economic Anthropologist David Graeber". Naked Capitalism. http://www.nakedcapitalism.com/2011/08/what-is-debt-–-an-interview-with-economic-anthropologist-david-graeber.html.
193. ↑ David Graeber: Debt: The First 5000 Years, Melville 2011. Cf. "A History of Debt". http://www.socialtextjournal.org/reviews/2011/10/review-of-david-graebers-debt.php.
194. ↑ Graeber, David. 'Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value'. pp. 153–54.
195. ↑ McMillian, John Campbell; Buhle, Paul (2003). The new left revisited. Temple University Press. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-1-56639-976-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=U_Ohks41z2IC&pg=PA112. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
196. ↑ Lytle 2006, pp. 213, 215.
197. ↑ "Overview: who were (are) the Diggers?". The Digger Archives. http://www.diggers.org/overview.htm.
198. ↑ Gail Dolgin; Vicente Franco (2007). American Experience: The Summer of Love. PBS. Archived from the original on 2017-03-25. Retrieved 2007-04-23.
199. ↑ Gordon, Uri. Anarchism and Political Theory: Contemporary Problems. The Anarchist Library. http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/uri-gordon-anarchism-and-political-theory-contemporary-problems. Retrieved Aug 27, 2013.
200. ↑ Benkler, Yochai. "Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm". The Yale Law Journal. http://www.yale.edu/yalelj/112/BenklerWEB.pdf.
201. ↑ Terranova, Tiziana "Free Labor: Producing Culture for the Digital Economy" . 07-26-2005
202. ↑ Max Nettlau. "Anarchism: Communist or Individualist? Both".
203. ↑ Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. New York: Monthly Review Press. http://theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html.
204. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter (1927). Anarchist Communism: Its Basis and Principles. http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/petr-kropotkin-anarchist-communism-its-basis-and-principles.
205. ↑ "This leads to the proposal for a new conception of social welfare – the third aim of the paper – which is based on a conception of economic democracy, as an integral part of an inclusive democracy."Welfare State or Economic Democracy? by Takis Fotopoulos
206. ↑ "In any case, "economic democracy" has not simply meant "workplace democracy" and "employee ownership." Many workers, in fact, would like to get away from their factories if they could and find more creative artisanal types of work, not simply "participate" in "planning" their own misery. What "economic democracy" meant in its profoundest sense was free, "democratic" access to the means of life, the counterpart of political democracy, that is, the guarantee of freedom from material want.""Municipalization: Community Ownership of the Economy" by Murray Bookchin
207. ↑ 207.0 207.1 Smith, J. W. (2005). Economic Democracy: The Political Struggle for the 21st century. Radford, Virginia: Institute for Economic Democracy Press. ISBN 1-933567-01-5.
208. ↑ Harvey, David (2010). The Enigma of Capital and the Crises of Capitalism. Oxford [England]; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975871-5.
209. ↑ George, Henry (1912). Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth: The Remedy. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. OCLC 338381.

### Sources

* Avineri, Shlomo (1968). The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09619-5.
* Ellerman, David P. (1992). Property and contract in economics : in case for economic democracy. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1557863096.
* Fitzhugh, George (1857). Cannibals All! or, Slaves Without Masters. Richmond, VA: A. Morris. ISBN 9781429016438. https://books.google.com/books?id=ECdb7EjiBnEC. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
* Foner, Eric (1995). Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509497-8.
* George, Henry (1981). Social problems. New York: Robert Schalkenbach Foundation. ISBN 091131217X.
* Goldman, Emma (2003). Falk, Candace. ed (in en). Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years, Volume One: Made for America, 1890-1901. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08670-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=0IF7CusxuMcC.
* Graeber, David (2011). Debt : the first 5,000 years. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House. ISBN 978-1-933633-86-2. OCLC 426794447. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/426794447.
* –
 (2001). Toward an anthropological theory of value: the false coin of our own dreams. New York: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-312-24044-8. OCLC 46822270. https://monoskop.org/images/3/36/Graeber_David_Toward_an_Anthropological_Theory_of_Value.pdf.
* Hallgrimsdottir, Helga Kristin; Benoit, Cecilia (2007). "From Wage Slaves to Wage Workers: Cultural Opportunity Structures and the Evolution of the Wage Demands of the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor, 1880–1900". Social Forces 85 (3): 1393–411. doi:10.1353/sof.2007.0037.
* Jensen, Derrick (2002). The Culture of Make Believe. New York, NY: Context Books. ISBN 978-1-893956-28-5.
* Klein, Martin A. (1986). "Review: Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725 by Richard Hellie". American Journal of Sociology 92 (2): 505–506. doi:10.1086/228533.
* Kropotkin, Peter The Conquest of Bread (New York: New York University Press).
* Kropotkin, Peter Anarchist Communism: Its Basis and Ideals
* Lazonick, William (1990). Competitive Advantage on the Shop Floor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-15416-2. https://archive.org/details/competitiveadvan0000lazo.
* Lytle, Mark H. (2006), America's Uncivil Wars: The Sixties Era from Elvis to the Fall of Richard Nixon, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-517496-0, https://archive.org/details/americasuncivilw00lytl
* Marx, Karl (1969). Theories of Surplus Value. Moscow: Progress Publishers.
* Ostergaard, Geoffrey (1997). The Tradition of Workers' Control. London: Freedom Press. ISBN 978-0-900384-91-2.
* Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph (1890) (in en). What is Property: An Inquiry Into the Principle of Right and Government. Humboldt Publishing Company. https://books.google.com/books?id=BfYtAAAAIAAJ.
* Sandel, Michael J. (1996). Democracy's discontent : America in search of a public philosophy (1st Harvard University Press paperback ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674197459.
* Diego Abad de Santillán. After the Revolution. http://membres.lycos.fr/anarchives/site/syndic/aftertherevolution.htm.
* Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0685-2.
* Thompson, E. P. (1966). The Making of the English Working Class. New York, NY: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-394-70322-0.

## Further research

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### Anarchist economics bibliography

* Michael Albert; Robin Hahnel. A Quiet Revolution in Welfare Economics. https://zcomm.org/wp-content/uploads/zbooks/www/books/quiet.htm.
* Murray Bookchin, Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1971 and 2004). ISBN 1-904859-06-2
* Kevin A. Carson, The Iron Fist behind the Invisible Hand: Corporate Capitalism As a State-Guaranteed System of Privilege (Nanaimo, BC: Red Lion 2001, revised 2002)
* Kevin A. Carson, Contract Feudalism: A Critique of Employer Power Over Employees (London: Libertarian Alliance 2006)
* Fotopoulos, Takis, Towards An Inclusive Democracy (Online, 11MB) (Cassell/Continuum, London/New York, 1997). ISBN 0-304-33628-9
* Guillen, Abraham. Anarchist Economics: An alternative for a world in crisis. The economics of the Spanish Libertarian Collectives 1936-39 DAM & La Presa. 1992.
* Hahnel, Robin. The ABC's of Political Economy (Pluto, 2002)
* Hahnel, Robin. Economic Justice and Democracy (Routledge, 2005)
* Kropotkin, Peter Fields Factories and Workshops (The Collected Works of Peter Kropotkin, V. 9) (Black Rose Books, 1 January 1996). ISBN 1-895431-38-7
* Leval, Gastón Collectives in the Spanish Revolution (London: Freedom Press). ISBN 0-900384-11-5
* G. P. Maximoff, Program of Anarcho-Syndicalism. (extract from his Constructive Anarchism, published in English in 1952; this section is not included in the only edition of the work now in print.) (Sydney: Monty Miller Press, 1985).
* Proudhon, Pierre, The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty
* Sandel, Michael J. (1998) (in en). Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-19745-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=_KdrTfTxqvgC.
* Solidarity Federation and IWA. The Economics of Freedom: An anarcho-syndicalist alternative to capitalism . SolFed Booklets. 2003
* Various authors. The Accumulation of Freedom: Writings on Anarchist Economics. AK Press. (2012) ISBN 978-1849350945

### Articles

* "Anarchist Economics" by Anarcho
* "The Economics of Anarchy" by Anarcho
* Anarchism and Economics article by Terry Phillips (in favour of a mixed economy)
* Archive of anarchist economic articles at the Anarchist Library
* Anarchist Economics FAQ
* Anarchist Economics compiled by Jon Bekken (overview of the topic with extensive reading lists from Syndicalist.org).
* Open Source Currency – article by Douglas Rushkoff
* The Future of Payment Systems – discussion paper by Bernard Lietaer (the chapter on Complementary Currency Systems starts on page 23)
* Economics Kiosk at Infoshop.org
* Institute for Social Ecology
* Parecon.org – information on participatory economics
* Panarchy About panarchy, voluntarism and aterritorialism
* Anarchist Economics PDF from Invisible Molotov

#### Extensive sections of An Anarchist FAQ on economics

* Section B – Why do anarchists oppose the current system?
* Section C – What are the myths of capitalist economics?
* An Anarchist FAQ – Section D – How does statism and capitalism affect society?
* I.4 How could an anarchist economy function?
* I.3 What could the economic structure of anarchy look like?

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