Austroasiatic languages

Short description: Language family concentrated in Southeast Asia

Not to be confused with Austronesian languages or Afroasiatic languages.

Austroasiatic

Austro-Asiatic
Geographic
distribution| Southeast, South and East Asia
Linguistic classification| One of the world's primary language families
Proto-language| Proto-Austroasiatic
Subdivisions|

* Munda
* Khasi-Palaungic
* Khmuic
* Mang
* Pakanic
* Vietic
* Katuic
* Bahnaric
* Khmer
* Pearic
* Monic
* Aslian
* Nicobarese

ISO 639-5| aav
Glottolog| aust1305 (Austroasiatic)[1]

Austroasiatic languages by branch

Munda

Khasic

Palaungic

Khmuic

Vietic

Katuic

Bahnaric

Khmer

Monic

Aslian

Pearic

Pakanic

Nicobarese

File:AA languages map (with natl' border).svg

Austroasiatic languages

The Austroasiatic languages[note 1] (/ˌɒstroʊ.eɪʒiˈætɪk, ˌɔː-/ (listen) Template:Respelling) are a large language family spoken throughout Mainland Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. These languages are natively spoken by the majority of the population in Vietnam and Cambodia, and by minority populations scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China. Approximately 117 million people speak an Austroasiatic language, of which more than two-thirds are Vietnamese speakers.[2] Of the Austroasiatic languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have lengthy, established presences in the historical record. Only two are presently considered to be the national languages of sovereign states: Vietnamese in Vietnam, and Khmer in Cambodia. The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in Myanmar and Thailand, while the Wa language is a "recognized national language" in the de facto autonomous Wa State within Myanmar. Santali is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. The remainder of the family's languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status.

Ethnologue identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps Shompen, which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth) that have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer,[3] and Munda. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, and Khasi–Khmuic),[4] while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family.[5]

Scholars generally date the ancestral language to c. 3000 BC – c. 2000 BC with a homeland in southern China or the Mekong River valley. Sidwell (2022) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area around c. 2500 BC – c. 2000 BC.[6] Genetic and linguistic research in 2015 about ancient people in East Asia suggest an origin and homeland of Austroasiatic in today's southern China or even further north.[7]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Typology
* 3 Proto-language
* 4 Internal classification
* 4.1 Diffloth (1974)
* 4.2 Peiros (2004)
* 4.3 Diffloth (2005)
* 4.4 Sidwell (2009–2015)
* 4.5 Sidwell (2018)
* 4.6 Possible extinct branches
* 5 Writing systems
* 6 Lexicon
* 6.1 Numerals
* 7 External relations
* 7.1 Austric languages
* 7.2 Hmong-Mien
* 7.3 Indo-Aryan languages
* 8 Austroasiatic migrations and archaeogenetics
* 8.1 Migration into India
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Sources
* 12 Further reading
* 13 External links

## Etymology

The name Austroasiatic was coined by Wilhelm Schmidt (German: austroasiatisch) based on auster, the Latin word for "South" (but idiosyncratically used by Schmidt to refer to the southeast), and "Asia".[8] Despite the literal meaning of its name, only three Austroasiatic branches are actually spoken in South Asia: Khasic, Munda, and Nicobarese.

## Typology

Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by a stressed, full syllable.[9] This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants among the modern languages.[10] As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, and many have infixes, but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches.[11]

The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of pitch register contrast, either between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or between modal voice and creaky voice.[12] Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast.

However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, tonogenesis. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure.

## Proto-language

Main article: Social:Proto-Austroasiatic language

Much work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto's Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary. Little work has been done on the Munda languages, which are poorly documented. Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with the Proto-Austroasiatic language with their demotion from a primary branch. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows:[13]

| Labial  | Alveolar  | Palatal  | Velar  | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|

Plosive  | voiceless | *p | *t | *c | *k | *ʔ
voiced | *b | *d | *ɟ | *ɡ |
implosive | *ɓ | *ɗ | *ʄ |  |
Nasal  | *m | *n | *ɲ | *ŋ |
Liquid  | *w | *l, *r | *j |  |
Fricative  |  | *s |  |  | *h

This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for *ʄ. *ʄ is better preserved in the Katuic languages, which Sidwell has specialized in.

## Internal classification

Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India, and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh and Nepal. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published.

Each family written in boldface below is accepted as a valid clade.[clarification needed] By contrast, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published and, therefore, cannot be evaluated by peer review.

In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra (Diffloth), the Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).[14]

### Diffloth (1974)

Diffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in Encyclopædia Britannica and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in Ethnologue.

* Austro‑Asiatic
* Munda
* North Munda
* Korku
* Kherwarian
* South Munda
* Kharia–Juang
* Koraput Munda
* Mon–Khmer
* Eastern Mon–Khmer
* Khmer (Cambodian)
* Pearic
* Bahnaric
* Katuic
* Vietic (Vietnamese, Muong)
* Northern Mon–Khmer
* Khasi (Meghalaya, India)
* Palaungic
* Khmuic
* Southern Mon–Khmer
* Mon
* Aslian (Malaya)
* Nicobarese (Nicobar Islands)

### Peiros (2004)

Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below.

* Austro‑Asiatic
* Nicobarese
* Munda–Khmer
* Munda
* Mon–Khmer
* Khasi
* Nuclear Mon–Khmer
* Mangic (Mang \+ Palyu) (perhaps in Northern MK)
* Vietic (perhaps in Northern MK)
* Northern Mon–Khmer
* Palaungic
* Khmuic
* Central Mon–Khmer
* Khmer dialects
* Pearic
* Asli-Bahnaric
* Aslian
* Mon–Bahnaric
* Monic
* Katu–Bahnaric
* Katuic
* Bahnaric

### Diffloth (2005)

Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have:

Austro‑Asiatic |  | Munda  |  |  |  |  |

Remo

|

Savara

|  |  |

Kharia–Juang

|

|  |  |

Korku

|

Kherwarian

Khasi–Khmuic  |  |  |  |  |

Khmuic

|

|  |  |

Pakanic

|

Palaungic

Khasian

(Nuclear) Mon–Khmer  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

Vietic

|

?[15] |

Katuic

|  |  |

Bahnaric

|

|  |  |

Khmer

|

Pearic

|  |  |

Nicobarese

|

|  |  |

Aslian

|

Monic

Or in more detail,

* Austro‑Asiatic
* Munda languages (India)
* Koraput: 7 languages
* Core Munda languages
* Kharian–Juang: 2 languages
* North Munda languages
* Korku
* Kherwarian: 12 languages
* Khasi–Khmuic languages (Northern Mon–Khmer)
* Khasian: 3 languages of north eastern India and adjacent region of Bangladesh
* Palaungo-Khmuic languages
* Khmuic: 13 languages of Laos and Thailand
* Palaungo-Pakanic languages
* Pakanic or Palyu: 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam
* Palaungic: 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand
* Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages
* Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer)
* Vieto-Katuic languages ?[15]
* Vietic: 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including Muong and Vietnamese, which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language.
* Katuic: 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand.
* Khmero-Bahnaric languages
* Bahnaric: 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
* Khmeric languages
* The Khmer dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
* Pearic: 6 languages of Cambodia.
* Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer)
* Nicobarese: 6 languages of the Nicobar Islands, a territory of India.
* Asli-Monic languages
* Aslian: 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
* Monic: 2 languages, the Mon language of Burma and the Nyahkur language of Thailand.

### Sidwell (2009-2015)

Paul Sidwell and Roger Blench propose that the Austroasiatic phylum dispersed via the Mekong River drainage basin.

Paul Sidwell (2009), in a lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages that are well known enough to exclude loanwords, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic.

He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic.[16]

If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central Mekong river valley relatively quickly.

Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179)[17] proposed that Nicobarese subgroups with Aslian, just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other.

Austroasiatic: Mon–Khmer

|  |  |

Munda

|

Khasi–Palaungic  |  |  |

Khasian

|

Palaungic

Khmuic

Mang[note 2]

Pakanic

Vietic

Katuic

Bahnaric

Khmer

Pearic

Aslian–Monic  |  |  |

Monic

|

Aslian

|  |  |

Nicobarese

|

?Shompen

A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis (Sidwell 2015b)[18] suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. However, he still considers the subbranching dubious.

Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c)[19] further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into Indochina from the Lingnan area of southern China, with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China.

Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the Neolithic transition era of mainland Southeast Asia, with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the Pearl River watershed of Lingnan, which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the Mekong River via Yunnan.[19] Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and millet, kept livestock such as dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments.[19]

At 4,500 B.P., this "Neolithic package" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P.[19] However, Sidwell (2015c) found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages.

During the Iron Age about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as Vietic, Katuic, Pearic, and Khmer were formed, while the more internally diverse Bahnaric branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification.[19] By the Iron Age, all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age.[19]

Paul Sidwell (2018)[20] considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructible in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum.

Roger Blench (2017)[21] suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern Indochina (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years ago (2,000 BC), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P.[21]

Sidwell (2022)[6][22] proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area about 4,000-4,500 years before present, instead of the Middle Mekong as he had previously proposed. Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through river valleys. Khmuic, Palaungic, and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came from the Red River valley. Based on their current distributions, about half of all Austroasiatic branches (including Nicobaric and Munda) can be traced to coastal maritime dispersals.

Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to Sino-Tibetan, whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan.[21]

### Sidwell (2018)

Sidwell (2018)[23] (quoted in Sidwell 2021[24]) gives a more nested classification of Austroasiatic branches as suggested by his computational phylogenetic analysis of Austroasiatic languages using a 200-word list. Many of the tentative groupings are likely linkages. Pakanic and Shompen were not included.

Austroasiatic  |  | Eastern  |  |  |  |  |

Bahnaric

|

Vietic–Katuic  |  |  |

Vietic

|

Katuic

|  |  |

Khmeric

|

Pearic

Mang

Northern  |  |  |

Khmuic

|

Khasi–Palaungic  |  |  |

Khasian

|

Palaungic

Monic

Southern  |  |  |

Nicobarese

|

Aslian

Munda

### Possible extinct branches

Roger Blench (2009)[25] also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on substrate evidence in modern-day languages.

* Pre-Chamic languages (the languages of coastal Vietnam before the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006, 2007).[26][27] Larish (1999)[28] also notes that Moklenic languages contain many Austroasiatic loanwords, some of which are similar to the ones found in Chamic.
* Acehnese substratum (Sidwell 2006).[26] Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words might have been borrowed from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam – or perhaps a combination of both. Sidwell (2006) argues that Acehnese and Chamic had often borrowed Austroasiatic words independently of each other, while some Austroasiatic words can be traced back to Proto-Aceh-Chamic. Sidwell (2006) accepts that Acehnese and Chamic are related, but that they had separated from each other before Chamic had borrowed most of its Austroasiatic lexicon.
* Bornean substrate languages (Blench 2010).[29] Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as Land Dayak (Bidayuh, Dayak Bakatiq, etc.), Dusunic (Central Dusun, Visayan, etc.), Kayan, and Kenyah, noting especially resemblances with Aslian. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. Adelaar (1995)[30] has also noticed phonological and lexical similarities between Land Dayak and Aslian. Kaufman (2018) presents dozens of lexical comparisons showing similarities between various Bornean and Austroasiatic languages.[31]
* Lepcha substratum ("Rongic").[32] Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in Lepcha, suggesting a Sino-Tibetan superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch "Rongic" based on the Lepcha autonym Róng.

Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are:

* Jiamao, based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a Hlai language (Thurgood 1992).[33] Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary in relation to other Hlai languages.
* Kerinci: van Reijn (1974)[34] notes that Kerinci, a Malayic language of central Sumatra, shares many phonological similarities with Austroasiatic languages, such as sesquisyllabic word structure and vowel inventory.

John Peterson (2017)[35] suggests that "pre-Munda" (early languages related to Proto-Munda) languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not.

## Writing systems

Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the Khmer, Thai, Lao, and Burmese alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages.

* Chữ Nôm (Used until got replaced by Chữ Quốc ngữ (Vietnamese Latin Alphabet) in the 20th century)[36]
* Khmer alphabet[37]
* Khom script (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos)
* Old Mon script
* Mon script
* Pahawh Hmong was once used to write Khmu, under the name "Pahawh Khmu"
* Tai Le (Palaung, Blang)
* Tai Tham (Blang)
* Ol Chiki alphabet (Santali alphabet)[38]
* Mundari Bani (Mundari alphabet)
* Warang Citi (Ho alphabet)[39]
* Ol Onal (Bhumij alphabet)
* Sorang Sompeng alphabet (Sora alphabet)[40]

## Lexicon

### Numerals

Austroasiatic numerals[41] gloss  | Santali  | Korku  | Gtaʔ  | Sora  | Bugan | Bolyu | U | Mon | Bahnar  | Viet | Ruc  | Khmer | Amwi  | Semelai  | Mlabri

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

"one" | mitˀ | miyaˀ | mwiŋ | mi- | mə⁵⁵ | mə³³ | mò | mwaj | muːɲ | một | moic⁵ | muəj | mi | muj | mɔj
"two" | bar | bari | mbar | bagu | bi³¹ | mbi⁵⁵ | ʔá | baː | ɓaːr | hai | haːl¹ | pìː | ʔɨ̃ | duwaʔ | bær
"three" | pɛ | apʰai | ndʒi | jagi | pt͡se³¹ | paːi⁵⁵ | wáj | peːŋ | pɔeʔ | ba | paː¹ | baj | lɛ | hmpeʔ | pɛʔ
"four" | pon | upun | õ | undʒi | pau³³ | puːn⁵³ | pʰón | pɔn | pwan | bốn | poːn³ | buan | sia | hmpon | pon
"five" | mɔɽɛ̃ | monoi | malwe | mɔnlɔj | mi³³ | me³¹ | sàt | pəsɔn | pəɗam | năm | dam¹ | pram | san | msɔŋ | thɤɤŋ
"six" | tərui | turu | tur | tudru | pio³³ | pju⁵³ | ntʰò | karaɔ | tədrəw | sáu | ʃraːw³ | – | tʰrəw | pruʔ | thaal
"seven" | eae | ei | gu | guldʒi | pou³¹ | pei⁵⁵ | mpʰùn | hapɔh | təpəh | bảy | paj⁶ | – | hntʰlɛ | tmpɔh | gul
"eight" | iral | ilar | tma | tamdʒi | sã³³ | saːm⁵³ | tʰà | həcam | təhŋaːm | tám | tʰaːm³ | – | hnpʔũ | – | tiiʔ
"nine" | arɛ | are | sõtiŋ | tindʒi | ɕi³¹ | ɕən⁵³ | tʰìp | həcit | təsin | chín | ɕiːn³ | – | hnʃʔɛ | – | gaːjh
"ten" | gɛl | gel | gwa | gəlzi | ʑu³¹ | maːn¹³ | tshò | cɔh | ɟit | mười | mɯəj² | – | ʃipʰua | – | gal

## External relations

### Austric languages

Main article: Social:Austric languages

Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial Austric hypothesis, which also includes the Austronesian languages, and in some proposals also the Kra–Dai languages and the Hmong–Mien languages.[42]

### Hmong-Mien

Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951). This could imply a relation or early language contact along the Yangtze.[43]

According to Cai (et al. 2011), Hmong–Mien people are genetically related to Austroasiatic speakers, and their languages were heavily influenced by Sino-Tibetan, especially Tibeto-Burman languages.[44]

### Indo-Aryan languages

It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including Sanskrit and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as Hindi, Punjabi and Bengali were borrowed from Munda languages. Additionally, French linguist Jean Przyluski suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of Matsyagandha (Satyavati from Mahabharata) and the Nāgas.[45]

## Austroasiatic migrations and archaeogenetics

Mitsuru Sakitani suggests that Haplogroup O1b1, which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in southern China, and haplogroup O1b2, which is common in today's Japanese and Koreans, are the carriers of early rice agriculture from southern China.[46] Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the "para-Austroasiatic" lineage of the Koreans and Yayoi people.[47]

The Austroasiatic migration route began earlier than the Austronesian expansion, but later migrations of Austronesians resulted in the assimilation of the pre-Austronesian Austroasiatic populations.

A full genomic study by Lipson et al. (2018) identified a characteristic lineage that can be associated with the spread of Austroasiatic languages in Southeast Asia and that can be traced back to remains of Neolithic farmers from Mán Bạc (c. 2000 BCE) in the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam, and to closely related Ban Chiang and Vat Komnou remains in Thailand and Cambodia respectively. This Austroasiatic lineage can be modeled as a sister group of the Austronesian peoples with significant admixture (ca. 30%) from a deeply diverging eastern Eurasian source (modeled by the authors as sharing some genetic drift with the Onge, a modern Andamanese hunter-gatherer group), and which is ancestral to modern Austroasiatic-speaking groups of Southeast Asia such as the Mlabri and the Nicobarese, and partially to the Austroasiatic Munda-speaking groups of South Asia (e.g. the Juang). Significant levels of Austroasiatic ancestry were also found in Austronesian-speaking groups of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.[48][note 3]

Liu et al. (2020) models present Austroasiatic groups from Mainland Southeast Asia as an admixture of Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers and ancestral East Asians associated with the Neolithic farming expansion. Austroasiatic groups cluster with each other except for Kinh Vietnamese and Muong, who share more drift with Tai-Kadai and Hmong-Mien groups.[50] However, there is evidence of local Austroasiatic input in the Kinh Vietnamese genome.[51][52] Austroasiatic groups from Southern China, such as the Wa and Blang in Yunnan, predominantly carry the same Mainland Southeast Asian Neolithic farmer ancestry but with additional geneflow from northern and southern East Asian lineages, indicating Tibeto-Burman and Kra-Dai influence respectively.[53]

Huang et al. (2020) suggests the 'core Austroasiatic' population may possibly have been present in Southwest China, who derive most of their ancestry from Mekong Neolithic (58.0%–75.2%) instead of Late Neolithic Fujian, which is more common for the 'core Austronesian' population. Austroasiatic-related ancestry is widespread in Mainland Southeast Asians and Hmong-Mien groups from Southern China but for the latter, there is evidence of Kra-Dai admixture, which increases in groups that live further east. This admixture is also present in Mainland Southeast Asians. Yangshao culture-related populations, who contributed to the ancestries of present Sino-Tibetan populations, likewise derive their southern East Asian ancestry from Mekong Neolithic (32.2 ± 5.9%).[54][55]

According to Kim et al. (2020), Mán Bạc populations constitute the basal ancestry for most populations from Eastern Siberia and Eastern Asia, including Korea, Japan, China and Austroasiatic-speaking groups from Southeast Asia. Populations carrying both Mán Bạc and Devil's Gate genomes admixed throughout these regions until the Neolithic period, which is probably accompanied by climate change and barriers.[56]

According to Mishra et al. (2024), modern Nicobarese have the highest 'ancestral Austroasiatic' ancestry. This genetic component is found in Austroasiatic populations from South Asia and Southeast Asia.[57] Another study from 2024, Ahlawat et. al., found that the Austroasiatic tribes — Ho, Bathudi, Bhumij and Mahali from the eastern Indian state of Odisha do not exhibit substantial West Eurasian mtDNA unlike the Dravidian-speaking groups from southern India, and cluster closely with the other Austroasiatic populations of South Asia.[58]

Wang et al. (2025) states that present Austroasiatic groups are genetically similar to ancient Central Yunnan populations, represented by the Late Neolithic Xingyi individual. This individual has a closer genetic relationship with the Northern East Asian Boshan and the Southern East Asian Qihe3 but is distinct from them. They do not exhibit Basal Asian Xingyi ancestry, which is found in ancient Tibetans, suggesting significant demographic replacement. Alternatively, Central Yunnan populations mediated the expansion of proto-Austroasiatic ancestry in Southeast Asia and Northeast India. Regardless, Wang et al. concludes that Central Yunnan populations have ancestry that is found in present Austroasiatic groups, as well as ancient populations from Vietnam and Laos about 4000 to 3000 years ago (i.e. Vt_G2 and La_G2). Proto-Austroasiatic populations are also likely to have diverged from other East Eurasian populations about 19,000 years ago.[59]

Yin et al. (2026) states that modern Austroasiatic-speaking populations have different affinities to ancient Mainland Southeast Asian populations from various time periods. For example, modern Eastern Mon-Khmer (e.g. Katuic, Khmeric, Pearic) and Southern Monic speakers have close affinities with Neolithic Hon Hai Co Tien and Tam Pa Ling populations, who have substantial Hoabinhian ancestry. Northern Mon-Khmer (e.g. Khmuic, Mang, Palaungic) speakers, in contrast, have close affinities with Iron Age Mainland Southeast Asian populations. Vietic (Viet-Muong) speakers are likewise cladal with Iron Age and Historical Mainland Southeast Asian populations. South Asian admixture in Austroasiatic groups dates back to 800 and 1100 years ago and peaks in Monic, Eastern Mon-Khmer and Northern Mon-Khmer groups, especially Khmuic groups. However, an earlier admixture date is detected although it's likely that it's due to input from a diverged lineage that's broadly connected to South Asians, East Asians and Southeast Asians. [60]

### Migration into India

According to Chaubey et al., "Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations."[61] According to Riccio et al., the Munda peoples are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia.[62]

## Notes

1. ↑ Sometimes also Austro-Asiatic or Austroasian
2. ↑ Earlier classifications by Sidwell had lumped Mang and Pakanic together into a Mangic subgroup, but Sidwell currently considers Mang and Pakanic to each be independent branches of Austroasiatic.
3. ↑ Austroasiatic-related ancestry had been detected before also in other ethnic groups of the Sunda Islands (e.g. Javanese, Sundanese, and Manggarai).[49]

## References

1. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Austroasiatic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/aust1305.
2. ↑ "Austroasiatic" (in en). http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Austroasiatic.html.
3. ↑ Bradley (2012) notes, MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic.
4. ↑ Diffloth 2005
5. ↑ Sidwell 2009
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Sidwell, Paul (28 January 2022). Alves, Mark. ed. "Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society: Papers from the 30th Conference of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (2021) 15 (3): 95–111. doi:10.5281/zenodo.5773247. ISSN 1836-6821. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52498. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
7. ↑ Zhang, Xiaoming; Liao, Shiyu; Qi, Xuebin; Liu, Jiewei; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Zhang, Hui; Yang, Zhaohui; Serey, Bun et al. (20 October 2015). Y-chromosome diversity suggests southern origin and Paleolithic backwave migration of Austro- Asiatic speakers from eastern Asia to the Indian subcontinent OPEN. 5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283080042.
8. ↑ Schmidt, Wilhelm (1906). "Die Mon–Khmer-Völker, ein Bindeglied zwischen Völkern Zentralasiens und Austronesiens ('[The Mon–Khmer Peoples, a Link between the Peoples of Central Asia and Austronesia')". Archiv für Anthropologie 5: 59–109.
9. ↑ Alves 2014, p. 524.
10. ↑ Alves 2014, p. 526.
11. ↑ Alves 2014, 2015
12. ↑ Diffloth, Gérard (1989). "Proto-Austroasiatic creaky voice."
13. ↑ Sidwell (2005), p. 196.
14. ↑ Roger Blench, 2009\. Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic? Presentation at ICAAL-4, Bangkok, 29–30 October. Summarized in Sidwell and Blench (2011).
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Sidwell (2005) casts doubt on Diffloth's Vieto-Katuic hypothesis, saying that the evidence is ambiguous, and that it is not clear where Katuic belongs in the family.
16. ↑ Sidwell, Paul, and Roger Blench. 2011. "The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis ." Enfield, NJ (ed.) Dynamics of Human Diversity, 317–345. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
17. ↑ Sidwell, Paul. 2015a. "Austroasiatic classification." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill.
18. ↑ Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the Austroasiatic languages . Presented at Diversity Linguistics: Retrospect and Prospect, 1–3 May 2015 (Leipzig, Germany), Closing conference of the Department of Linguistics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 Sidwell, Paul. 2015c. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
20. ↑ Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held 17–19 May 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Blench, Roger. 2017. Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic . Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.
22. ↑ Sidwell, Paul. 2021. Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended . SEALS 2021 . (Video)
23. ↑ Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon . Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Kaohsiung, Taiwan. (accessed 16 December 2020).
24. ↑ Sidwell, Paul (9 August 2021). "Classification of MSEA Austroasiatic languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 179–206. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-011. ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2.
25. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2009. "Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic? ."
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Sidwell, Paul. 2006. "Dating the Separation of Acehnese and Chamic By Etymological Analysis of the Aceh-Chamic Lexicon ." In The Mon-Khmer Studies, 36: 187–206.
27. ↑ Sidwell, Paul. 2007. "The Mon-Khmer Substrate in Chamic: Chamic, Bahnaric and Katuic Contact ." In SEALS XII Papers from the 12th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2002, edited by Ratree Wayland et al.. Canberra, Australia, 113-128. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University.
28. ↑ Larish, Michael David. 1999. The Position of Moken and Moklen Within the Austronesian Language Family. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
29. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2010. "Was there an Austroasiatic Presence in Island Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian Expansion? " In Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, Vol. 30.
30. ↑ Adelaar, K.A. 1995. Borneo as a cross-roads for comparative Austronesian linguistics . In P. Bellwood, J.J. Fox and D. Tryon (eds.), The Austronesians, pp. 81-102. Canberra: Australian National University.
31. ↑ Kaufman, Daniel. 2018. Between mainland and island Southeast Asia: Evidence for a Mon-Khmer presence in Borneo. Ronald and Janette Gatty Lecture Series. Kahin Center for Advanced Research on Southeast Asia, Cornell University. (handout / slides )
32. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2013. Rongic: a vanished branch of Austroasiatic . m.s.
33. ↑ Thurgood, Graham. 1992. "The aberrancy of the Jiamao dialect of Hlai: speculation on its origins and history ". In Ratliff, Martha S. and Schiller, E. (eds.), Papers from the First Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, 417–433. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies.
34. ↑ van Reijn, E. O. (1974). "Some Remarks on the Dialects of North Kerintji: A link with Mon-Khmer Languages." Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 31, 2: 130–138. JSTOR 41492089.
35. ↑ Peterson, John (2017). "The prehistorical spread of Austro-Asiatic in South Asia ". Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.
36. ↑ "Vietnamese Chu Nom script". Omniglot.com. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chunom.htm.
37. ↑ "Khmer/Cambodian alphabet, pronunciation and language". Omniglot.com. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm.
38. ↑ "Santali alphabet, pronunciation and language". Omniglot.com. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/santali.htm.
39. ↑ Everson, Michael (19 April 2012). "N4259: Final proposal for encoding the Warang Citi script in the SMP of the UCS". https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12118-n4259-warang-citi.pdf.
40. ↑ "Sorang Sompeng script". Omniglot.com. 18 June 1936. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sorangsompeng.htm.
41. ↑ Sidwell, Paul (2011). "The Austroasiatic numerals '1' to '10' from a historical and typological perspective". Numeral Types and Changes Worldwide. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 253–272. ISBN 978-3110811193.
42. ↑ Reid, Lawrence A. (2009). "Austric Hypothesis". in Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah. Concise Encyclopaedia of Languages of the World. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 92–94.
43. ↑ Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1951. Introduction à la phonologie historique des langues miao-yao [An introduction to the historical phonology of the Miao-Yao languages]. Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient 44(2). 555–576.
44. ↑ Consortium, the Genographic; Li, Hui; Jin, Li; Huang, Xingqiu; Li, Shilin; Wang, Chuanchao; Wei, Lanhai; Lu, Yan et al. (31 August 2011). "Human Migration through Bottlenecks from Southeast Asia into East Asia during Last Glacial Maximum Revealed by Y Chromosomes" (in en). PLOS ONE 6 (8). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024282. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 21904623. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...624282C.
45. ↑ Lévi, Sylvain; Przyluski, Jean; Bloch, Jules (1993). Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India. Asian Educational Services. p. 4,15. ISBN 978-81-206-0772-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
46. ↑ 崎谷満『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』（勉誠出版 2009年）
47. ↑ Robbeets, Martine; Savelyev, Alexander (21 December 2017) (in en). Language Dispersal Beyond Farming. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6464-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z5BDwAAQBAJ&q=japonic+austroasiatic&pg=PA207. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
48. ↑ "Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory". Science 361 (6397): 92–95. 2018. doi:10.1126/science.aat3188. PMID 29773666. Bibcode: 2018Sci...361...92L.
49. ↑ Lipson, Mark; Loh, Po-Ru; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Ko, Ying-Chin; Stoneking, Mark; Berger, Bonnie; Reich, David (19 August 2014). "Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia". Nature Communications 5. doi:10.1038/ncomms5689. PMID 25137359. Bibcode: 2014NatCo...5.4689L.
50. ↑ Liu, Dang; Duong, Nguyen Thuy; Ton, Nguyen Dang et al. (2020). "Extensive Ethnolinguistic Diversity in Vietnam Reflects Multiple Sources of Genetic Diversity". Molecular Biology and Evolution 37 (9): 2503–2519. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa099. PMID 32344428. PMC 7475039. https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/37/9/2503/5821431.
51. ↑ Pischedda, S.; Barral-Arca, R.; Gómez-Carballa, A. et al. (2017). "Phylogeographic and genome-wide investigations of Vietnam ethnic groups reveal signatures of complex historical demographic movements". Scientific Reports 7 (12630): 12630. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-12813-6. PMID 28974757. Bibcode: 2017NatSR...712630P.
52. ↑ Kampuansai, Jatupol; Wongkomonched, Rattanasak; Kutanan, Wibhu et al. (2023). "Genetic diversity and ancestry of the Khmuic-speaking ethnic groups in Thailand: a genome-wide perspective". Scientific Reports 13 (15710). doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43060-7. PMID 37735611. Bibcode: 2023NatSR..1315710K. "A genome-wide autosomal study involving approximately 55,000 SNPs has elucidated the genetic element of Khmuic-related ancestry (as exemplified by Htin and Mlabri) within the Kinh, the predominant ethnic group in Vietnam. The admixture of Chinese and Southeast Asian lineages, particularly the Proto-Malay and Khmuic residences, has likely played a significant role in shaping the present-day Vietnamese population.".
53. ↑ Guo, Jianxin; Wang, Weitao; Zhao, Kai; Li, Guangxing; He, Guanglin; Zhao, Jing; Yang, Xiaomin; Chen, Jinwen et al. (2022). "Genomic insights into Neolithic farming-related migrations in the junction of east and southeast Asia" (in en). American Journal of Biological Anthropology 177 (2): 328–342. doi:10.1002/ajpa.24434. ISSN 2692-7691. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.24434. Retrieved 5 January 2022. "In our study, we found the sharing of a large amount of ancestry (>50%) among the Vietnam Late Neolithic ancients, Wa_L and Blang_X, indicating the Yunnan Austroasiatic populations had been influenced both linguistically and genetically by the expansion of Austroasiatic groups from mainland SEA.".
54. ↑ Huang, Xiufeng; Xia, Zi-Yang; Bin, Xiaoyun; et al. (2020). "Genomic Insights into the Demographic History of Southern Chinese". bioRxiv 10.1101/2020.11.08.373225.
55. ↑ Kampuansai, Jatupol; Seetaraso, Tanapon; Dansawan, Maneesawan et al. (2024). "Under the name of "Lua": revisiting genetic heterogeneity and population ancestry of Austroasiatic speakers in northern Thailand through genomic analysis". BMC Genomics 25 (956). doi:10.1186/s12864-024-10865-3. PMID 39402436.
56. ↑ Kim, Jungeun; Jeon, Sungwon; Choi, Jae-Pil et al. (2020). "The Origin and Composition of Korean Ethnicity Analyzed by Ancient and Present-Day Genome Sequences". Genome Biology and Evolution 12 (5): 553–565. doi:10.1093/gbe/evaa062. PMID 32219389.
57. ↑ Mishra, Rahul Kumar; Singh, Prajjval Pratap; Rai, Niraj et al. (2024). "Reconstructing the population history of the Nicobarese". European Journal of Human Genetics: 1–7. doi:10.1038/s41431-024-01720-w. PMID 39639149. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-024-01720-w.
58. ↑ Ahlawat, Bhavna; Dewangan, Hemlata; Pasupuleti, Nagarjuna et al. (2024). "Investigating linguistic and genetic shifts in East Indian tribal groups". Heliyon 10 (14). doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34354. PMID 39082022. Bibcode: 2024Heliy..1034354A.
59. ↑ Wang, Tianyi; Yang, Melinda A.; Zhu, Zhonghua et al. (2025). "Prehistoric genomes from Yunnan reveal ancestry related to Tibetans and Austroasiatic speakers". Science 388 (6750). doi:10.1126/science.adq9792. PMID 40440384. Bibcode: 2025Sci...388q9792W. https://hal.science/hal-05093879v1/file/Wang.aDNA_Yunnan.Science.pdf.
60. ↑ Yin, Zi; Gupta, Yash Munnalal; Prakhun, Nonglak et al. (2026). "Exploring the genomic population structure and history of Austroasiatic speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia". Communications Biology 9 (300). https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-09471-0#Sec9.
61. ↑ Chaubey et al. 2010, p. 1013.
62. ↑ Riccio, M. E. (2011). "The Austroasiatic Munda population from India and Its enigmatic origin: a HLA diversity study". Human Biology 83 (3): 405–435. doi:10.3378/027.083.0306. PMID 21740156.

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* Alves, Mark J. (2014). "Mon-Khmer". The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 520–544.
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## Further reading

* Sidwell, Paul, ed (2021). The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110558142. ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2. https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/205815/1/10.1515_9783110558142-fm.pdf.
* Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families. Chiang Mai: Payap University.
* Mason, Francis (1854). "The Talaing Language". Journal of the American Oriental Society 4: 277, 279–288.
* Sidwell, Paul (2013). "Issues in Austroasiatic Classification". Language and Linguistics Compass 7 (8): 437–457. doi:10.1111/lnc3.12038.
* Sidwell, Paul. 2016. Bibliography of Austroasiatic linguistics and related resources .
* E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press.
* Gregory D. S. Anderson and Norman H. Zide. 2002. Issues in Proto-Munda and Proto-Austroasiatic Nominal Derivation: The Bimoraic Constraint. In Marlys A. Macken (ed.) Papers from the 10th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, South East Asian Studies Program, Monograph Series Press. pp. 55–74.

## External links

* Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
* Mon–Khmer.com Lectures by Paul Sidwell
* Mon–Khmer Languages Project at SEAlang
* Munda Languages Project at SEAlang
* RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
* RWAAI Digital Archive
* Michel Ferlus's recordings of Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) languages (CNRS)

* v
* t
* e

Austroasiatic languages

Bahnaric|

| North|

* Jeh
* Halang
* Kayong
* Kaco’
* Takua
* Monom
* Todrah
* Sedang
* Rengao
* Hrê
* Duan
* Katua

|

West|

* Lavi
* Jru'
* Laven
* Su'
* Juk
* Nyaheun
* Sapuan
* Oi
* Brao

Central|

* Alak
* Tariang
* Tampuan
* Bahnar

| South|

* Chrau
* Koho
* Stieng
* Ra’ong
* Mnong
* Mel-Khaonh
* Thmon

|

East|

* Cua

Katuic|

* Katu
* Phuong
* Bru
* Kuy
* Pacoh
* Ta'Oi

Vietic|

| Viet-Muong|

* Vietnamese
* Mường
* Nguồn

|

Cuoi|

* Cuoi

Chutic|

* Thavưng
* Chứt
* Arem
* Maleng
* Kri

Khmuic|

* Khmu
* Mlabri
* Phai
* Mal
* Ksingmul
* O’du
* Phray
* Phong
* Khao

Palaungic|

* Danau
* Palaung
* Riang
* Lamet
* Kiorr
* Kuan
* Tai Loi

| Angkuic|

* Hu
* U
* Man Met
* Mok
* Muak Sa-aak
* Va

|

Waic|

* Blang
* Lawa
* Wa
* Meung Yum
* Savaiq

Bit-Khang|

* Bit
* Quang Lam
* Kháng
* Bumang

Khasic|

* Khasi
* Pnar
* War
* Lyngngam

Mangic|

* Mang
* Bolyu
* Bugan

Khmeric|

* Khmer
* Northern Khmer
* Western Khmer
* Khmer Khe

Pearic|

* Pear
* Suoi
* Saoch
* Western Chong
* Central Chong (Samre)
* Somray (Samre of Siem Reap)
* Kasong

Monic|

* Mon
* Nyah Kur

Aslian|

| Jahaic|

* Cheq Wong
* Batek
* Jahai
* Jedek
* Minriq
* Mintil
* Kintaq
* Kensiu
* Ten'edn
* Wila'

|

Senoic|

* Semai
* Temiar
* Lanoh
* Sabüm
* Semnam

Jah Hut|

* Jah Hut

Semelaic|

* Temoq
* Semelai
* Semaq Beri
* Mah Meri

(unclassified)|

* Kenaboi

Nicobarese|

* Car
* Chaura
* Teressa
* Central Nicobarese
* Nancowry
* Camorta
* Katchal
* Southern Nicobarese
* Shompen?

Munda|

| North|

* Korku
* Korwa
* Santali
* Turi
* Birhor
* Mundari
* Ho
* Koda
* Kol
* Asur
* Birjia
* Agariya
* Majhwar

|

South|

* Kharia
* Juang
* Gta’
* Bonda
* Gutob
* Gorum
* Sora
* Juray
* Lodhi

Proto-languages|

* Proto-Austroasiatic
* Proto-Palaungic
* Proto-Khmeric
* Proto-Aslian

* v
* t
* e

Primary language families

Africa|

* Afroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Khoe–Kwadi
* Kx'a
* Niger–Congo
* Nilo-Saharan?
* Tuu
* Mande?
* Songhay?
* Ijaw?
* Ubangian?
* Kadu?

| Isolates|

* Bangime
* Hadza
* Jalaa
* Sandawe
* Laal?
* Shabo?

|

Europe
and Asia|

* Afroasiatic
* Ainu
* Austroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Dravidian
* Eskimo–Aleut
* Great Andamanese
* Hmong–Mien
* Hurro-Urartian
* Indo-European
* Japonic
* Kartvelian
* Koreanic
* Kra–Dai
* Mongolic
* Nivkh
* Northeast Caucasian
* Northwest Caucasian
* Ongan
* Sino-Tibetan
* Tungusic
* Turkic
* Tyrsenian
* Uralic
* Yeniseian
* Yukaghir
* Digaro?
* Hrusish?
* Kho-Bwa?
* Miju?
* Siangic?

| Isolates|

* Basque
* Burushaski
* Elamite
* Hattic
* Kusunda
* Nihali
* Sumerian

|

New Guinea
and the Pacific|

* Arai–Samaia
* Austronesian
* Binanderean–Goilalan
* Border
* Bulaka River
* Central Solomons
* Chimbu–Wahgi
* Doso–Turumsa
* East Geelvink Bay
* East New Britain
* East Strickland
* Eleman
* Engan
* Fas
* Kaure–Kosare
* Kiwaian
* Kutubuan
* Kwomtari
* Lakes Plain
* Lower Mamberamo
* Lower Sepik
* Madang
* Mairasi
* North Bougainville
* Pauwasi
* Ramu
* Senagi
* Sentani
* Sepik
* Skou
* South Bougainville
* Teberan
* Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
* Torricelli
* Trans-Fly
* Trans–New Guinea
* Turama–Kikorian
* Upper Yuat
* West Papuan
* Yam
* Yawa
* Yuat
* Northwest Papuan?
* Papuan Gulf?

| Isolates|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Anêm?
* Ata?
* Kol
* Kuot
* Maybrat
* Mpur
* Porome
* Taiap?
* Pawaia
* Porome
* Sulka?
* Tambora
* Wiru

|

Australia|

* Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan?
* Bunuban
* Darwin Region?
* Eastern Daly
* Eastern Tasmanian
* Garawan
* Iwaidjan
* Jarrakan
* Marrku–Wurrugu?
* Mirndi
* Northern Tasmanian
* Northeastern Tasmanian
* Nyulnyulan
* Pama–Nyungan
* Southern Daly?
* Tangkic
* Wagaydyic
* Western Daly
* Western Tasmanian
* Worrorran
* Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?

| Isolates|

* Giimbiyu
* Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?)
* Tiwi

|

North
America|

* Algic
* Alsea
* Caddoan
* Chimakuan
* Chinookan
* Chumashan
* Comecrudan
* Coosan
* Eskimo–Aleut
* Iroquoian
* Kalapuyan
* Keresan
* Maiduan
* Muskogean
* Na-Dene
* Palaihnihan
* Plateau Penutian
* Pomoan
* Salishan
* Shastan
* Siouan
* Tanoan
* Tsimshianic
* Utian
* Uto-Aztecan
* Wakashan
* Wintuan
* Yukian
* Yuman–Cochimí

| Isolates|

* Chimariko
* Esselen
* Haida
* Karuk
* Kutenai
* Seri
* Siuslaw
* Takelma
* Timucua
* Waikuri
* Washo
* Yana
* Yokuts
* Yuchi
* Zuni

|

Mesoamerica|

* Chibchan
* Jicaquean
* Lencan
* Mayan
* Misumalpan
* Mixe–Zoque
* Oto-Manguean
* Tequistlatecan
* Totonacan
* Uto-Aztecan
* Xincan

| Isolates|

* Cuitlatec
* Huave
* Tarascan/Purépecha

|

South
America|

* Andoque–Urequena
* Arauan
* Araucanian
* Arawakan
* Arutani–Sape
* Aymaran
* Barbacoan
* Boran
* Cahuapanan
* Cariban
* Catacaoan
* Chapacuran
* Charruan
* Chibchan
* Choco
* Chonan
* Guaicuruan
* Guajiboan
* Harákmbut–Katukinan
* Jirajaran
* Jivaroan
* Katembri–Taruma
* Mascoian
* Matacoan
* Nadahup
* Nambikwaran
* Otomákoan
* Pano-Tacanan
* Peba–Yaguan
* Quechuan
* Piaroa–Saliban
* Ticuna–Yuri
* Timotean
* Tiniguan
* Tucanoan
* Tupian
* Uru–Chipaya
* Witotoan
* Yanomaman
* Zamucoan
* Zaparoan
* Bora–Witoto languages?
* Chimuan?
* Esmeralda–Yaruro?
* Hibito–Cholón?
* Lule–Vilela?
* Macro-Jê?
* Tequiraca–Canichana?

| Isolates
(extant in 2000)|

* Aikanã?
* Alacalufan
* Camsá
* Candoshi
* Chimane
* Chiquitano
* Cofán?
* Fulniô
* Guató
* Hodï/Joti
* Irantxe?
* Itonama
* Kunza
* Leco
* Maku-Auari of Roraima
* Movima
* Mura-Pirahã
* Nukak?
* Puinave
* Huaorani/Waorani
* Trumai
* Urarina
* Warao
* Yamana
* Yuracaré

|

Sign languages|

* Arab
* BANZSL
* Chinese
* Francosign
* Germanosign
* Indo-Pakistani
* Japanese
* Original Thai
* Swedish
* Tanzanian?

| Isolates|

* See list of sign languages

|

See also|

* Language isolates
* Unclassified languages
* Creoles
* Pidgins
* Mixed languages
* Artificial languages

* Families in italics have no living members.
* Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

* v
* t
* e

Language families of Eurasia

Europe|

* Indo-European
* Uralic
* Basque
* Iberian
* Tartessian
* Paleo-Corsican
* Paleo-Sardinian
* Camunic
* Elymian
* Ligurian
* North Picene
* Sicani
* Tyrsenian
* Eteocretan
* Eteocypriot
* Minoan

West Asia|

* Afroasiatic
* Hurro-Urartian
* Hattic
* Kassite ?
* Kaskian ?
* Philistine ?
* Sumerian
* Proto-Euphratean ?
* Elamite

Caucasian|

* Kartvelian
* Northeast Caucasian
* Northwest Caucasian

South Asia|

* Indo-European
* Dravidian
* Nihali
* Burushaski
* Kusunda
* Harappan ?

East Asia|

* Austroasiatic
* Sino-Tibetan
* Hmong–Mien
* Kra–Dai
* Austronesian
* Japonic

Indian Ocean rim|

* Great Andamanese
* Ongan
* Kenaboi
* Enggano

North Asia|

| Altaic ?|

* Turkic
* Mongolic
* Tungusic
* Koreanic ?
* Japonic ?

|

"Paleosiberian"|

* Koreanic
* Ainu
* Nivkh
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Yukaghir
* Yeniseian

Other North Asia|

* Uralic
* Ruanruan ?
* Eskimo–Aleut

Proposed groupings|

* Alarodian
* Altaic
* Borean
* Nostratic
* Dené–Caucasian
* Eurasiatic
* Dené–Yeniseian
* Dravido-Korean
* Elamo-Dravidian
* Ibero-Caucasian
* Indo-Hittite
* Indo-Pacific
* Indo-Semitic
* Indo-Uralic
* Pontic
* Karasuk
* Turanian
* Eskimo–Uralic
* Ural–Altaic
* Uralic–Yukaghir
* Uralo-Siberian

| Arunachal|

* Greater Siangic
* Siangic
* Digaro
* Miju
* Hrusish
* Kho-Bwa

|

Southeast Asia|

* Andamanese
* Austric
* Austro-Tai
* Austronesian–Ongan
* East Asian
* Sino-Austronesian

Substrata|

* Atlantic
* Pre-Celtic
* Pre-Germanic
* Pre-Goidelic
* Pre-Greek
* Vasconic
* Pre-Vedic
* Pre-Finno-Ugric

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austroasiatic languages. Read more

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