Class discrimination

Short description: Discrimination on the basis of social class

Class discrimination, also known as classism, is prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies and practices that are set up to benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class.[1] Social class refers to the grouping of individuals in a hierarchy based on wealth, income, education, occupation, and social network.

Studies show an intersection between class discrimination and racism and sexism.[2] In countries such as India, Singapore, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, classism intersects with casteism and continues to be reinforced even within their diasporic communities, despite being illegal in the host countries where they reside.[3][4][5] Legislation shows efforts to reduce such intersections and classism at an individual level.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Intersections with other systems of oppression
* 3 Institutional versus personal classism
* 4 Structural positions
* 5 Media representation
* 6 Legislation
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links

## History

Class structures existed in a simplified form in pre-agricultural societies, but it has evolved into a more complex and established structure following the establishment of permanent agriculture-based civilizations with a food surplus.[6]

Segregation into classes was accomplished through observable traits (such as race or profession) that were accorded varying statuses and privileges.[7] Feudal classification systems might include merchant, serf, peasant, warrior, priestly, and noble classes.[8] Rankings were far from invariant with the merchant class in Europe outranking the peasantry, while merchants were explicitly inferior to peasants during the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan. Other prominent forms of classism include India's caste system, where caste and class often intersected and caused discrimination against certain peoples.[9] Discrimination against the poor in Western cultures spans back to early America, with many of the people who were sent to the Colonies being poor. Those who were sent over to the Colonies either became indentured servants or nomadic "squatters"; their impoverished status, with the intersectionality of classism and racism, resulted in their consideration as "not quite white", leading to discrimination further on from both North and South.[10]

Modern classism, with less rigid class structures, is harder to identify. In a professional association posting, psychologist Thomas Fuller-Rowell states, "Experiences of [class] discrimination are often subtle rather than blatant, and the exact reason for unfair treatment is often not clear to the victim."[11]

## Intersections with other systems of oppression

Both gender and racial inequality intersect with class discrimination, influencing economic opportunities and social mobility for marginalized groups.[12]

Class discrimination and gender inequality intersect by shaping economic disparities that disproportionately affect women, particularly those in lower-income groups.[13] Research indicates that women are more likely to be employed in low-wage and part-time jobs, limiting their financial security and career advancement opportunities.[14] Occupational segregation, where women are overrepresented in sectors such as caregiving and retail, contributes to persistent wage gaps.[15] For example, as of 2022, Black women make up 6% of employed workers but are 32% of home aids, where they earn on average $23,803 per year.[16] Women constitute nearly two-thirds of workers in the 20 occupations with the lowest median wages for full-time, year-round employees.[17]Template:AI-retrieved source Additionally, economic barriers can exacerbate gender inequality in access to education and leadership positions, reinforcing systemic disadvantages.[18]

Similarly, the intersection of class and racial discrimination manifests in economic disparities that disproportionately impact racial and ethnic minorities.[19] Studies show that historical and structural barriers, including discriminatory labor policies and unequal access to education, contribute to income inequality among marginalized groups.[20] Racial minorities are more likely to experience employment precarity and wage suppression, leading to reduced economic mobility compared to their white counterparts.[21]Template:AI-retrieved source

Furthermore, racism persists within poor communities, including those with predominantly Black populations.[22] This is often characterized as symbolic racism, where negative stereotypes associate Black individuals with social threats or anti-normative behavior (e.g., involvement in drugs or robbery), which is used to justify social exclusion.[22] This form of racism can exist even among people of similar low socioeconomic status, suggesting it may stem from symbolic competition and social categorization rather than solely from direct competition for economic resources.[22] Poverty itself functions as a discriminatory label, often intertwined with perceptions of social class and skin color. Individuals identified as beneficiaries of social policies (a marker of low-income status) report experiencing discrimination from non-beneficiaries.[22] Individuals experiencing poverty may face various forms of discrimination but might not always identify racism as the specific cause, especially when dealing with multiple overlapping disadvantages. Both explicit and subtle forms of racism are reported.[22]

The sociocultural self model of behavior explains that individuals are shaped by the social environment around them, which constantly impacts their behavior. This model demonstrates how social class directly betters or worsens the physical and mental health of an individual.[23]

## Institutional versus personal classism

The term classism can refer to personal prejudice (an individual's inclination to judge or treat others negatively based on their own rigid beliefs or emotions rather than objective evidence or critical reflection[24]) against lower classes as well as to institutional classism (the ways in which intentional and unintentional classism is manifest in the various institutions of our society[25]). Similarly, the term racism can refer either strictly to personal prejudice or to institutional racism. The latter has been defined as "the ways in which conscious or unconscious classism is manifest in the various institutions of our society".[26]

As with social classes, the difference in social status between people determines how they behave toward each other and the prejudices they likely hold toward each other. People of higher status do not generally mix with lower-status people and often are able to control other people's activities by influencing laws and social standards.[27]

The term "interpersonal" is sometimes used in place of "personal" as in "institutional classism (versus) interpersonal classism"[28] and terms such as "attitude" or "attitudinal" may replace "interpersonal" as contrasting with institutional classism as in the Association of Magazine Media's definition of classism as "any attitude or institutional practice which subordinates people due to income, occupation, education and/or their economic condition".[29]

Classism is also sometimes broken down into more than two categories as in "personal, institutional and cultural" classism.[30] It is common knowledge in sociolinguistics that meta-social language abounds in lower registers, thus the slang for various classes or racial castes.

## Structural positions

Schüssler Fiorenza describes interdependent "stratifications of gender, race, class, religion, heterosexualism, and age" as structural positions[31] assigned at birth. She suggests that people inhabit several positions, and that positions with privilege become nodal points through which other positions are experienced. For example, in a context where gender is the primary privileged position (e.g. patriarchy, matriarchy), gender becomes the nodal point through which sexuality, race, and class are experienced. In a context where class is the primary privileged position (i.e. classism), gender and race are experienced through class dynamics. Fiorenza stresses that kyriarchy is not a hierarchical system, as it does not focus on one point of domination. Instead, it is described as a "complex pyramidal system" with those on the bottom of the pyramid experiencing the "full power of kyriarchal oppression". The kyriarchy is recognized as the status quo, and therefore, its oppressive structures may not be recognized.[31][32]

Building on this, Deborah King's concept of multiple jeopardy[33] provides further insight into how these oppressions interact in multiplicative rather than merely additive ways. King argues that intersecting systems of race, gender, and class discrimination do not simply add up to a triple burden but rather compound and intensify each other, creating unique conditions of subjugation. Thus, in the kyriarchal system, positions of oppression do not act independently but rather reinforce one another in specific, context-dependent ways. For instance, while Black women historically endured both racial and gendered violence, they also suffered from exploitation tied to class dynamics, with their labor and reproduction contributing directly to economic structures of enslavement. The importance of any one axis (e.g., race, class, or gender) in determining conditions for marginalized individuals varies according to context, further highlighting the nuanced and contextually bound nature of oppression.

To maintain this system, kyriarchy relies on the creation of a servant class, race, gender, or people. The position of this class is reinforced through "education, socialization, and brute violence and malestream rationalization".[31] Tēraudkalns suggests that these structures of oppression are self-sustained by internalized oppression; those with relative power tend to remain in power, while those without tend to remain disenfranchised.[34] In addition, structures of oppression amplify and feed into each other,[32] intensifying and altering the forms of discrimination experienced by those in different social positions.

In the UAE, Western workers and local nationals are given better treatment or are preferred,[35] illustrating how institutional biases based on class and nationality create compounded disadvantages for other groups. This layered and compounding nature of oppression supports King's argument that intersecting systems of discrimination operate together, reinforcing complex patterns of privilege and subjugation.

## Media representation

Class discrimination can be seen in many different forms of media such as television shows, films and social media.

Classism is also systemic,[36] and its implications can go unnoticed in the media that is consumed by society. Class discrimination in the media displays the knowledge of what people feel and think about classism. When seeing class discrimination in films and television shows, people are influenced and believe that is how things are in real life, for whatever class is being displayed. Children can be exposed to class discrimination through movies, with a large pool of high-grossing G-rated movies portraying classism in various contexts.[37] Children may develop biases at a young age that shape their beliefs throughout their lifetime, which would demonstrate the issues with class discrimination being prevalent in the media.[38]

Media has a big influence on the world today, in which something such as classism can be seen in many different lights. Media plays an important role in how certain groups of people are perceived, which can make certain biases stronger.[39] Usually, the lower income people are displayed in the media as dirty, lacking education and manners, and homeless.[40] People can use the media to learn more about different social classes[41] or to influence others on what they believe, through social media.[42] In some cases, people who are in a social class that is portrayed negatively by the media are affected in school and social life like "teenagers who grew up in poverty reported higher levels of discrimination, and the poorer the teens were, the more they experienced discrimination".[43]

However, within media analysis, class as a specific variable is often less emphasized than race or gender.[44] Media itself frequently lacks clear definitions for class categories, sometimes conflating the working class with the broader middle class.[44] Complex issues pertinent to the working class tend to be underreported unless linked to specific news beats like crime or major crises.[44] The poor often experience "benign neglect" in media, frequently being represented as impersonal statistics rather than individuals.[44] When depicted individually, portrayals can be negative, emphasizing stereotypes related to deviance (alcoholism, drug abuse, crime, mental illness) or dependency, often without addressing underlying structural issues. More sympathetic framing tends to be reserved for specific demographics (children, elderly, physically ill) or situations (holidays, disasters).[44] Research cited indicates a tendency to overrepresent African Americans in negative poverty narratives.[44]

When not ignored, the working class is often subjected to stereotypical and caricatured representations.[44] Common tropes include the working-class man as a buffoon (incompetent, immature, needing guidance from a more sensible wife) or a bigot, prevalent in many television sitcoms (e.g., The Honeymooners, All in the Family, The Simpsons).[44] Derogatory labels associated with lower-class status, such as "white trash," are sometimes used or amplified by media coverage.[44] Working-class women might be depicted as lacking refinement or violating middle-class standards of femininity.[44]

## Legislation

There are legislative measures that aim to prevent discrimination and ensure equal opportunities for all individuals, regardless of class background.[45] Several laws protect individuals from discrimination based on race, gender, religion, and national origin, indirectly addressing class disparities.[45]

Policies such as the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA), is a U.S. federal law that establishes labor standards for employees, primarily focusing on minimum wage, overtime pay, child labor, and recordkeeping.[45] The FLSA was originally designed as a tool to reduce class inequality.[46] Employers are set to pay a minimum wage, which has changed over time. With an increase from $5.85 to $7.25 per hours in stages, taking place from 2007 to 2009. However, employees working more than 40 hours per week must receive overtime pay at 1.5 times their regular pay rate.[45]

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA) aimed to eliminate gender-based disparities by mandating equal pay for equal work.[47]Template:AI-retrieved source However, the EPA did not include provisions for a living wage or broader labor protections, leaving many workers earning wages insufficient to meet basic living standards.[47]

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 removes discrimination in employment opportunity on the basis of "race, color, religion, sex, and national origin".[48] It covers all determinations within employment, including hiring and termination. It also prohibits grouping employees in such a way that might deprive potential hires of employment, or may negatively influence their statuses as employees.[49]

The European Convention on Human Rights, also includes protections against discrimination, including on the basis of social class.[50] Specifically, Article 14 of the Convention prohibits discrimination on a variety of grounds, including "social origin," which is interpreted to encompass class background.[50]

The Earned Income Tax Credit is described as a program for families of the working poor earning below a specified income threshold.[51] An article, citing a 2000 IRS source related to earned income, reports that in 1997, this program lost $7.8 billion due to factors identified as "fraud and errors".[51] It further states that these funds, which could have benefited the working poor, were consequently unavailable to them due to mismanagement and theft.[51]

## See also

* Apartheid
* Baby Scoop Era
* Caste system
* Class conflict
* Class consciousness
* Debtors' prison
* Economic inequality
* Economic stratification
* Elitism
* Forced adoption
* Keeping Up Appearances
* Legacy preferences
* Marxism
* Populism
* Racial discrimination
* Rankism
* Social inequality

## References

1. ↑ Kadi, Joanna (1996). Thinking Class. South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-548-1. https://archive.org/details/thinkingclassske00kadi.
2. ↑ "Sexism and Racism Linked to Personality". 9 November 2011. https://www.livescience.com/16961-sexism-racism-linked-personality.html.
3. ↑ "Big Tech's big problem is also its 'best-kept secret': Caste discrimination" (in en). 2022-06-23. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/big-techs-big-problem-also-best-kept-secret-caste-discrimination-rcna33692.
4. ↑ "Casteism and Classism" (in en-US). https://grassrootsasians.org/updates/casteism-and-classism.
5. ↑ Chan, Cheryl (2014-01-09). "India banned the caste system 60 years ago, but it lives on for many in Metro Vancouver". https://theprovince.com/news/racism/india-banned-the-caste-system-60-years-ago-but-it-lives-on-for-many-in-metro-vancouver.
6. ↑ Peter N. Stearns (Narrator). A Brief History of the World Course No. 8080 [Audio CD]. The Teaching Company.
7. ↑ Young, Serinity; Katie Cannon (1999). Serinity Young. ed (Print). Encyclopedia of Women and World Religion. Macmillan. p. 181. ISBN 0028648609. https://books.google.com/books?id=RYgYAAAAIAAJ.
8. ↑ Brown, Elizabeth A. R. (1974). "The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe". The American Historical Review 79 (4): 1063–1088. doi:10.2307/1869563. ISSN 0002-8762. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1869563.
9. ↑ Sana, Arunoday (1993-01-01). "The Caste System in India and Its Consequences". International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 13 (3/4): 1–76. doi:10.1108/eb013170. ISSN 0144-333X. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/eb013170/full/html.
10. ↑ Peterman, Danieli Evans (2018). "Socioeconomic Status Discrimination". Virginia Law Review 104 (7): 1283–1357. ISSN 0042-6601. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26790710.
11. ↑ "Social-Class Discrimination Contributes to Poorer Health". Association of Psychological Science. 18 June 2012. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/social-class-discrimination-contributes-to-poorer-health.html.
12. ↑ Scheurich, James Joseph; Mason, Madeline (October 2024). "An Intersectionality-Based Research Framework and Methodology That Emphasizes Systemic Inequities in Public Schooling, Including Racism, Sexism, and Classism" (in en). Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies 24 (5): 319–330. doi:10.1177/15327086241254815. ISSN 1532-7086. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15327086241254815.
13. ↑ Chan, Jenny (September 2023). "Class, labour conflict, and workers' organisation" (in en). The Economic and Labour Relations Review 34 (3): 383–394. doi:10.1017/elr.2023.41. ISSN 1838-2673. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1035304623000418/type/journal_article.
14. ↑ Beauregard, Katrine (2018-07-03). "Partisanship and the gender gap: support for gender quotas in Australia" (in en). Australian Journal of Political Science 53 (3): 290–319. doi:10.1080/10361146.2018.1449802. ISSN 1036-1146. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10361146.2018.1449802.
15. ↑ Blau, Francine D.; Brummund, Peter; Liu, Albert Yung-Hsu (2013-04-01). "Trends in Occupational Segregation by Gender 1970–2009: Adjusting for the Impact of Changes in the Occupational Coding System" (in en). Demography 50 (2): 471–492. doi:10.1007/s13524-012-0151-7. ISSN 0070-3370. PMID 23055237. https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/50/2/471/169671/Trends-in-Occupational-Segregation-by-Gender-1970.
16. ↑ "Occupational Segregation in America" (in en). 2022-03-29. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/occupational-segregation-in-america/#two-tables.
17. ↑ Ockerman, Emma (2023-03-14). "Women are overrepresented in lower-paying jobs. It's costing them billions." (in EN-US). https://www.marketwatch.com/story/women-are-overrepresented-in-lower-paying-jobs-its-costing-them-billions-of-dollars-ab234f8?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
18. ↑ Uhlaner, Carole Jean; Scola, Becki (June 2016). "Collective Representation as a Mobilizer: Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Their Intersections at the State Level" (in en). State Politics & Policy Quarterly 16 (2): 227–263. doi:10.1177/1532440015603576. ISSN 1532-4400. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1532440000003868/type/journal_article.
19. ↑ Karlsen, Saffron; Nazroo, James Y. (April 2002). "Relation Between Racial Discrimination, Social Class, and Health Among Ethnic Minority Groups" (in en). American Journal of Public Health 92 (4): 624–631. doi:10.2105/AJPH.92.4.624. ISSN 0090-0036. PMID 11919063.
20. ↑ Roscigno, Vincent J.; Williams, Lisa M.; Byron, Reginald A. (May 2012). "Workplace Racial Discrimination and Middle Class Vulnerability" (in en). American Behavioral Scientist 56 (5): 696–710. doi:10.1177/0002764211433805. ISSN 0002-7642. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764211433805.
21. ↑ "Racial Inequality in the United States" (in en). 2025-02-08. https://home.treasury.gov/news/featured-stories/racial-inequality-in-the-united-states?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Gomez, Cristina (2018-11-05). "Racism and Gender Intersections Among Poor Urban Families The Role Of Inclusive Policies". Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 5 (10). https://journals.scholarpublishing.org/index.php/ASSRJ/article/view/5483.
23. ↑ Stephens, Nicole M.; Markus, Hazel Rose; Fryberg, Stephanie A. (2012). "Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior." (in en). Psychological Review 119 (4): 723–744. doi:10.1037/a0029028. ISSN 1939-1471. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0029028.
24. ↑ "Psychology Helps Explain Why People Are Prejudiced - Center for Public Interest Communications" (in en-US). 2016-06-23. https://realgoodcenter.jou.ufl.edu/researchinsights/why-people-are-prejudiced/.
25. ↑ Congressional Hunger Center, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: Sage Publications, Inc., 2006, doi:10.4135/9781412939607.n139, ISBN 978-1-4129-1807-7, http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412939607.n139, retrieved 2024-11-03
26. ↑ "Classism Definitions". https://gustavus.edu/reslife/documents/Classism.doc.
27. ↑ "Social Class Prejudice". https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/social-class-prejudice.
28. ↑ Langhout, Regina Day; Rosselli, Francine; Feinstein, Jonathan (Winter 2007), "Assessing Classism in Academic Settings", The Review of Higher Education 30 (2): 145–184, doi:10.1353/rhe.2006.0073, https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/review_of_higher_education/v030/30.2langhout.html
29. ↑ "Glossary".
30. ↑ Adams, Maurianne; Bell, Lee Anne; Griffin, Pat, eds (2007). Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-415-95199-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OI-5SlHR9PMC.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth (2009). "Introduction: Exploring the Intersections of Race, Gender, Status and Ethnicity in Early Christian Studies". in Nasrallah, Laura; Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. Prejudice and Christian beginnings: investigating race, gender, and ethnicity in early Christian studies. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1451412840. https://books.google.com/books?id=u7XoAi3VfOEC.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Reed-Bouley, Jennifer (Spring 2012). "Antiracist Theological Education as a Site of Struggle for Justice". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 28: 178–189. doi:10.2979/jfemistudreli.28.1.178.
33. ↑ King, Deborah K. (1988). "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of a Black Feminist Ideology". Signs 14 (1): 42–72. doi:10.1086/494491. ISSN 0097-9740. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3174661.
34. ↑ Tēraudkalns, Valdis (2003). "Construction of Masculinities in Contemporary Christianity". in Cimdiņa, Ausma. Religion and political change in Europe: past and present. PLUS. pp. 223–232. ISBN 8884921414.
35. ↑ "'Western workers favoured in UAE', survey respondents say" (in en). 18 April 2015. https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/western-workers-favoured-in-uae-survey-respondents-say-1.21895.
36. ↑ Gamble, Matt (10 February 2018). "Classism: America's Overlooked Problem". https://www.therutgersreview.com/2018/02/10/classism-americas-overlooked-problem/.
37. ↑ Streib, Jessi (18 April 2016). "Class Inequality in Children's Movies". https://classism.org/class-inequality-in-childrens-movies/.
38. ↑ Suttie, Jill. "How Adults Communicate Bias to Children". https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_adults_communicate_bias_to_children.
39. ↑ Burke, Krista. "Media Portrayal of Individuals in the Lower Class". https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1162&context=comssp.
40. ↑ "Portrayal of Minorities in the Film, Media and Entertainment Industries". https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/poverty_prejudice/mediarace/portrayal.htm.
41. ↑ "Race & Ethnicity". http://www.criticalmediaproject.org/cml/topicbackground/race-ethnicity/.
42. ↑ "Classism, Accountability, and Social Media". https://blogs.harvard.edu/andresmh/2013/04/classism-accountability-and-social-media/.
43. ↑ "Social-class discrimination contributes to poorer health". http://www.med.wisc.edu/news-events/social-class-discrimination-contributes-to-poorer-health/38020.
44. ↑ 44.00 44.01 44.02 44.03 44.04 44.05 44.06 44.07 44.08 44.09 Moller, S. (2008-03-01). "Framing Class: Media Representations of Wealth and Poverty in America By Diana Kendall Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 288 pages. $75 (cloth), $24.95 (paper)". Social Forces 86 (3): 1347–1349. doi:10.1353/sof.0.0016. ISSN 0037-7732. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.0.0016.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 "The Fair Labor Standards Act Of 1938, As Amended". https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/WHD/legacy/files/FairLaborStandAct.pdf.
46. ↑ Andrias, Kate (31 January 2019). "An American Approach to Social Democracy: The Forgotten Promise of the Fair Labor Standards Act". https://www.yalelawjournal.org/article/an-american-approach-to-social-democracy.
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Swift, Jayne (2023-06-20). "Equal Pay and Substantive Economic Citizenship" (in en-US). https://genderpolicyreport.umn.edu/equal-pay-and-substantive-economic-citizenship/?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
48. ↑ "Protections Against Discrimination and Other Prohibited Practices" (in en). 2013-07-16. https://www.ftc.gov/policy-notices/no-fear-act/protections-against-discrimination.
49. ↑ "Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964" (in en). https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/title-vii-civil-rights-act-1964.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 European Convention on Human Rights as amended by Protocols Nos. 11, 14 and 15, supplemented by Protocols Nos. 1, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13 and 16
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 De Hon, Jacqueline (2002). "Identifying Links-of-Discrimination Related to Race, Gender, and Class". Race, Gender & Class 9 (3): 139–158. ISSN 1082-8354. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41675036.

## Further reading

* Bowker, Geoffrey C., and Susan Leigh Star. Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences. MIT Press, 1999.
* Capuano, Angelo. "Giving Meaning to 'Social Origin' in International Labour Organization ('ILO') Conventions, the Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth) and the Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986 (Cth): 'Class' Discrimination and Its Relevance to the Australian Context". http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/UNSWLawJl/2016/3.pdf. (2016) 39(1) University of New South Wales Law Journal 84. SSRN 2771056
* A People's History of the United States by Howard Zinn.
* Hill, Marcia, and Esther Rothblum. Classism and Feminist Therapy: Counting Costs. New York: Haworth Press, 1996.
* hooks, bell. Where we stand: class matters. New York & London: Routledge, 2000.
* Gans, Herbert. The War Against the Poor, 1996.
* Homan, Jacqueline S. Classism For Dimwits. Pennsylvania: Elf Books, 2007/2009.
* Packard, Vance. Status Seekers, 1959.
* Beegle, Donna M. See Poverty - Be the Difference, 2009.
* Leondar-Wright, Betsy. Class Matters: Cross-Class Alliance Building for Middle-Class Activists: New Society Publishers, 2005.

## External links

* "People Like Us" at PBS
* Class Action

* v
* t
* e

Discrimination

General forms|

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Color
* Disability
* Genotype
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Looks
* Mental condition
* Race / Ethnicity / Nationality
* Rank
* Religion
* Sex
* Sexual orientation
* Size
* Species

Social|

* Acephobia
* AIDS stigma
* Adultism
* Amatonormativity
* Anti-albinism
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Antisemitism (Judeophobia)
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Clannism
* Cronyism
* Drug use
* Elitism
* Ephebiphobia
* Fatism
* Gerontophobia
* Heteronormativity
* Heterosexism
* Homophobia
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Nepotism
* Pedophobia
* Pregnancy
* Reverse
* Sectarianism
* Sexism
* Shadeism
* Supremacism
* Black
* White
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophobia

Religious|

* Ahmadiyya
* Atheism
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* Buddhism
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* Modern
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* Persecution
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* Islam
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* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Neopaganism
* Eastern Orthodox
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* Rastafarianism
* Protestantism
* Shia
* Sufism
* Zoroastrianism

Ethnic/National|

* Albanian
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* Polish
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* Quebec
* Romani
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* Scottish
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* Slav
* Soviet
* Thai
* Turks
* Ukrainian
* Vietnamese
* Western

Manifestations|

* Animal cruelty
* Animal industrial complex
* Animal testing
* Blood libel
* Blood sport
* Bullying
* Carnism
* Compulsory sterilization
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Democide
* Disability hate crime
* Educational
* Economic
* Eliminationism
* Employment
* Enemy of the people
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Genital mutilation
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Group libel
* Hate crime
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Indian rolling
* LGBT hate crime
* Lavender scare
* Lynching
* Meat eating
* Mortgage
* Murder music
* Occupational segregation
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Purge
* Race war
* Red Scare
* Religious persecution
* Scapegoating
* Segregation academy
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slavery
* Slut-shaming
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* White power music
* Wife selling
* Witch-hunt

Discriminatory
policies|

* Segregation
* age
* racial
* religious
* sexual
* Age of candidacy
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Crime of apartheid
* Disabilities
* Jewish
* Catholic
* Ethnocracy
* Ethnopluralism
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Jim Crow laws
* Law for Protection of the Nation
* McCarthyism
* MSM blood donor controversy
* Nonpersons
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* Nuremberg Laws
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* State atheism
* State religion
* Sodomy law
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression

Countermeasures|

* Affirmative action
* Animal rights
* Anti-discrimination law
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Human rights
* Intersex rights
* LGBT rights
* Masculism
* Multiculturalism
* Nonviolence
* Racial integration
* Reclaimed word
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Toleration
* Vegetarianism
* Veganism

Related topics|

* Allophilia
* Anthropocentrism
* Anti-cultural sentiment
* Assimilation
* Bias
* Christian privilege
* Data discrimination
* Dehumanization
* Diversity
* Ethnic penalty
* Eugenics
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Madonna–whore complex
* Male privilege
* Masculism
* Medical model of disability
* autism
* Multiculturalism
* Neurodiversity
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Political correctness
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Racial bias in criminal news
* Racism by country
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social exclusion
* Social model of disability
* Social stigma
* Stereotype
* threat
* White privilege

* Category

* v
* t
* e

* Social class

* Status
* Stratum

| Theories|

* Gilbert model
* Marxian
* Mudsill theory
* New class
* Spoon class theory
* Weberian (three-component)

|

Related​ topics|

* Caste
* Chattering classes
* Class conflict
* Class discrimination
* Classicide
* Classless society
* Euthenics
* Nouveau riche / Parvenu
* Poverty
* Ranked society
* Snobbery
* Social cleansing
* Social exclusion
* Social mobility
* Social orphan
* Social position
* Social stigma
* Subaltern

By demographic

| By status|

* Administrative detainee
* Alien
* illegal immigrant
* refugee
* Citizen
* dual or multiple
* native-born
* naturalized
* second-class
* Convicted
* Migrant worker
* Political prisoner
* Stateless
* Clique
* Adolescent

|

By "collar"|

* Blue
* Green
* Grey
* New
* Pink
* White

By type|

| Ruling|

* Aristocracy
* Hanseaten
* Patrician
* Political
* Royal family

|

Intellectual|

* Clergy
* Knowledge worker
* Professor

Warrior|

* Harii
* Kshatriya
* Yadav
* Nair
* Chhetri
* Cossacks
* Hashashin
* Knight
* Vanniyar
* Samurai
* Cuāuh
* Ocēlōtl
* Spartiate

Upper|

* Bourgeoisie
* Business magnate
* Elite
* Gentry
* Lord
* Nobility
* Old money
* Overclass
* Robber baron
* Russian oligarch
* Seigneur
* Superclass

Creative|

* Bohemians

Middle|

* Lower middle class
* Upper middle class
* Bourgeoisie
* Petite bourgeoisie

Working|

* Working poor
* Proletariat
* Lumpenproletariat

Under|

* Commoner
* Outcast
* Outlaw / Prisoner
* Peasant / Serf
* Plebeian
* Slave
* Untouchable

By country or region

| United States|

* Affluence
* American Dream
* Conflict
* History
* Mobility

Classes|

* Upper
* Black
* Donor
* Gentry
* Middle
* Black
* Mexican-American
* Upper Middle
* Lower
* Under

Income|

* Household
* Inequality
* Personal
* Poverty

Standard of living|

* Education
* Homelessness
* Home-ownership
* Wealth

Other regions​ or countries|

* Africa
* Cambodia
* China
* Colombia
* Ecuador
* France
* Haiti
* India
* Iran
* Italy
* Nepal
* New Zealand
* Romania
* Sri Lanka
* Tibet
* United Kingdom
* United States

Historic|

* Ancient Greece
* Ancient Rome
* Aztec
* Ottoman Empire
* Soviet Union
* Pre-industrial East Asia
* Pre-industrial Europe

* Category

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class discrimination. Read more

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