Colonialism

Colonialism is the practice of extending and maintaining political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a territory and its people by another people in pursuit of interests defined in an often distant metropole, who also claim superiority.[1][2][3][4] While frequently an imperialist project, colonialism functions through differentiating between the targeted land and people, and that of the colonizers (a critical component of colonization). Rather than annexation,[5] this typically culminates in organizing the colonized into colonies separate to the colonizers' metropole.[6][2] Colonialism sometimes deepens by developing settler colonialism, whereby settlers from one or multiple colonizing metropoles occupy a territory with the intention of partially or completely supplanting the existing Indigenous peoples, possibly amounting to genocide.[6][7]: 2 [8]

Colonialism monopolizes power by understanding conquered land and people to be inferior, based on beliefs of entitlement and superiority, justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission. These beliefs and the actual colonization establish a so-called coloniality,[9][10][11] which keeps the colonized socio-economically othered and subaltern through modern biopolitics of sexuality, gender, race, disability, and class, among others, resulting in intersectional violence and discrimination.[12][13]

While different forms of colonialism have existed around the world, the concept has been developed as a description of European colonial empires of the modern era. These spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I.[14] European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies, and established complex colonialities.

Decolonization, which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975.[15][16] Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development,[17][18][19] regime types,[20][21] and state capacity.[22][23] Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period.[24][25]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Definitions
* 3 Types of colonialism
* 4 Examples
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links
* 7.1 Versus imperialism
* 8 Socio-cultural evolution
* 9 History
* 9.1 Antiquity
* 9.2 Medieval
* 9.3 Modern
* 9.4 20th century
* 9.4.1 World War I
* 9.4.2 Interwar years
* 9.4.3 World War II
* 9.4.4 Post-WWII decolonization
* 9.5 Contemporary
* 10 Impact
* 10.1 Economy, trade and commerce
* 10.2 Slavery and indentured servitude
* 10.3 Military innovation
* 10.4 End of empire
* 10.5 Post-independence population movement
* 10.6 Introduced diseases
* 10.6.1 Countering disease
* 11 Botany
* 12 Geography
* 12.1 Ocean and space
* 13 Marxism
* 14 Liberalism and capitalism
* 15 Race and gender
* 16 Othering
* 17 Post-colonialism
* 18 Migrations
* 19 Examples
* 20 See also
* 21 References
* 22 External links
* 23 See also
* 24 References
* 25 Sources
* 26 Further reading
* 27 Examples
* 28 See also
* 29 References
* 30 External links
* 30.1 Primary sources
* 31 External links

## Etymology

See also: Colonization § Etymology

Colonialism is etymologically derived from the Latin term colonia, originally a designation for a type of city or outpost that was founded and populated by newly settled Roman citizens at the direction of the Roman government. The word colonia is then in turn derived from the Latin word colonus ("farmer") and its root word colere ("to cultivate, to till").[3][26]

## Definitions

The East Offering its Riches to Britannia, painted by Spiridione Roma for the boardroom of the British East India Company

The earliest uses of colonialism referred to plantations that men emigrated to and settled. The term expanded its meaning in the early 20th century to act as a historical reference for European imperial expansion and the imperialist subjection of Asian and African peoples, while also serving as a paradigm for analysing the form of rule. Defining colonialism became necessary for the international anti-colonial movement, and it was discussed in the 1955 Bandung Conference and the contexts it applied to disputed. The concept entered the forefront of academia in the late 20th century, followed by the development of postcolonialism.[27]

Collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as "the practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources to increase its own power and wealth".[28] Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defined colonialism as "the policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories".[29] The online Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers several definitions: "domination of a people or area by a foreign state or nation", "the practice of extending and maintaining a nation's political and economic control over another people or area" and "the policy of or belief in acquiring and retaining colonies".[30]

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy defines it as "a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another" and uses the term "to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia". It discusses the distinction between colonialism, imperialism, and conquest and states that "[t]he difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is often used as a synonym for imperialism. Both colonialism and imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe economically and strategically".[3]

In his preface to Jürgen Osterhammel's Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Roger Tignor says "For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence."[31] In the book, Osterhammel asks, "How can 'colonialism' be defined independently from 'colony?'"[32] He settles on a three-sentence definition:

> Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous (or forcibly imported) majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonised people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis. Rejecting cultural compromises with the colonised population, the colonisers are convinced of their own superiority and their ordained mandate to rule.[2]

According to Julian Go, "Colonialism refers to the direct political control of a society and its people by a foreign ruling state... The ruling state monopolizes political power and keeps the subordinated society and its people in a legally inferior position."[9] He also writes, "colonialism depends first and foremost upon the declaration of sovereignty and/or territorial seizure by a core state over another territory and its inhabitants who are classified as inferior subjects rather than equal citizens."[10]

Australian historian Lorenzo Veracini defines colonialism as the establishment and maintenance of an unequal relationship between a colonial metropole and a colonized territory through violence and argues that colonialism is sustained as an unequal relationship through the essential forces of displacement and violence.[7]: 1–4 The imbalance of power that results from a colonial relationship allows a colonial metropole to exploit unequal trading terms between it and its colonies.

Wendell Bell in The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Sociology describes colonialism (incl. internal colonialism) as a "a process by which [...] dominance is acquired and held by a foreign power over another people and land".[1] This definition is cited and complemented by the International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, clarifying that the rule of colonialism is different to annexation as it does not involve actual incorporation.[5]

In A Dictionary of Human Geography colonialism is described as control over another people accompanied by an ideology of superiority and racism.[4]

Colonial studies have been criticized for Eurocentrism in determining the threshold between colonialism versus conquest.[33]

## Types of colonialism

Dutch family in Java, 1927

Modern studies of colonialism distinguish between various overlapping categories of colonialism, broadly classified into four types: settler colonialism, exploitation colonialism, surrogate colonialism, and internal colonialism. Some historians have identified other forms of colonialism, including national and trade forms.[34]

* Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration by settlers to colonies, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons. This form of colonialism aims largely to supplant prior existing populations with a settler one, and involves large number of settlers emigrating to colonies for the purpose of establishing settlements.[34] Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Indian Controlled Kashmir, Israel, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Russia, South Africa, the United States, and Uruguay, are examples of nations created or expanded in their contemporary form by settler colonialism.[6][35][36][37][38][39][7]: 83–84 French-controlled Algeria, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Italian-controlled Libya, the Kenya Colony, Japanese-controlled Korea and Manchuria, and most infamously Nazi-occupied Eastern Europe[40]: 462–463 are examples of past or failed attempts to establish settler colonies.[7]: 83–84
* Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or labour to the benefit of the metropole. This form consists of trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration. The European colonization of Africa and Asia was largely conducted under the auspices of exploitation colonialism.[41]
* Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from the same ethnic group as the ruling power, as it has been (controversially) argued was the case of Mandatory Palestine and the Colony of Liberia.[42][43]
* Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state. This is demonstrated in the way control and exploitation may pass from people from the colonizing country to an immigrant population within a newly independent country.[44][45]

Circa (disambiguation)}}Template:TWCleanup2Circa (from la 'around, about, roughly, approximately') - frequently abbreviated ca. or c. and less frequently circ., cca. or cc. - signifies "approximately" in several European languages and is used as a loanword in English, usually in reference to a date.[46] Circa is widely used in historical writing when the dates of events are not accurately known. When used in date ranges, circa is applied before each approximate date, while dates without circa immediately preceding them are generally assumed to be known with certainty.

## Examples

*1732–1799: Both years are known precisely. *c. 1732 – 1799: The beginning year is approximate; the end year is known precisely. *1732 – c. 1799: The beginning year is known precisely; the end year is approximate. *c. 1732 – c. 1799: Both years are approximate.

## See also

*Floruit

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lachmann, Richard (1991). The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Sociology. Guilford, Conn: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-87967-886-9. https://archive.org/details/encyclopedicdict0003unse_u7w4/page/n10/mode/1up?q=colonialism. "COLONIALISM AND INTERNAL COLONIALISM, the process by which political, social, economic, and cultural dominance is acquired and held by a foreign power over another people and land. Sometimes, settlers from the ruling power migrate to the colony, but usually their numbers have been small when compared to the size of the indigenous population that is subjugated. Colonialism was a mechanism through which Western institutions and culture spread, especially from the fifteenth century until World War I. Characteristically, however, colonial systems of stratification were marked by great inequalities, with European conquerors and Western ways dominant. Invidious distinctions generally degraded the indigenous peoples, cultures, languages, religions, occupations, and social systems — or, as in the case of the West Indies, the people specifically imported to the colony as slaves and indentured servants to provide laborers for the colonial masters. Internal colonialism refers to the position of subordinate groups and groups that are discriminated against within a given nation-state. By analogy, some writers argue that the status, degree of exploitation, and lack of self-determination of such domestic groups in their home countries are similar to those of colonial subjects in overseas dependencies ruled by an alien people. Furthermore, such groups are often differentiated by race and culture from the majority group and ruling classes. —Wendell Bell"
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Osterhammel, Jürgen (2005). Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview. trans. Shelley Frisch. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-55876-340-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PA16. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Margaret Kohn (29 August 2017). "Colonialism". Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Rogers, Alisdair; Castree, Noel; Kitchin, Rob (2013-09-19), "colonialism" (in en), A Dictionary of Human Geography (Oxford University Press), doi:10.1093/acref/9780199599868.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-959986-8, https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199599868.001.0001/acref-9780199599868-e-236, retrieved 2025-07-19, "The control over one territory and its peoples by another, and the ideologies of superiority and *racism often associated with such domination."
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Schaefer, Richard T. (2015-01-01), Wright, James D., ed., Minorities, Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 569–574, ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080970868320918, retrieved 2025-07-19, "Colonialism has been the most frequent way for one group of people to dominate another. Colonialism is the maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural domination over people by a foreign power for an extended period (W. Bell, 1991). Colonialism is rule by outsiders but, unlike annexation, does not involve actual incorporation into the dominant people’s nation."
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `:0`
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `:6`
8. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Jacobs 2009 p.`
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Go, Julian (2007). "Colonialism (Neocolonialism)". in Ritzer, George (in en). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosc071. ISBN 978-1-4051-2433-1. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781405165518.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Go, Julian (2024). "Reverberations of Empire: How the Colonial Past Shapes the Present" (in en). Social Science History 48 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1017/ssh.2023.37. ISSN 0145-5532.
11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `coloniality`
12. ↑ Stoler, Ann Laura (4 October 1995). Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11319d6. ISBN 978-0-8223-7771-9.
13. ↑ Abay, Robel Afeworki; Soldatic, Karen. "Intersectional Colonialities: Embodied Colonial Violence and Practices of Resistance at the Axis of Disability, Race, Indigeneity, Class, and Gender". https://www.routledge.com/Intersectional-Colonialities-Embodied-Colonial-Violence-and-Practices-of-Resistance-at-the-Axis-of-Disability-Race-Indigeneity-Class-and-Gender/AfeworkiAbay-Soldatic/p/book/9781032247748.
14. ↑ Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World?. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4008-6584-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=73zeBgAAQBAJ.
15. ↑ Strang, David (1991). "Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500–1987". International Studies Quarterly 35 (4): 429–454. doi:10.2307/2600949. ISSN 0020-8833. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600949.
16. ↑ Strang, David (1990). "From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization 1870-1987". American Sociological Review 55 (6): 846–860. doi:10.2307/2095750. ISSN 0003-1224. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095750.
17. ↑ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation" (in en). American Economic Review 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.1257/aer.91.5.1369. ISSN 0002-8282. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.91.5.1369.
18. ↑ Nunn, Nathan (2009). "The Importance of History for Economic Development" (in en). Annual Review of Economics 1 (1): 65–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336. ISSN 1941-1383. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336.
19. ↑ Nunn, Nathan (2020). "The historical roots of economic development" (in en). Science 367 (6485). doi:10.1126/science.aaz9986. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32217703. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaz9986.
20. ↑ Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2024). Colonial Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009423526. ISBN 978-1-009-42353-3. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/colonial-origins-of-democracy-and-dictatorship/809A38273620DB49903539950F4D0191.
21. ↑ Gerring, John; Apfeld, Brendan; Wig, Tore; Tollefsen, Andreas Forø (2022). The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009115223. ISBN 978-1-009-10037-3. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/deep-roots-of-modern-democracy/6AA764716C8F6BC7FF8A64F6CA2DA565.
22. ↑ Herbst, Jeffrey (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control - Second Edition. 149 (REV - Revised, 2 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16414-4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qh05m.
23. ↑ Ali, Merima; Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge; Jiang, Boqian; Shifa, Abdulaziz B (2018). "Colonial Legacy, State-building and the Salience of Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa". The Economic Journal 129 (619): 1048–1081. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12595. ISSN 0013-0133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12595.
24. ↑ Stanard, Matthew G. (2018) (in en). European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-119-13013-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=pZlNDwAAQBAJ.
25. ↑ Halperin, Sandra (2 December 2023). "Neocolonialism". Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism.
26. ↑ Charlton T. Lewis; Charles Scott (1879). A Latin Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-864201-5. https://archive.org/details/latindictionaryf00lewi.
27. ↑ Sultan, Nazmul (2024). "What Is Colonialism? The Dual Claims of a Twentieth-Century Political Category" (in en). American Political Science Review 119: 435–448. doi:10.1017/S0003055424000388. ISSN 0003-0554.
28. ↑ "Colonialism". HarperCollins. 2011. http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/colonialism.
29. ↑ Webster's unabridged dictionary of the English language. New York : Portland House : Distributed by Crown Publishers. 1989. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-517-68781-9. https://archive.org/details/webstersunabridg00newy/page/291.
30. ↑ "Definition of COLONIALISM" (in en). https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/colonialism.
31. ↑ Tignor, Roger (2005). Preface to Colonialism: a theoretical overview. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. x. ISBN 978-1-55876-340-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PR10. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
32. ↑ Osterhammel, Jürgen (2005). Colonialism: a theoretical overview. trans. Shelley Frisch. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-55876-340-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PA15. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
33. ↑ Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "Settler colonial studies: a historical analysis". Settler Colonial Studies 14 (4): 470–497. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2024.2371490. ISSN 2201-473X.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Healy, Roisin; Dal Lago, Enrico (2014). The Shadow of Colonialism on Europe's Modern Past. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-137-45075-3.
35. ↑ Barker, Adam J. (2009). "The Contemporary Reality of Canadian Imperialism: Settler Colonialism and the Hybrid Colonial State". American Indian Quarterly 33 (3): 325–351. doi:10.1353/aiq.0.0054.
36. ↑ Glenn, Evelyn Nakano (2015). "Settler Colonialism as Structure: A Framework for Comparative Studies of U.S. Race and Gender Formation". Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1 (1): 52–72. doi:10.1177/2332649214560440. http://ieas.unideb.hu/admin/file_9708.pdf. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
37. ↑ Veracini, Lorenzo (2007). "Historylessness: Australia as a settler colonial collective". Postcolonial Studies 10 (3): 271–285. doi:10.1080/13688790701488155.
38. ↑ Gold, Dore. (2011). "The Myth of Israel as a Colonialist Entity: An Instrument of Political Warfare to Delegitimize the Jewish State". Jewish Political Studies Review 23 (3/4): 84–90.
39. ↑ Sabbagh-Khoury, Areej (15 March 2022). "Tracing Settler Colonialism: A Genealogy of a Paradigm in the Sociology of Knowledge Production in Israel". Politics & Society 50 (1): 44–83. doi:10.1177/0032329221999906. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0032329221999906.
40. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `:7`
41. ↑ Murray, Martin J. (1980). The Development of Capitalism in Colonial Indochina (1870–1940). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04000-7.
42. ↑ Atran, Scott (November 1989). "The Surrogate Colonization of Palestine 1917–1939". American Ethnologist 16 (4): 719–744. doi:10.1525/ae.1989.16.4.02a00070. https://jeannicod.ccsd.cnrs.fr/ijn_00000568/file/ijn_00000568_00.pdf.
43. ↑ On Racialized Citizenship: The History of Black colonialism in Liberia by Naomi Anderson Whittaker
44. ↑ Gabbidon, Shaun (2010). Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice: An International Dilemma. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. pp. 8. ISBN 978-1-4129-4988-0.
45. ↑ Casanova, Pablo Gonzalez (1 April 1965). "Internal colonialism and national development" (in en). Studies in Comparative International Development 1 (4): 27–37. doi:10.1007/BF02800542. ISSN 1936-6167. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02800542.
46. ↑ "circa". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/circa.

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* National colonialism is a process involving elements of both settler and internal colonialism, in which nation-building and colonization are symbiotically connected, with the colonial regime seeking to remake the colonized peoples into their own cultural and political image. The goal is to integrate them into the state, but only as reflections of the state's preferred culture. The Taiwan under the KMT's military dictatorship is the archetypal example of a national-colonialist society.[1]
* Trade colonialism involves the undertaking of colonialist ventures in support of trade opportunities for merchants. This form of colonialism was most prominent in 19th-century Asia, where previously isolationist states were forced to open their ports to Western powers. Examples of this include the Opium Wars and the opening of Japan.[2][3]

### Versus imperialism

This section is an excerpt from Imperialism#Colonialism[ edit ]

## Socio-cultural evolution

When colonists settled in pre-populated areas, the societies and cultures of the people in those areas permanently changed. Colonial practices directly and indirectly forced the colonized peoples to abandon their traditional cultures and established complex systems of power, so-called colonialities.[4] For example, European colonizers in the United States implemented the residential schools program to force native children to assimilate into the hegemonic culture.

Cultural colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, hybrid communities existed.

Notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang, and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies (later Indonesia) the vast majority of "Dutch" settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, formally belonging to the European legal class in the colony.[5][6]

American Progress (1872) by John Gast is an allegorical representation of the idea of manifest destiny. Columbia, a personification of the United States, leads settler civilization westward, bringing light, stringing telegraph wire, holding a book,[7] and highlighting different stages of economic activity and evolving forms of transportation,[8] while on the left, displacing Native Americans in the United States from their homeland.

## History

### Antiquity

### Medieval

From the 9th century Vikings (Norsemen) such as Leif Erikson established colonies in Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, North America, present-day Russia and Ukraine, France (Normandy) and Sicily.[9] In the 9th century a new wave of Mediterranean colonisation began, with competitors such as the Venetians, Genovese and Amalfians infiltrating the wealthy previously Byzantine or Eastern Roman islands and lands. European Crusaders set up colonial regimes in Outremer (in the Levant, 1097–1291) and in the Baltic littoral (12th century onwards). Venice began to dominate Dalmatia and reached its greatest nominal colonial extent at the conclusion of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, with the declaration of the acquisition of three octaves of the Byzantine Empire.[10]

### Modern

Iberian Union of Spain and Portugal between 1580 and 1640

Modern colonialism is generally considered to have begun with the Spanish conquest of the Canary Islands when "the relationships involved in domination became recognisably colonial."[11]: 10 Following the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the sea routes discovered by Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) became central to trade, and helped fuel the Age of Discovery.[12] The Crown of Castile encountered the Americas in 1492 through sea travel and built trading posts or conquered large extents of land. The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the areas of these "new" lands between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire in 1494.[12]

The 17th century saw the birth of the Dutch Empire and French colonial empire, as well as the English overseas possessions, which later became the British Empire. It also saw the establishment of Danish overseas colonies and Swedish overseas colonies.[13]

A first wave of separatism started with the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), initiating the Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815).[14] The Spanish Empire largely collapsed in the Americas with the Spanish American wars of independence (1808–1833). Empire-builders established several new colonies after this time, including in the German colonial empire and Belgian colonial empire.[15] Starting with the end of the French Revolution European authors such as Johann Gottfried Herder, August von Kotzebue, and Heinrich von Kleist prolifically published so as to conjure up sympathy for the oppressed native peoples and the slaves of the new world, thereby starting the idealization of native humans.[16]

The Habsburg monarchy, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire existed at the same time but did not expand over oceans. Rather, these empires expanded through the conquest of neighbouring territories. There was, though, some Russian colonization of North America across the Bering Strait. The Empire of Brazil fought for hegemony in South America. The United States gained overseas territories after the 1898 Spanish–American War, hence, the coining of the term "American imperialism".[17]

The Japanese colonial empire began in the mid-19th century with the settler colonization of Hokkaido and the destruction of the island's indigenous Ainu people before moving onto the Ryukyu Islands (the indigenous Ryukyuan people survived colonization more intact). After the Meiji Restoration, Japan more formally developed its colonial policies with the help of European advisors. The stated purpose from the beginning was to compensate for the lack of resources on the main islands of Japan by securing control over natural resources in Asia for its own economic development and industrialization, not unlike its European counterparts. Japan defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War to control Korea and the island of Formosa, now Taiwan, and later fought off the Russian Empire to control Port Arthur and South Sakhalin.[11]: 147–152

In the late 19th century, many European powers became involved in the Scramble for Africa.[15]

### 20th century

File:The Harmsworth atlas and Gazetter 1908 Colonization Map.jpgThe Harmsworth atlas and Gazetter 1908 European colonization map

The world's colonial population at the outbreak of the First World War - a high point for colonialism - totalled about 560 million people, of whom 70% lived in British possessions, 10% in French possessions, 9% in Dutch possessions, 4% in Japanese possessions, 2% in German possessions, 2% in American possessions, 3% in Portuguese possessions, 1% in Belgian possessions and 0.5% in Italian possessions. The domestic domains of the colonial powers had a total population of about 370 million people.[18] Outside Europe, few areas had remained without coming under formal colonial tutorship – and even Siam, China, Japan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Persia, and Abyssinia had felt varying degrees of Western colonial-style influence - concessions, unequal treaties, extraterritoriality and the like.

Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian Grover Clark (1891–1938) argues an emphatic "No!" He reports that in every case the support cost, especially the military system necessary to support and defend colonies, outran the total trade they produced. Apart from the British Empire, they did not provide favoured destinations for the immigration of surplus metropole populations.[19] The question of whether colonies paid is a complicated one when recognizing the multiplicity of interests involved. In some cases colonial powers paid a lot in military costs while private investors pocketed the benefits. In other cases the colonial powers managed to move the burden of administrative costs to the colonies themselves by imposing taxes.[20]

Map of colonial and land-based empires throughout the world in 1914 Imperial powers in 1945

#### World War I

The First World War brought the European colonial empires into conflict with each other with the fight sustained by their colonial territories.[11]: 130 War mobilization heightened colonial exploitation globally, sparking several anticolonial uprisings in response to forced conscription. Germany capitulated in large part due to the Allied sea blockade cutting off access to its overseas colonies, a disadvantage which German U-boats could not inflict on the Allies. The victorious Allies divided up the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire between themselves as League of Nations mandates, grouping these territories into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they could prepare for independence. The empires of Russia and Austria collapsed in 1917–1918,[21] and the Soviet empire emerged.[22]

#### Interwar years

Anticolonial sentiment surged during the interwar years. The Easter Rising and Irish War of Independence led to the UK conceding independence to Ireland. Turkey became an independent country in the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and fought off interventions from Britain, France, and Italy. The first Pan-African Congress would take place in Paris in 1919.[23] The Soviet Union positioned itself as "an explicitly anti-imperialist power" and would play an important role in the success of anticolonial resistance movements in Asia and Africa. The Third Socialist International settled the question of colonialism and the decision was made to instruct socialists to ally with anticolonial nationalist forces in the colonized world regardless of their position on Marxism. Anticolonial resistance movements gained power and followers through a mix of legal and illegal methods[11]: 130-136

However despite the rise in anticolonial sentiment, colonial powers still retained and expanded their grip on colonial territories. Any anticolonial opposition from colonized subjects, non-violent or otherwise, was met with brutal violence. South Africa, which was the result of settler colonization by the Dutch and later the English, became independent and included with it modern day Angola. Just under two decades later the new state would legally codify segregation in the Apartheid legislation. Japan seized Manchuria from China where it set up the puppet state of Manchukuo and both exploited natural resources for mainland industrialization and enacted a program of settler colonialism with the stated goal being the import of five million Japanese settlers. The Soviet Union despite branding itself as anti-imperialist and providing real material assistance to anticolonial resistance returned to its previous colonial "Russification" policies after 1930. Zionist settler colonization of Palestine continued expansion, now with the backing of the British empire after issuing the Balfour Declaration in 1917 and establishing the British Mandate for Palestine at the League of Nations. Several League of Nations Mandates were established which ostensibly promised independence to former colonies after a certain time period but which were under full control of a colonial power and in practice acted as a buffer period for the colonial power to set up a collaborationist regime for post-independence.[11]: 130–136

In many ways conditions for colonized peoples also deteriorated. Settler colonialism and its accompanying logic of elimination vastly expanded in colonies such as Manchuria, Kenya, Mozambique, Palestine, Algeria, Libya, Angola and several others.: 136 Colonial powers having refined their methods of control over the era began to mix aspects of exploitation colonialism and settler colonialism, thus exacerbating colonial violence.

#### World War II

Many interpret World War II as an attempt by Nazi Germany and its allies to colonize the whole European continent, especially in the east. Lorenzo Veracini writes, "The global history of colonialism can be seen as bookended by two fateful moments: European armies crossed the strait of Gibraltar in the fifteenth century to establish unequal relations of domination in Africa, and a colonial army crossed it in the opposite direction in 1936, to conquer the metropole and pursue a civil war that subjected the metropolitan populations with a violence that had been until then reserved for restive colonized subjects."[11]: 5 Adam Tooze posits that Operation Barbarossa is "far better understood as the last great land-grab in the long and bloody history of European colonialism."[24]: 462 He further writes, "From the moment that Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, the genocidal impulses of Nazi ideology towards both the Jews and the Slavs had taken on concrete form in an extraordinary programme of population displacement and colonial settlement.": 463 Generalplan Ost, the Nazi government's plan for the settler colonization of Eastern Europe, called for the mass murder and deportation of at least 30 million Slavs from Poland and the western Soviet Union in preparation for the importation of millions of German settlers.: 462-467 The plan was lauded as a 'solution' to secure Germany's food supply for the duration of the war unlike in World War I and to end Germany's dependence on food imports to feed its large population. Hitler repeatedly drew parallels between the colonization plan and Manifest Destiny in the United States. Aimé Césaire argues in Discourse on Colonialism, "[Europeans] tolerated that Nazism before it was inflicted on them, they absolved it, shut their eyes to it, legitimized it, because, until then, it had been applied only to non-European peoples."[25]

The colonial violence of World War II was not limited to Europe. Prior to the war, Italy expanded its colonial settlement program in Libya. Italy perpetrated the Libyan genocide between 1929 and 1934 during and after the Second Italo-Senussi War. Up to 100,000 Libyans were killed, particularly Bedouins in the Cyrenaica region. Italy lost control of Libya in 1943 to the British during the North African campaign of World War II.[26][27][28] Italy also invaded and occupied Ethiopia in 1935 where it enacted a system of segregation between Italian colonists and indigenous Ethiopians. Japan temporarily took control of European controlled colonies in Southeast Asia in order to overcome the sanctions placed on it that disrupted access to the resources of said colonies.[11]: 140

#### Post-WWII decolonization

In the aftermath of World War II, decolonisation progressed rapidly. The tumultuous upheaval of the war significantly weakened the major colonial powers, and they quickly lost control of colonies such as Singapore, India, and Libya.[29] In addition, the United Nations shows support for decolonisation in its 1945 charter. In 1960, the UN issued the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which affirmed its stance (though notably, colonial empires such as France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States abstained).[30]

The word "neocolonialism" originated from Jean-Paul Sartre in 1956,[31] to refer to a variety of contexts since the decolonisation that took place after World War II. Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonisation - rather to colonialism or colonial-style exploitation by other means. Specifically, neocolonialism may refer to the theory that former or existing economic relationships, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement, or the operations of companies (such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria and Brunei) fostered by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post–World War II period.[32] The term became popular in ex-colonies in the late 20th century.[33]

### Contemporary

File:Palestine-Israel Historic Borders Over Time.pngChange in the borders of Israel and Palestine over time, showing the extent of Israeli control of territory formerly identified as Palestine.

While colonies of contiguous empires[34] have been historically excluded, they can be seen as colonies.[35] Contemporary expansion of colonies is seen by some in case of Russian imperialism[36] and Chinese imperialism.[37] Zionism is considered a modern colonialist movement, although it began in the 20th century. It has been categorized by some scholars as a settler colonialist movement.[38]

## Impact

A 1904 cartoon by Bob Satterfield about the brutality committed by Western nations: the personifications of England, the United States, and Germany carrying spears topped by the severed heads of Tibet, the Philippines, and Southwest Africa respectively. The caption describes this as "The advance guard of civilization". File:Nieuws uit Indonesië, het werk van de Nederlandse dienst voor Volksgezondheid Weeknummer 46-21 - Open Beelden - 16742.ogvThe Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the Dutch East Indies, May 1946.

The impacts of colonisation are immense and pervasive.[39] Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of virulent diseases, causing pandemics, oppression, unequal social relations through othering and economically through exclusion, detribalization, appropriation, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism,[40] changing infrastructure,[41] and technological progress.[42] Colonial practices also spur the spread of conquerors' languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating those of indigenous peoples, possibly amounting to genocide.[43][11]: 2 [44] Despite the colonial suppression and narrative, colonised people may be able to build on their agency, potentially having influence on the imperial country or even challenging it.[45][46] Often though this has been met with cultural appropriation and forced assimilation.[47][48]

With respect to international borders, Britain and France traced close to 40% of the entire length of the world's international boundaries.[49]

### Economy, trade and commerce

Economic expansion, sometimes described as the colonial surplus, has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times. Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary goal of directing tribute from the colonised areas towards the Roman metropole. According to Strabo, by the time of emperor Augustus, up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India.[50] With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire,

> Gujari Hindus, Syrian Muslims, Jews, Armenians, Christians from south and central Europe operated trading routes that supplied Persian and Arab horses to the armies of all three empires, Mocha coffee to Delhi and Belgrade, Persian silk to India and Istanbul.[51]

Portuguese trade routes (blue) and the rival Manila-Acapulco galleons trade routes (white) established in 1568

Aztec civilisation developed into an extensive empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas. For the Aztecs, a significant tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals.[52]

On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, funneling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly.

Despite the general trend of economic expansion, the economic performance of former European colonies varies significantly. In "Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-run Growth", economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson compare the economic influences of the European colonists on different colonies and study what could explain the huge discrepancies in previous European colonies, for example, between West African colonies like Sierra Leone and Hong Kong and Singapore.[53]

According to the paper, economic institutions are the determinant of the colonial success because they determine their financial performance and order for the distribution of resources. At the same time, these institutions are also consequences of political institutions – especially how de facto and de jure political power is allocated. To explain the different colonial cases, we thus need to look first into the political institutions that shaped the economic institutions.[53]

Dutch East India Company was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange.

For example, one interesting observation is "the Reversal of Fortune" - the less developed civilisations in 1500, like North America, Australia, and New Zealand, are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came, like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas. One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies: it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area. Therefore, given a more developed civilisation and denser population, European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests. Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems, which determined the colonial economic performance.[53]

European colonisation and development also changed gendered systems of power already in place around the world. In many pre-colonialist areas, women maintained power, prestige, or authority through reproductive or agricultural control. For example, in certain parts of Sub-Saharan Africa women maintained farmland in which they had usage rights. While men would make political and communal decisions for a community, the women would control the village's food supply or their individual family's land. This allowed women to achieve power and autonomy, even in patrilineal and patriarchal societies.[54]

Through the rise of European colonialism came a large push for development and industrialisation of most economic systems. When working to improve productivity, Europeans focused mostly on male workers. Foreign aid arrived in the form of loans, land, credit, and tools to speed up development, but were only allocated to men. In a more European fashion, women were expected to serve on a more domestic level. The result was a technologic, economic, and class-based gender gap that widened over time.[55]

Within a colony, the presence of extractive colonial institutions in a given area has been found have effects on the modern day economic development, institutions and infrastructure of these areas.[56][57]

### Slavery and indentured servitude

European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropoles. Exploitation of non-Europeans and of other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonisers. Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were the extension of slavery and indentured servitude. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants.[58]

European slave traders brought large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail. Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work in African colonies such as Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe, and then in Latin America, by the 16th century. The British, French, and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. The European colonial system took approximately 11 million Africans to the Caribbean and to North and South America as slaves.[59]

Slave traders in Gorée, Senegal, 18th century European empire | Colonial destination | Number of slaves imported between 1450 and 1870[59]

|
|

Portuguese Empire | Brazil | 3,646,800
British Empire | British Caribbean | 1,665,000
French Empire | French Caribbean | 1,600,200
Spanish Empire | Latin America | 1,552,100
Dutch Empire | Dutch Caribbean | 500,000
British Empire | British North America | 399,000

Abolitionists in Europe and Americas protested the inhumane treatment of African slaves, which led to the elimination of the slave trade (and later, of most forms of slavery) by the late 19th century. One (disputed) school of thought points to the role of abolitionism in the American Revolution: while the British colonial metropole started to move towards outlawing slavery, slave-owning elites in the Thirteen Colonies saw this as one of the reasons to fight for their post-colonial independence and for the right to develop and continue a largely slave-based economy.[60]

British colonising activity in New Zealand from the early 19th century played a part in ending slave-taking and slave-keeping among the indigenous Māori.[61][62] On the other hand, British colonial administration in Southern Africa, when it officially abolished slavery in the 1830s, caused rifts in society which arguably perpetuated slavery in the Boer Republics and fed into the philosophy of apartheid.[63]

Planting the sugar cane, Antigua, 1823

The labour shortages that resulted from abolition inspired European colonisers in Queensland, British Guaiana and Fiji (for example) to develop new sources of labour, re-adopting a system of indentured servitude. Indentured servants consented to a contract with the European colonisers. Under their contract, the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to pay for the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to the country of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well. The employees became "indentured" to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony, which they were expected to pay through their wages. In practice, indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts imposed by the employers, with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony.

India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era. Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more indentured servants to European colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China.[64]

Following the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery persists in Africa and in the world at large with much the same practices of de facto servility despite legislative prohibition.[40]

### Military innovation

The First Anglo-Ashanti War, 1823–1831

Conquering forces have throughout history applied innovation in order to gain an advantage over the armies of the people they aim to conquer. Greeks developed the phalanx system, which enabled their military units to present themselves to their enemies as a wall, with foot soldiers using shields to cover one another during their advance on the battlefield. Under Philip II of Macedon, they were able to organise thousands of soldiers into a formidable battle force, bringing together carefully trained infantry and cavalry regiments.[65] Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during his conquests.

The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilisation and others. The use of gunpowder weapons cemented the European military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere.

### End of empire

File:Lord Pethic-Lawrence and Gandhi.jpgGandhi with Lord Pethwick-Lawrence, British Secretary of State for India, after a meeting on 18 April 1946

The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at least among the majority. Minority populations such as First Nations peoples and French-Canadians experienced marginalisation and resented colonial practices. Francophone residents of Quebec, for example, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in the Conscription crisis of 1917. Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population. Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion of 1857.

The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonisers, notably in central Africa and South Asia, defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another. European colonisers disregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control. Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators.

The Partition of British India in August 1947 led to the Independence of India and the creation of Pakistan. These events also caused much bloodshed at the time of the migration of immigrants from the two countries. Muslims from India and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to the respective countries they sought independence for.

### Post-independence population movement

The annual Notting Hill Carnival in London is a celebration led by the Trinidadian and Tobagonian British community.

In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country. In some cases, this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to an ancestral birthplace. 900,000 French colonists (known as the Pied-Noirs) resettled in France following Algeria's independence in 1962. A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent. 800,000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the Dutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended.[66]

After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called Indo Europeans, repatriated to the Netherlands. A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.[67][68]

Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion. Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation. For example, rights to dual citizenship may be generous,[69] or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies.[70]

In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organisation that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members. A similar organisation exists for former colonies of France, the Francophonie; the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies, and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands.[71][72][73]

Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa and the majority population of France. Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the 1980s, 25% of the total population of "inner Paris" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin, mainly Algerian.[74]

### Introduced diseases

Aztecs dying of smallpox, (Florentine Codex, 1540–1585)

Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.[75] For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.[76]

Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[77] Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[78] Some believe[who?] that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases.[79] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity.[80]

Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation.[81] It also killed many New Zealand Māori.[82] As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.[83] In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population.[84] The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.[85]

Conversely, researchers have hypothesised that a precursor to syphilis may have been carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.[86] The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.[87] The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.[88] Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home.[89] Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, is considered the first microbiologist.

According to a 2021 study by Jörg Baten and Laura Maravall on the anthropometric influence of colonialism on Africans, the average height of Africans decreased by 1.1 centimetres upon colonization and later recovered and increased overall during colonial rule. The authors attributed the decrease to diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness, forced labor during the early decades of colonial rule, conflicts, land grabbing, and widespread cattle deaths from the rinderpest viral disease.[90]

#### Countering disease

As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[91] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[92] Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India.[93] From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.[94] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.[95] In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.[96] According to the UN, the world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over eight billion today.[97]

## Botany

Colonial botany refers to the body of works concerning the study, cultivation, marketing and naming of the new plants that were acquired or traded during the age of European colonialism. Notable examples of these plants included sugar, nutmeg, tobacco, cloves, cinnamon, Peruvian bark, peppers, Sassafras albidum, and tea. This work was a large part of securing financing for colonial ambitions, supporting European expansion and ensuring the profitability of such endeavors. Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus were seeking to establish routes to trade spices, dyes and silk from the Moluccas, India and China by sea that would be independent of the established routes controlled by Venetian and Middle Eastern merchants. Naturalists like Hendrik van Rheede, Georg Eberhard Rumphius, and Jacobus Bontius compiled data about eastern plants on behalf of the Europeans. Though Sweden did not possess an extensive colonial network, botanical research based on Carl Linnaeus identified and developed techniques to grow cinnamon, tea and rice locally as an alternative to costly imports.[98]

## Geography

British Togoland in 1953

Settlers acted as the link between indigenous populations and the imperial hegemony, thus bridging the geographical, ideological and commercial gap between the colonisers and colonised. While the extent in which geography as an academic study is implicated in colonialism is contentious, geographical tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivity were instrumental in European colonial expansion. Colonisers' awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonisers with a knowledge that, in turn, created power.[99]

Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that "empire was 'quintessentially a geographical project'".[clarification needed][100] Historical geographical theories such as environmental determinism legitimised colonialism by positing the view that some parts of the world were underdeveloped, which created notions of skewed evolution.[99] Geographers such as Ellen Churchill Semple and Ellsworth Huntington put forward the notion that northern climates bred vigour and intelligence as opposed to those indigenous to tropical climates (See The Tropics) viz a viz a combination of environmental determinism and Social Darwinism in their approach.[101]

Political geographers also maintain that colonial behaviour was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, therefore creating a visual separation between "them" and "us". Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism; more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism.[102]: 5

Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913

Maps played an extensive role in colonialism, as Bassett would put it "by providing geographical information in a convenient and standardised format, cartographers helped open West Africa to European conquest, commerce, and colonisation".[103] Because the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective, cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era. Social norms and values had an effect on the constructing of maps. During colonialism map-makers used rhetoric in their formation of boundaries and in their art. The rhetoric favoured the view of the conquering Europeans; this is evident in the fact that any map created by a non-European was instantly regarded as inaccurate. Furthermore, European cartographers were required to follow a set of rules which led to ethnocentrism; portraying one's own ethnicity in the centre of the map. As J.B. Harley put it, "The steps in making a map - selection, omission, simplification, classification, the creation of hierarchies, and 'symbolisation' - are all inherently rhetorical."[104]

A common practice by the European cartographers of the time was to map unexplored areas as "blank spaces". This influenced the colonial powers as it sparked competition amongst them to explore and colonise these regions. Imperialists aggressively and passionately looked forward to filling these spaces for the glory of their respective countries.[105] The Dictionary of Human Geography notes that cartography was used to empty 'undiscovered' lands of their Indigenous meaning and bring them into spatial existence via the imposition of "Western place-names and borders, [therefore] priming 'virgin' (putatively empty land, 'wilderness') for colonisation (thus sexualising colonial landscapes as domains of male penetration), reconfiguring alien space as absolute, quantifiable and separable (as property)."[106]

File:Arthur Mees Flags of A Free Empire 1910 Cornell CUL PJM 1167 01 (Reddit source).jpgMap of the British Empire (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history.

David Livingstone stresses "that geography has meant different things at different times and in different places" and that we should keep an open mind in regards to the relationship between geography and colonialism instead of identifying boundaries.[100] Geography as a discipline was not and is not an objective science, Painter and Jeffrey argue, rather it is based on assumptions about the physical world.[99] Comparison of exogeographical representations of ostensibly tropical environments in science fiction art support this conjecture, finding the notion of the tropics to be an artificial collection of ideas and beliefs that are independent of geography.[107]

### Ocean and space

With contemporary advances in deep sea and outer space technologies, colonization of the seabed and the Moon have become an object of non-terrestrial colonialism.[108][109][110][111]

## Marxism

Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social change. Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated with uneven development. It is an "instrument of wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency".[112] Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result[according to whom?] of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation. Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains: "Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determination of peoples in his "Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination" as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin who contended that "The right of nations to self-determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense, the right to free political separation from the oppressor nation. Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation."[113] Non-Russian Marxists within the RSFSR and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, considered the Soviet regime a renewed version of Russian imperialism and colonialism.

In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the Guyanese historian and political activist Walter Rodney states:[114][115]

> The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power. Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups. It implies the ability to defend one's interests and if necessary to impose one's will by any means available ... When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment ... During the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa, in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans. That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism. Colonialism went much further than trade. It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa. Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards, and lost full command of training young members of the society. Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards ... Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so-called 'mother country'. From an African view-point, that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources. It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped. Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector. As seen earlier, exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance, but only on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place.

According to Lenin, the new imperialism emphasised the transition of capitalism from free trade to a stage of monopoly capitalism to finance capital. He states it is, "connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world". As free trade thrives on exports of commodities[according to whom?], monopoly capitalism thrived on the export of capital amassed by profits from banks and industry. This, to Lenin, was the highest stage of capitalism. He goes on to state that this form of capitalism was doomed for war between the capitalists and the exploited nations with the former inevitably losing. War is stated to be the consequence of imperialism. As a continuation of this thought, G.N. Uzoigwe states, "But it is now clear from more serious investigations of African history in this period that imperialism was essentially economic in its fundamental impulses."[116]

## Liberalism and capitalism

Classical liberals were generally in abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism, including Adam Smith, Frédéric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, H.R. Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, W.J. Fox and William Ewart Gladstone.[117] Their philosophies found the colonial enterprise, particularly mercantilism, in opposition to the principles of free trade and liberal policies.[118] Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that Britain should grant independence to all of its colonies and also argued that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose out.[117][119]

## Race and gender

During the colonial era, the global process of colonisation served to spread and synthesize the social and political belief systems of the "mother-countries" which often included a belief in a certain natural racial superiority of the race of the mother-country. Colonialism also acted to reinforce these same racial belief systems within the "mother-countries" themselves. Usually also included within the colonial belief systems was a certain belief in the inherent superiority of male over female. This particular belief was often pre-existing amongst the pre-colonial societies, prior to their colonisation.[120][121][122]

Popular political practices of the time reinforced colonial rule by legitimising European (and/ or Japanese) male authority, and also legitimising female and non-mother-country race inferiority through studies of craniology, comparative anatomy, and phrenology.[121][122][123] Biologists, naturalists, anthropologists, and ethnologists of the 19th century were focused on the study of colonised indigenous women, as in the case of Georges Cuvier's study of Sarah Baartman.[122] Such cases embraced a natural superiority and inferiority relationship between the races based on the observations of naturalists' from the mother-countries. European studies along these lines gave rise to the perception that African women's anatomy, and especially genitalia, resembled those of mandrills, baboons, and monkeys, thus differentiating colonised Africans from what were viewed as the features of the evolutionarily superior, and thus rightfully authoritarian, European woman.[122]

In addition to what would now be viewed as pseudo-scientific studies of race, which tended to reinforce a belief in an inherent mother-country racial superiority, a new supposedly "science-based" ideology concerning gender roles also then emerged as an adjunct to the general body of beliefs of inherent superiority of the colonial era.[121] Female inferiority across all cultures was emerging as an idea supposedly supported by craniology that led scientists to argue that the typical brain size of the female human was, on the average, slightly smaller than that of the male, thus inferring that therefore female humans must be less developed and less evolutionarily advanced than males.[121] This finding of relative cranial size difference was later attributed to the general typical size difference of the human male body versus that of the typical human female body.[124]

Within the former European colonies, non-Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by the colonial powers in the interest of the then prevailing pro-colonial scientific ideology of the day.[122]

## Othering

Othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics.[125] Othering is the creation of those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, categorise those who do not fit in the societal norm. Several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the "other" as an epistemological concept in social theory.[125] For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonising powers explained an "other" who were there to dominate, civilise, and extract resources through colonisation of land.[125]

Political geographers explain how colonial/imperial powers "othered" places they wanted to dominate to legalise their exploitation of the land.[125] During and after the rise of colonialism the Western powers perceived the East as the "other", being different and separate from their societal norm. This viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/subordinate dynamic, both being the "other" towards themselves.[125]

## Post-colonialism

File:HK Queen Victoria Street The Central Market.jpg Queen Victoria Street in the former British colony of Hong Kong

Post-colonialism (or post-colonial theory) can refer to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, one can regard post-colonial literature as a branch of postmodern literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires.

Many practitioners take Edward Saïd's book Orientalism (1978) as the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as Aimé Césaire (1913–2008) and Frantz Fanon (1925–1961) made similar claims decades before Saïd). Saïd analyzed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire and Lautréamont, arguing that they helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority.

Writers of post-colonial fiction interact with the traditional colonial discourse, but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's Can the Subaltern Speak? (1998) gave its name to Subaltern Studies.

In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (1999), Spivak argued that major works of European metaphysics (such as those of Kant and Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, considers Western civilisation as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also had some traces of racialism in his work.

The 2014 YouGov survey found that British people are mostly proud of colonialism and the British Empire:[126]

> A new YouGov survey finds that most think the British Empire is more something to be proud of (59%) than to be ashamed of (19%). 23% don't know. Young people are least likely to feel pride over shame when it comes to the Empire, though about half (48%) of 18–24 year olds do. In comparison, about two-thirds (65%) of over 60s feel mostly proud. ... A third of British people (34%) also say they would like it if Britain still had an empire. Under half (45%) say they would not like the Empire to exist today. 20% don't know.[127]

## Migrations

File:Tibetan Monks arrested in 2008 遭逮捕的西藏僧侶.jpgIndigenous Tibetans protesting the Sinicization of Tibet Irish leaving Ireland, many in response to the Great Famine in the 1840s

Nations and regions outside Northern China with significant populations of Han Chinese ancestry:

* Xinjiang: 42.24% Han settlers, 44.96% Indigenous[128]
* Tibet: disputed. 12.2% Han Chinese in the Tibet Autonomous Region.[129]
* Taiwan: 95–97% Han Taiwanese, 2.3% Indigenous[130]
* Manchuria: 80%+ Han Chinese, <20% Indigenous Manchurians.[131]

Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations of European ancestry[132]

Boer family in South Africa, 1886

* Africa (see Europeans in Africa)
* South Africa (European South African): 5.8% of the population[133]
* Namibia (European Namibians): 6.5% of the population, of which most are Afrikaans-speaking, in addition to a German-speaking minority.[134]
* Réunion: estimated to be approximately 25% of the population[135]
* Zimbabwe (Europeans in Zimbabwe)
* Algeria (Pied-noir)[136]
* Botswana: 3% of the population[137]
* Kenya (Europeans in Kenya)
* Mauritius (Franco-Mauritian)
* Morocco (European Moroccans)[138]
* Ivory Coast (French people)[139]
* Senegal[140]
* Canary Islands (Spaniards), known as Canarians.
* Seychelles (Franco-Seychellois)
* Somalia (Italian Somalis)
* Eritrea (Italian Eritreans)
* Saint Helena (UK) including Tristan da Cunha (UK): predominantly European.
* Eswatini: 3% of the population[141]
* Tunisia (European Tunisians)[142]

Russian settlers in Central Asia, present-day Kazakhstan, 1911

* Asia
* Siberia (Russians, Germans and Ukrainians)[143][144]
* Kazakhstan (Russians in Kazakhstan, Germans of Kazakhstan): 30% of the population[145][146]
* Uzbekistan (Russians and other Slavs): 6% of the population[146]
* Kyrgyzstan (Russians and other Slavs): 14% of the population[146][147][148]
* Turkmenistan (Russians and other Slavs): 4% of the population[146][149]
* Tajikistan (Russians and other Slavs): 1% of the population[146][150]
* Hong Kong[151]
* Philippines (Spanish Ancestry): 3% of the population
* China (Russians in China)
* Indian subcontinent (Anglo-Indians)
* Latin America (see White Latin American)

Circa (disambiguation)}}Template:TWCleanup2Circa (from la 'around, about, roughly, approximately') - frequently abbreviated ca. or c. and less frequently circ., cca. or cc. - signifies "approximately" in several European languages and is used as a loanword in English, usually in reference to a date.[152] Circa is widely used in historical writing when the dates of events are not accurately known. When used in date ranges, circa is applied before each approximate date, while dates without circa immediately preceding them are generally assumed to be known with certainty.

## Examples

*1732–1799: Both years are known precisely. *c. 1732 – 1799: The beginning year is approximate; the end year is known precisely. *1732 – c. 1799: The beginning year is known precisely; the end year is approximate. *c. 1732 – c. 1799: Both years are approximate.

## See also

*Floruit

## References

1. ↑ Wong, Ting-Hong (May 2020). "Education and National Colonialism in Postwar Taiwan: The Paradoxical Use of Private Schools to Extend State Power, 1944–1966". History of Education Quarterly 60 (2): 156–184. doi:10.1017/heq.2020.25.
2. ↑ "A Typology of Colonialism | Perspectives on History | AHA". https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/october-2015/a-typology-of-colonialism.
3. ↑ Auslin, Michael R., Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-674-01521-0; OCLC 56493769
4. ↑ Mignolo, Walter D. (2007-03-01). "Introduction: Coloniality of power and de-colonial thinking". Cultural Studies 21 (2–3): 155–167. doi:10.1080/09502380601162498. ISSN 0950-2386. https://doi.org/10.1080/09502380601162498.
5. ↑ Bosma, U.; Raben, R. (2008). Being "Dutch" in the Indies: A History of Creolisation and Empire, 1500–1920. Singapore: NUS Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-9971-69-373-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C&pg=PA223.
6. ↑ Gouda, Frances (2008). "Gender, Race, and Sexuality". Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies 1900–1942. Equinox. p. 163. ISBN 978-979-3780-62-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=nN6G-lMk_DEC&pg=PA163.
7. ↑ Mountjoy, Shane (2009). Manifest Destiny: Westward Expansion. Infobase Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 9781438119830.
8. ↑ "John Gast, American Progress, 1872". Picturing U.S. History. https://picturinghistory.gc.cuny.edu/john-gast-american-progress-1872/.
9. ↑ Page, M.E.; Sonnenburg, P.M. (2003). Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 421. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC&pg=PA421. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
10. ↑ Peter N. Stearns, ed., An Encyclopedia of World History (2001) pp 21–238
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Veracini, Lorenzo (2022-07-15) (in en). Colonialism: A Global History (1st ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003050599. ISBN 978-1-003-05059-9. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003050599.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Charles R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825 (1969)
13. ↑ Thomas Benjamin, ed. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (3 vol 2006)
14. ↑ David Cody, "The British Empire" The Victorians Web (1988)
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Melvin E. Page, ed., Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (2003)
16. ↑ Dina Gusejnova (2016). European Elites and Ideas of Empire 1917–1957. Cambridge University Press. p. 14. ISBN 9781107120624.
17. ↑ Benjamin, ed. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (3 vol 2006)
18. ↑ These statistics exclude the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Spain and Denmark. U.S. Tariff Commission. Colonial tariff policies (1922), p. 5 online
19. ↑ Raymond Leslie Buell, "Do Colonies Pay?" The Saturday Review, 1 August 1936 p 6 ]
20. ↑ Rönnbäck & Broberg (2019) Capital and Colonialism. The Return on British Investments in Africa 1869–1969 (Palgrave Studies in Economic History)
21. ↑ G. M. Gathorne-Hardy, A Short History of International Affairs, 1920–1939 (4th ed. 1950), online
22. ↑ Kassymbekova, Botakoz (24 January 2023). "How Western scholars overlooked Russian imperialism" (in en). https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/1/24/how-western-scholars-overlooked-russian-imperialism.
23. ↑ Roberts, Brian Russell (2013). Artistic ambassadors: literary and international representation of the New Negro era. Charlottesville ; London: University of Virginia Press. pp. 121–122. ISBN 978-0-8139-3368-9.
24. ↑ Tooze, J. Adam (2008). The wages of destruction: the making and breaking of the Nazi economy. New York: Penguin USA. ISBN 978-0-14-311320-1.
25. ↑ Heiskanen, Jaakko (2021-12-01). "In the Shadow of Genocide: Ethnocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and International Order". Global Studies Quarterly 1 (4). doi:10.1093/isagsq/ksab030. ISSN 2634-3797. https://academic.oup.com/isagsq/article/1/4/ksab030/6380106.
26. ↑ Mack Smith, Denis (1976). Mussolini's Roman Empire. London; New York: Longman. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-582-50266-6.
27. ↑ Pappé, Ilan (2005). The Modern Middle East. London; New York: Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-415-54371-2. OCLC ocm58647932.
28. ↑ St. John, Ronald Bruce (2012). Libya: from colony to revolution. Oxford: Oneworld. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-85168-919-4.
29. ↑ White, Nicholas (17 July 2014). "Economics and the end of Empire". Decolonisation: The British Experience since 1945. Seminar Studies (2 ed.). Abingdon: Routledge (published 2014). ISBN 9781317701798. https://books.google.com/books?id=InQKBAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
30. ↑ Betts, Raymond F; Bogaerts, Els; Raben, Raben (2012). Beyond Empire and Nation: The Decolonization of African and Asian societies, 1930s–1970s. Brill. pp. 7–22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w8h2zm.
31. ↑ Sartre, Jean-Paul (2001). Colonialism and Neocolonialism. Psychology Press.
32. ↑ Halperin, Sandra. "Neocolonialism | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism.
33. ↑ Uzoigw, Godfrey N. (2019). "Neocolonialism Is Dead: Long Live Neocolonialism". Journal of Global South Studies 36 (1): 59–87. doi:10.1353/gss.2019.0004.
34. ↑ Forsyth, James. A history of the peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian colony 1581-1990. Cambridge University Press, 1994.
35. ↑ Gilmartin, Mary (2009). "Colonialism/Imperialism". in Gallaher, Carolyn. Key Concepts in Political Geography. pp. 115–123. doi:10.4135/9781446279496.n13. ISBN 9781412946728. https://books.google.com/books?id=XpBJclVnVdQC&pg=PA115.
36. ↑ "So-called referenda in Russian-controlled Ukraine 'cannot be regarded as legal': UN political affairs chief". UN News. 27 September 2022. https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1128161.
37. ↑ Alessio, Dominic; Renfro, Wesley (1 August 2022). "Building empires litorally in the South China Sea: artificial islands and contesting definitions of imperialism" (in en). International Politics 59 (4): 687–706. doi:10.1057/s41311-021-00328-x. ISSN 1740-3898.
38. ↑

* Aaronson 1996, p. 223: "On the other hand, our study has revealed that Jewish colonization resembled in many respects the model of pure "settlement of population" ("colonization de peuplement"), in the sense of involving colonization without colonialism."
* Cohen 2011, p. 128:"In February 1928, Weizmann submitted an official request to the government for a loan guarantee. He explained that the Zionist Loan was needed to promote further Jewish colonization in Palestine. [...] He advised that both the Zionists and the government should initiate a new period of Zionist colonizing activity as soon as possible."
* Murphy 2005:[page needed] "The first forty years of the twentieth century witnessed the transformation of Zionism from a philosophical discourse to a practical programme for the colonisation of Palestine."
* Yadgar 2017, p. 207:"At the foundation of the Zionist outlook stood the aspiration to establish a state. And absolute sovereignty is needed for Zionism more than for any other nation, because Zionism demanded the right of unrestricted immigration and unrestricted colonization, which can be brought about only by complete sovereignty."
* Shapira, Anita (1992a). "Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948". The American Historical Review (Oxford University Press) 98 (4): 355. doi:10.1086/ahr/98.4.1302. ISSN 0002-8762. https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/98/4/1302/129140. Retrieved 19 July 2025. "In many respects, Zionism was unique as a national movement. One of its (presumably singular) characteristic features stemmed from the fact that it was a national liberation movement that was destined to function as a movement promoting settlement in a country of colonization. [...] Zionist psychology was molded by the conflicting parameters of a national liberation movement and a movement of European colonization in a Middle Eastern country. [...] The Zionist movement (in particular, it socialist variant) viewed itself as belonging to the forces striving for a better world and could not accept the fact that the framework of its activity was determined by the contours of a country of colonization.".
* Elazari-Volcani, J. (1932). "Jewish Colonization in Palestine". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 164: 84–94. doi:10.1177/000271623216400112. ISSN 0002-7162. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1018961. Retrieved 19 July 2025.
* Gelvin, James L. (11 March 2021). "Zionism and the Colonization of Palestine". The Israel-Palestine Conflict: A History (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 49–80. doi:10.1017/9781108771634. ISBN 978-1-108-77163-4. https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/the-israel-palestine-conflict/5D389E3231527643CCE3F861003EC172/zionism-and-the-colonization-of-palestine/4C076CF1B5A8289FAECC6FA36262EC4A. Retrieved 19 July 2025.
* Collins 2011, pp. 169–185: "... and as subsequent work (Finkelstein 1995; Massad 2005; Pappe 2006; Said 1992; Shafir 1989) has definitively established, the architects of Zionism were conscious and often unapologetic about their status as colonizers."
* Bloom 2011, pp. 2, 13, 49, 132: "Dr. Arthur Ruppin was sent to Palestine for the first time in 1907 by the heads of the German [World] Zionist Organization in order to make a pilot study of the possibilities for colonization. ... Oppenheimer was a German sociologist and political economist. As a worldwide expert on colonization he became Herzl's advisor and formulated the first program for Zionist colonization, which he presented at the 6th Zionist Congress (Basel 1903) . ... Daniel Boyarin wrote that the group of Zionists who imagined themselves colonialists inclined to that persona "because such a representation was pivotal to the entire project of becoming 'white men'." Colonization was seen as a sign of belonging to western and modern culture;"
* Robinson 2013, p. 18: "'Never before', wrote Berl Katznelson, founding editor of the Histadrut daily, Davar, 'has the white man undertaken colonization with that sense of justice and social progress which fills the Jew who comes to Palestine.'" Berl Katznelson
* Alroey 2011, p. 5: "Herzl further sharpened the issue when he tried to make diplomacy precede settlement, precluding any possibility of preemptive and unplanned settlement in the Land of Israel: "Should the powers show themselves willing to grant us sovereignty over a neutral land, then the Society will enter into negotiations for the possession of this land. Here two regions come to mind: Palestine and Argentina. Significant experiments in colonization have been made in both countries, though on the mistaken principle of gradual infiltration of Jews. Infiltration is bound to end badly."
* Jabotinsky 1923: "Colonisation can have only one aim, and Palestine Arabs cannot accept this aim. It lies in the very nature of things, and in this particular regard nature cannot be changed .. . Zionist colonisation must either stop, or else proceed regardless of the native population." Ze'ev Jabotinsky quoted in Alan Balfour, The Walls of Jerusalem: Preserving the Past, Controlling the Future, Wiley, 2019, p. 59, ISBN 978-1-119-18229-0.
* Piterberg, Gabriel (April 1, 2010). "Settlers and their States". New Left Review (62): 115–124. doi:10.64590/odz. https://newleftreview.org/issues/ii62/articles/gabriel-piterberg-settlers-and-their-states. "It is within the typology of settler colonialisms that I place the Zionist colonization of Palestine and the state of Israel—a move which surely should have put to rest the tedious contention that Zionism could not be termed a colonial venture because it lacked the features of metropole colonialism; as if anyone were suggesting otherwise. What its apologists fail to confront is the settler-colonial paradigm.".

39. ↑ Perry, Alex (14 February 2008). "Come Back, Colonialism, All Is Forgiven" (in en-US). Time. ISSN 0040-781X. http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1713275,00.html.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012). Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. London: Cambridge University Press.
41. ↑ Ferguson, Niall (2003). Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World. London: Allen Lane.
42. ↑ Thong, Tezenlo (2012). "Civilised Colonisers and Barbaric Colonised: Reclaiming Naga Identity by Demythologising Colonial Portraits". History and Anthropology 23 (3): 375–97. doi:10.1080/02757206.2012.697060.
43. ↑ McNamee, Lachlan (2023) (in en). Settling for Less: Why States Colonize and Why They Stop. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-23781-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=s-x8EAAAQBAJ.
44. ↑ Jacobs, Margaret D. (1 July 2009). White Mother to a Dark Race. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press. pp. 24, 81, 421, 430. ISBN 978-0-8032-1100-1. OCLC 268789976.
45. ↑ Spurr, David (1993). The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration. Post-Contemporary Interventions. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-9864-6.
46. ↑ Olumide, Yetunde Mercy (6 October 2016) (in en). The Vanishing Black African Woman: Volume Two: A Compendium of the Global Skin-Lightening Practice. Langaa RPCIG. ISBN 978-9956-763-68-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=rdNSDQAAQBAJ&q=The+native+cultures+of+the+colonised+peoples+can+also+have+a+powerful+influence+on+the+imperial+country&pg=PA934.
47. ↑ Legault, Gabrielle; Bleau, Denica (2025-04-03). "Indigenizing or Appropriating? Navigating the Boundaries of Institutional Decolonization". Capitalism Nature Socialism 36 (2): 71–91. doi:10.1080/10455752.2024.2445586. ISSN 1045-5752. https://doi.org/10.1080/10455752.2024.2445586.
48. ↑ Hart, Jonathan (2003), Hart, Jonathan, ed., "Cultural Appropriation: Colonialism and Postcolonialism" (in en), Columbus, Shakespeare, and the Interpretation of the New World (New York: Palgrave Macmillan US): pp. 149–173, doi:10.1057/9781403973573_7, ISBN 978-1-4039-7357-3, https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403973573_7, retrieved 2025-07-12
49. ↑ Miles, William F. S. (2014). Scars of Partition: Postcolonial Legacies in French and British Borderlands. University of Nebraska Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8032-6771-8. "Anglo-French carving of colonial space is a significant geographical legacy: nearly 40 percent of the entire length of today's international boundaries were traced by Britain and France."
50. ↑ "Strabo's Geography Book II Chapter 5 "
51. ↑ Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires. New York: Modern Library. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-8129-6761-6.
52. ↑ Pagden (2003). Peoples and Empires. p. 5.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2005). "Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-Run Growth". Handbook of Economic Growth. 1A. pp. 385–472. doi:10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01006-3. ISBN 9780444520418. http://economics.mit.edu/files/4469. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
54. ↑ Freedman, Estelle (2002). No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and The Future of Women. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-345-45053-1. https://archive.org/details/noturningbackhis00free/page/25.
55. ↑ Freedman (2002). No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and The Future of Women. Ballantine Books. pp. 113. ISBN 978-0-345-45053-1. https://archive.org/details/noturningbackhis00free/page/113.
56. ↑ Dell, Melissa; Olken, Benjamin A. (2020). "The Development Effects of the Extractive Colonial Economy: The Dutch Cultivation System in Java". The Review of Economic Studies 87: 164–203. doi:10.1093/restud/rdz017. https://scholar.harvard.edu/dell/publications/development-effects-extractive-colonial-economy-dutch-cultivation-system-java.
57. ↑ Mattingly, Daniel C. (2017). "Colonial Legacies and State Institutions in China: Evidence From a Natural Experiment". Comparative Political Studies 50 (4): 434–463. doi:10.1177/0010414015600465. http://daniel-mattingly.com/s/Mattingly_CPS_Preprint.pdf.
58. ↑ Hofstadter, Richard, "White Servitude", Montgomery College. .
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 King, Russell (2010). People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-520-26124-2. https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/24.
60. ↑ Hannah-Jones, Nikole (14 August 2019). "Our democracy's founding ideals were false when they were written. Black Americans have fought to make them true". The New York Times Magazine. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/black-history-american-democracy.html. "The wealth and prominence that allowed Jefferson, at just 33, and the other founding fathers to believe they could successfully break off from one of the mightiest empires in the world came from the dizzying profits generated by chattel slavery. In other words, we may never have revolted against Britain if the founders had not understood that slavery empowered them to do so; nor if they had not believed that independence was required in order to ensure that slavery would continue. It is not incidental that 10 of this nation's first 12 presidents were enslavers, and some might argue that this nation was founded not as a democracy but as a slavocracy."
61. ↑ Petrie, Hazel (2015). Outcasts of the Gods? The Struggle over Slavery in Maori New Zealand. Auckland University Press. ISBN 9781775587859. https://books.google.com/books?id=1xJzCgAAQBAJ. Retrieved 17 June 2020. "Trade with the early explorers, whalers, sealers, and shore-based traders; interaction with missionaries; the availability of muskets; unprecedented warfare; new methods of dispute resolution; and English law all played their part in influencing the increase or decline of Maori captive-taking."
62. ↑ Firth, Raymond (1929). Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori. Routledge Revivals (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge (published 2011). p. 203. ISBN 9780415694728. https://books.google.com/books?id=JNGm14xd1JkC. Retrieved 17 June 2020. "The economic value of the slave to the community was considerable. [...] Slavery among the Maori is certainly not comparable to the system as it existed among the ancient civilized states of Europe, but relative to the culture of this native people, it played an important part [...]."
63. ↑ Lowe, Joshua (2014). To what extent was the Great Trek undertaken to preserve Afrikaner Culture?. GRIN. p. 2. ISBN 9783656715245. https://books.google.com/books?id=DrlABAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 17 June 2020. "There were also threats to what the Afrikaner perceived as tradition, and slavery was included in this perception.
The abolition of slavery had an effect on why the Great Trek was undertaken and has links to the Afrikaner cultural preservation theory. Slavery was an integral part of Afrikaner society, and there was a sense of discontent when it was called to an end."
64. ↑ King, Russell (2010). People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration. pp. 26–27. https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/26.
65. ↑ Pagden (2003). Peoples and Empires. p. 6.
66. ↑ King (2010). People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration. p. 35. https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/35.
67. ↑ Willems, Wim "De uittocht uit Indie (1945–1995), De geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders" (Publisher: Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2001). ISBN 90-351-2361-1
68. ↑ Crul, Lindo and Lin Pang. Culture, Structure and Beyond, Changing identities and social positions of immigrants and their children (Het Spinhuis Publishers, 1999). ISBN 90-5589-173-8
69. ↑ "British Nationality Act 1981". The National Archives, United Kingdom. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/61.
70. ↑ Kubicek, Paul (2020-12-20) (in en). European Politics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-28191-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=x6MJEAAAQBAJ.
71. ↑ "The Francophonie in Brief" (in fr). Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. https://www.francophonie.org/francophonie-brief-1763.
72. ↑ "Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries – CPLP | DGES" (in pt). https://www.dges.gov.pt/en/pagina/community-portuguese-speaking-countries-cplp.
73. ↑ "Taalunie – Union for the Dutch Language – Taalunie" (in nl). https://taalunie.org/informatie/112/taalunie-union-for-the-dutch-language.
74. ↑ Seljuq, Affan (1997). "Cultural Conflicts: North African Immigrants in France". International Journal of Peace Studies 2 (2): 67–75. http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol2_2/seljuq.htm.
75. ↑ Kiple, Kenneth F., ed (2003). The Cambridge Historical Dictionary of Disease.
76. ↑ Crosby, Jr., Alfred W. (1974). The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492.
77. ↑ Koplow, David, "Chapter 1: The Rise and Fall of Smallpox", Smallpox – The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge, University of California Press. .
78. ↑ Houston, C.S.; Houston, S. (2000). "The first smallpox epidemic on the Canadian Plains: In the fur-traders' words". The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases 11 (2): 112–15. doi:10.1155/2000/782978. PMID 18159275.
79. ↑ "Guns Germs & Steel: Variables. Smallpox". https://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html.
80. ↑ Goodling, Stacy. "Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World". http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/papers/goodling.html.
81. ↑ "Smallpox Through History". Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/media_701508643/Smallpox_Through_History.html.
82. ↑ "New Zealand Historical Perspective". http://www.canr.msu.edu/overseas/nzenvironsci/infopart2.htm.
83. ↑ How did Easter Island's ancient statues lead to the destruction of an entire ecosystem?, The Independent.
84. ↑ Fiji School of Medicine
85. ↑ Macintyre, Donald, "Meeting the First Inhabitants", TIMEasia.com, 21 August 2000. .
86. ↑ Wilford, John Noble (15 January 2008). "Genetic Study Bolsters Columbus Link to Syphilis". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/15/science/15syph.html.
87. ↑ Choi, Charles Q. (15 January 2008). "Columbus May Have Brought Syphilis to Europe". LiveScience. http://www.livescience.com/history/080114-syphilis-columbus.html.
88. ↑ Cholera's seven pandemics. CBC News. 2 December 2008.
89. ↑ Collett, Nigel (27 October 2005). "Review | Sahib: The British Soldier in India, 1750–1914 by Richard Holmes". http://www.asianreviewofbooks.com/new/?revID=610.
90. ↑ Baten, Joerg; Maravall, Laura (2021). "The Influence of Colonialism on Africa's Welfare: An Anthropometric Study". Journal of Comparative Economics 49 (3): 751–775. doi:10.1016/j.jce.2021.01.001.
91. ↑ "Dr. Francisco de Balmis and his Mission of Mercy, Society of Philippine Health History.". http://www.doh.gov.ph/sphh/balmis.htm.
92. ↑ "Lewis Cass and the Politics of Disease: The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832.". http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/wicazo_sa_review/v018/18.2pearson01.html.
93. ↑ Smallpox History – Other histories of smallpox in South Asia.
94. ↑ Conquest and Disease or Colonialism and Health? , Gresham College | Lectures and Events.
95. ↑ "Fact sheet N°259: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness". 2001. https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs259/en/index.html.
96. ↑ Iliffe, John (1989). "The Origins of African Population Growth". The Journal of African History 30 (1): 165–69. doi:10.1017/s0021853700030942.
97. ↑ "World Population by Year" (in en). https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/world-population-by-year/.
98. ↑ Colonial Botany: Science, Commerce, and Politics in the Early Modern World. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2007.
99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 "Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography, 2nd ed., Sage. "Imperialism" p. 23 (GIC).
100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 Nayak, Anoop; Jeffrey, Alex (2011). Geographical thought : an introduction to ideas in human geography. Harlow, England: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-13-222824-4.
101. ↑ Arnold, David (March 2000). ""Illusory Riches": Representations of the Tropical World, 1840–1950". Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 21 (1): 6–18. doi:10.1111/1467-9493.00060. Bibcode: 2000SJTG...21....6A.
102. ↑ Gallaher, Carolyn; Dahlman, Carl T.; Gilmartin, Mary; Mountz, Alison; Shirlow, Peter (2009). Key Concepts in Political Geography. London: Sage. pp. 392. ISBN 978-1-4129-4672-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=XpBJclVnVdQC&pg=PA5. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
103. ↑ Bassett, Thomas J. (1994). "Cartography and Empire Building in Nineteenth-Century West Africa". Geographical Review 84 (3): 316–335. doi:10.2307/215456. Bibcode: 1994GeoRv..84..316B.
104. ↑ Harley, J. B. (1989). "Deconstructing the Map". Cartographica 26 (2): 1–20. doi:10.3138/E635-7827-1757-9T53. http://dlisv03.media.osaka-cu.ac.jp/contents/osakacu/kiyo/13423282-23-123.pdf.
105. ↑ Bassett, Thomas J. (1994). "Cartography and Empire Building in Nineteenth-Century West Africa". Geographical Review 84 (3): 322, 324–25. doi:10.2307/215456. Bibcode: 1994GeoRv..84..316B.
106. ↑ Gregory, Derek, ed (2009). The dictionary of human geography (5th ed.). Chichester (UK): Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-1-4051-3288-6. https://archive.org/details/dictionaryhumang00greg.
107. ↑ Menadue, Christopher Benjamin (4 September 2018). "Cities in Flight: A Descriptive Examination of the Tropical City Imagined in Twentieth Century Science Fiction Cover Art" (in en). ETropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics 17 (2). doi:10.25120/etropic.17.2.2018.3658. ISSN 1448-2940.
108. ↑ "Deep sea mining and neocolonialism in the Pacific". 29 May 2018. https://www.greenpeace.org/aotearoa/story/deep-sea-mining-and-neocolonialism-in-the-pacific/.
109. ↑ "Our deep sea is being colonised". 4 April 2023. https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/487299/our-deep-sea-is-being-colonised.
110. ↑ Smiles, Deondre (11 March 2024). "The Settler Logics of (Outer) Space". https://www.societyandspace.org/articles/the-settler-logics-of-outer-space.
111. ↑ Greaves, Margaret (22 June 2023). ""The Moon's Corpse Rising": The Poetic Moon and Imperialist Nostalgia from the U.S. to Kashmir". Lyric Poetry and Space Exploration from Einstein to the Present. Oxford University PressOxford. p. 101–C3P68. doi:10.1093/oso/9780192867452.003.0004. ISBN 978-0-19-286745-2.
112. ↑ Watts, Michael (2005). "Encyclopedia of International Development". Encyclopedia of International Development. Routledge. ISBN 9781136952913.
113. ↑ Sunga, Lyal S. (1997). The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 90ff. ISBN 9789041104724. https://books.google.com/books?id=Dbb8eQH-vbQC&pg=PA90. Sunga traces the origin of the international movement against colonialism, and relates it to the rise of the right to self-determination in international law.
114. ↑ Walter Rodney (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. East African Publishers. pp. 149, 224. ISBN 978-9966-25-113-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=CwSSkemSJLcC&pg=PA224.
115. ↑ Henry Schwarz; Sangeeta Ray (2004). A Companion To Postcolonial Studies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-470-99833-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=eyiZafDHpqoC&pg=PA271.
116. ↑ Boahen, A. Adu. Africa under Colonial Domination 1880–1935. London: Heinemann, 1985. 11. Print.
117. ↑ 117.0 117.1 Liberal Anti-Imperialism , professor Daniel Klein, 1 July 2004
118. ↑ Hidalgo, Dennis (2007). "Anticolonialism". in Benjamin, Thomas. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism since 1450 (Gale Virtual Reference Library ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 57–65. https://www.academia.edu/9048629. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
119. ↑ Smith, Adam (1811). The nature and causes of the wealth of nations ("Of Colonies"). London: T. Cadell. pp. 343–84.
120. ↑ Stoler, Ann L. (Nov 1989). "Making Empire Respectable: The Politics of Race and Sexual Morality in 20th-Century Colonical Cultures". American Ethnologist 16 (4): 634–60. doi:10.1525/ae.1989.16.4.02a00030. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/136501/1/ae.1989.16.4.02a00030.pdf.
121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 121.2 121.3 Fee, E. (1979). "Nineteenth-century craniology: The study of the female skull". Bulletin of the History of Medicine 53 (3): 415–33. PMID 394780.
122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 122.2 122.3 122.4 Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2001). "Gender, Race, and Nation: The Comparative Anatomy of "Hottentot" women in Europe, 1815–1817". in Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch. The Gender and Science Reader. Routledge. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234102374.
123. ↑ Stepan, Nancy (1993). Sandra Harding. ed. The "Racial" Economy of Science (3 ed.). Indiana University press. pp. 359–76. ISBN 978-0-253-20810-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=CmJWBaANlsEC.
124. ↑ Male and female brains: the REAL differences 10 February 2016, by Dean Burnett, The Guardian
125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 125.2 125.3 125.4 Mountz, Alison. The Other, Key Concepts in Human Geography. pp. 2.
126. ↑ Andrews, Kehinde (24 August 2016). "Colonial nostalgia is back in fashion, blinding us to the horrors of empire". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/24/colonial-nostalgia-horrors-of-empire-britain-olympic.
127. ↑ Dahlgreen, Will (26 July 2014). "The British Empire is 'something to be proud of'". YouGov. https://yougov.co.uk/news/2014/07/26/britain-proud-its-empire/.
128. ↑ "Main Data of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region from the Seventh National Population Census". Consulate General of the People's Republic of China in Toronto. 16 June 2021. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cgtrt/eng/news/t1884310.htm.
129. ↑ "How Much Does Beijing Control the Ethnic Makeup of Tibet?" (in en). 2 September 2021. https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/how-much-does-beijing-control-ethnic-makeup-of-tibet.
130. ↑ Tsai, Lin-chin (10 May 2019). Re-conceptualizing Taiwan: Settler Colonial Criticism and Cultural Production (Thesis) - via escholarship.org.
131. ↑ Richards 2003, p. 141.
132. ↑ Ethnic groups by country. Statistics (where available) from CIA Factbook.
133. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
134. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
135. ↑ Tarnus, Evelyne; Bourdon, Emmanuel (2006). "Anthropometric evaluations of body composition of undergraduate students at the University of La Réunion". Advances in Physiology Education 30 (4): 248–53. doi:10.1152/advan.00069.2005. PMID 17108254.
136. ↑ Laurenson, John (29 July 2006). "Former settlers return to Algeria". BBC News. https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5224244.stm.
137. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
138. ↑ De Azevedo, Raimondo Cagiano (1994) Migration and development co-operation.. Council of Europe. p. 25. ISBN 92-871-2611-9.
139. ↑ "Ivory Coast – The Economy". Library of Congress Country Studies.
140. ↑ Senegal, About 50,000 Europeans (mostly French) and Lebanese reside in Senegal, mainly in the cities.
141. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
142. ↑ Tunisia, Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Thomson Gale. 2007. Encyclopedia.com.
143. ↑ Fiona Hill, Russia — Coming In From the Cold? , The Globalist, 23 February 2004
144. ↑ "Siberian Germans".
145. ↑ Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation by Moya Flynn. (1994). p. 15. ISBN 1-84331-117-8
146. ↑ 146.0 146.1 146.2 146.3 146.4 Robert Greenall, "Russians left behind in Central Asia", BBC News, 23 November 2005.
147. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
148. ↑ The Kyrgyz – Children of Manas by Petr Kokaisl, Pavla Kokaislova (2009). p. 125. ISBN 80-254-6365-6.
149. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
150. ↑ Tajikistan – Ethnic Groups. Source: U.S. Library of Congress.
151. ↑ HK Census. " HK Census ". Statistical Table. Retrieved on 8 March 2007.
152. ↑ "circa". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/circa.

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*     * Argentina (European Immigration to Argentina): 97% European and mestizo of the population[1]
* Bolivia: 15% of the population[2]
* Brazil (White Brazilian): 47% of the population[3]
* Chile (White Chilean): 60–70% of the population.[4][5][6]
* Colombia (White Colombian): 37% of the population[7]
* Costa Rica: 83% of the population[8]
* Cuba (White Cuban): 65% of the population[9]
* Dominican Republic: 16% of the population[10]
* Ecuador: 7% of the population[11]
* Honduras: 1% of the population[12]
* El Salvador: 12% of the population[13]
* Mexico (White Mexican): 9% or ~17% of the population.[14][15] and 70–80% more as Mestizos.[15]
* Nicaragua: 17% of the population[16]
* Panama: 10% of the population[17]
* Puerto Rico: approx. 80% of the population[18]
* Peru (European Peruvian): 15% of the population[19]
* Paraguay: approx. 20% of the population[20]
* Uruguay (White Uruguayan): 88% of the population[21]

Mennonites of German descent in Belize

*     * Venezuela (White Venezuelan): 42% of the population[22]
* Rest of the Americas
* Bahamas: 12% of the population[23]
* Barbados (White Barbadian): 4% of the population[24]
* Bermuda: 34% of the population[25]
* Canada (European Canadians): 80% of the population[26]
* Falkland Islands: mostly of British descent.
* French Guiana: 12% of the population[27]
* Greenland: 12% of the population[28]
* Martinique: 5% of the population[29]
* Saint Barthélemy[30]
* Trinidad and Tobago:[31] 1% of the population

Portuguese immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century

*     * United States (European American): 72% of the population, including Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Whites.
* Oceania (see Europeans in Oceania)
* Australia (European Australians): 90% of the population
* New Zealand (European New Zealanders): 78% of the population
* New Caledonia (Caldoche): 35% of the population
* French Polynesia: (Zoreilles) 10% of the population[32]
* Hawaii: 25% of the population[33]
* Christmas Island: approx. 20% of the population.
* Guam: 7% of the population[34]
* Norfolk Island: 9→5% of the population

## See also

* African independence movements
* Age of Discovery
* Anti-imperialism
* Chartered company
* Chinese imperialism
* Christianity and colonialism
* Civilising mission
* Client state
* Colonial Empire
* Colonialism in Switzerland
* Colonialism and the Olympic Games
* Coloniality of power
* Colonial war
* Cultural colonialism
* Decoloniality
* Decolonization of the Americas
* Developmentalism
* Direct colonial rule
* Empire of Liberty
* European colonization of Africa
* European colonization of the Americas
* European colonization of Micronesia
* European colonisation of Southeast Asia
* French law on colonialism
* German eastward expansion
* Global Empire
* Historiography of the British Empire
* Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
* International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
* Orientalism
* Pluricontinental
* Protectorate
* Right of conquest
* Satellite state
* Stranger King (Concept)
* Western imperialism in Asia

## References

1. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
2. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
3. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
4. ↑ Fernández, Francisco Lizcano (2007). Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI. UAEM. ISBN 978-970-757-052-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=LcabJ98-t1wC&q=chile+60%+blancos+Esteva-Fabregat&pg=PA93.
5. ↑ Informe Latinobarómetro 2011, Latinobarómetro (p. 58).
6. ↑ Cruz-Coke, R.; Moreno, R. S. (1994). "Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile". Journal of Medical Genetics 31 (9): 702–706. doi:10.1136/jmg.31.9.702. PMID 7815439.
7. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
8. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook = 3.9 million whites and mestizos
9. ↑ "Tabla II.3 Población por color de la piel y grupos de edades, según zona de residencia y sexo" (in es). Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas. 2002. http://www.cubagob.cu/otras_info/censo/tablas_html/ii_3.htm.
10. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
11. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
12. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
13. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
14. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Mexico: Ethnic Groups". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 February 2024. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico.
16. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
17. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
18. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
19. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
20. ↑ Francisco Lizcano Fernández (May–August 2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI". Convergencia (UAEM, México) (38). ISSN 1405-1435. http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf.
21. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
22. ↑ Resultado Basico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 (p. 14).
23. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
24. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
25. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
26. ↑ "Canadian Census 2006". http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=92334&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=.
27. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
28. ↑ "Greenland". http://www.stalvik.com/Engelska/laegreenland.htm.
29. ↑ Martinique: People: Ethnic Groups. World Factbook of CIA
30. ↑ "Fact Sheet on St. Barthélemy". http://www.cieux.com/stbarth/stbfact.html.
31. ↑ "Trinidad French Creole". http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/trinidad.html.
32. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
33. ↑ "American FactFinder – Results". https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_DP_DPDP1&prodType=table.
34. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook

## Sources

* Aaronson, Ran (1996). "Settlement in Eretz Israel – A Colonialist Enterprise? "Critical" Scholarship and Historical Geography". Israel Studies (Indiana University Press) 1 (2): 214–229. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:8aPWE9P5iBoJ:130.102.44.246/journals/israel_studies/v001/1.2aaronsohn.pdf+&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiwmLNEhH3wwj1Tc0SKIwNXDI7Vn61MevIJkvxNF7UjJdGkVHTlf7yJcPdkujhi-GXEoUsSGjB8Y-cNtoc3AbqZP6uxc2NHFe9R1__kxvACSBMsGtcH4nYZmB5e8gSAdgbH_QT6&sig=AHIEtbSHallbycXdF9sWjGjOU4lvf4a6Og. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
* Alroey, Gur (Fall 2011). ""Zionism without Zion"? Territorialist Ideology and the Zionist Movement, 1882–1956". Jewish Social Studies 18 (1): 1–32. doi:10.2979/jewisocistud.18.1.1.
* Bloom, Etan (2011). Arthur Ruppin and the Production of Pre-Israeli Culture. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-20379-2.
* Cohen, Michael J. (2011). "Zionism and British imperialism II: Imperial financing in Palestine". Journal of Israeli History: Politics, Society, Culture 30 (2): 115–139. doi:10.1080/13531042.2011.610119.
* Collins, John (2011). "A Dream Deterred: Palestine from Total War to Total Peace". in Bateman, Fiona (in en). Studies in Settler Colonialism: Politics, Identity and Culture. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 169–185. doi:10.1057/9780230306288_12. ISBN 978-0-230-30628-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=FmKADAAAQBAJ&dq=John+Collins+A+Dream+Deterred:+Palestine+from+Total+War+to+Total+Peace&pg=PR6. Retrieved September 17, 2024.
* Jabotinsky, Ze'ev (November 4, 1923). "The Iron Wall". http://en.jabotinsky.org/media/9747/the-iron-wall.pdf.
* Murphy, Emma C. (2005). "Zionism and the Palestine Question" (in en). A Companion to the History of the Middle East. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 269–290. doi:10.1002/9780470996423.ch15. ISBN 978-0-470-99642-3. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470996423.ch15. Retrieved July 19, 2025.
* Robinson, Shira (2013). Citizen Strangers: Palestinians and the Birth of Israel's Liberal Settler State. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-804-78802-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=XcM6AAAAQBAJ.
* Yadgar, Yaacov (2017). Sovereign Jews. State University of New York Press. doi:10.1515/9781438465357-008. ISBN 978-1-4384-6535-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=LOJcDgAAQBAJ.

## Further reading

* Albertini, Rudolf von. European Colonial Rule, 1880–1940: The Impact of the West on India, Southeast Asia, and Africa (Praeger: 1982) 581 pp
* Benjamin, Thomas, ed. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (Cengage Gale: 2006)
* Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (University of California Press: 2005)
* Cotterell, Arthur. Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415–1999 (Wiley: 2009) popular history; excerpt
* Getz, Trevor R. and Heather Streets-Salter, eds.: Modern Imperialism and Colonialism: A Global Perspective (Pearson College Div: 2010)
* Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). "Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies,

Short description: Latin loanword meaning "approximately, around"

CA|other uses of "Cca"|CCA (disambiguation)|CCA|other uses of "Circa"|Circa (disambiguation)}}Template:TWCleanup2Circa (from la 'around, about, roughly, approximately') - frequently abbreviated ca. or c. and less frequently circ., cca. or cc. - signifies "approximately" in several European languages and is used as a loanword in English, usually in reference to a date.[1] Circa is widely used in historical writing when the dates of events are not accurately known.

When used in date ranges, circa is applied before each approximate date, while dates without circa immediately preceding them are generally assumed to be known with certainty.

## Examples

* 1732–1799: Both years are known precisely.
* c. 1732 – 1799: The beginning year is approximate; the end year is known precisely.
* 1732 – c. 1799: The beginning year is known precisely; the end year is approximate.
* c. 1732 – c. 1799: Both years are approximate.

## See also

* Floruit

## References

1. ↑ "circa". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/circa.

## External links

* v
* t
* e

Chronology

Key topics|

* Archaeology
* Astronomy
* Geology
* History
* Big History
* Paleontology
* Time

* Periods
* Eras
* Epochs

| Calendar eras|

* Human Era
* Ab urbe condita
* Anno Domini / Common Era
* Anno Mundi
* Byzantine era
* Seleucid era
* Spanish era
* Before Present
* Hijri
* Egyptian
* Sothic cycle
* Hindu units of time (Yuga)
* Mesoamerican
* Long Count
* Short Count
* Tzolk'in
* Haab'

|

Regnal year|

* Canon of Kings
* Lists of kings
* Limmu

Era names|

* Chinese
* Japanese
* Korean
* Vietnamese

Calendars|

| Pre-Julian / Julian|

* Pre-Julian Roman
* Original Julian
* Proleptic Julian
* Revised Julian

|

Gregorian|

* Gregorian
* Proleptic Gregorian
* Old Style and New Style dates
* Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
* Dual dating

Astronomical|

* Lunisolar
* Solar
* Lunar
* Astronomical year numbering

Others|

* Chinese sexagenary cycle
* Geologic Calendar
* Hebrew
* Iranian
* Islamic
* ISO week date
* Mesoamerican
* Maya
* Aztec
* Winter count (Plains Indians)

Astronomic time|

* Cosmic Calendar
* Ephemeris
* Galactic year
* Metonic cycle
* Milankovitch cycles

Geologic time|

| Concepts|

* Deep time
* Geological history of Earth
* Geological time units

|

Standards|

* Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
* Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)

Methods|

* Chronostratigraphy
* Geochronology
* Isotope geochemistry
* Law of superposition
* Luminescence dating
* Samarium–neodymium dating

Chronological
dating|

| Absolute dating|

* Amino acid racemisation
* Archaeomagnetic dating
* Dendrochronology
* Ice core
* Incremental dating
* Lichenometry
* Paleomagnetism
* Radiometric dating
* Radiocarbon
* Uranium–lead
* Potassium–argon
* Tephrochronology
* Luminescence dating
* Thermoluminescence dating

|

Relative dating|

* Fluorine absorption
* Nitrogen dating
* Obsidian hydration
* Seriation
* Stratigraphy

Genetic methods|

* Molecular clock

Linguistic methods|

* Glottochronology

Related topics|

* Chronicle
* New Chronology
* Synchronoptic view
* Timeline
* Year zero
* Circa
* Floruit
* Terminus post quem
* ASPRO chronology

0.00

(0 votes)

|

–2016". Scandinavian Journal of History 41 (4–5): 475–494. doi:10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880.Short+description:+Latin+loanword+meaning+"approximately,+around"

+CA|other+uses+of+"Cca"|CCA+(disambiguation)|CCA|other+uses+of+"Circa"|Circa+(disambiguation)}}[[:Template:TWCleanup2]]'''Circa'''+(from [[la+language|la]] 'around,+about,+roughly,+approximately') - frequently+abbreviated+'''ca.'''+or+'''c.'''+and+less+frequently+'''circ.''',+'''cca.'''+or+'''cc.''' - signifies+"approximately"+in+several+European+languages+and+is+used+as+a+[[Social:Loanword|loanword]]+in+English,+usually+in+reference+to+a+date.+''Circa''+is+widely+used+in+historical+writing+when+the+dates+of+events+are+not+accurately+known. When+used+in+date+ranges,+''circa''+is+applied+before+each+approximate+date,+while+dates+without+''circa''+immediately+preceding+them+are+generally+assumed+to+be+known+with+certainty. ==Examples== *1732–1799:+Both+years+are+known+precisely. *c.+1732+–+1799:+The+beginning+year+is+approximate;+the+end+year+is+known+precisely. *1732+–+c.+1799:+The+beginning+year+is+known+precisely;+the+end+year+is+approximate. *c.+1732+–+c.+1799:+Both+years+are+approximate. ==See+also== *''Floruit'' ==References==

==External+links==

[[Template:Chronology|v]]
[[Template+talk:Chronology|t]]
[https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Template:Chronology&action;=edite]

[[Physics:Chronology|Chronology]]

Key+topics *+[[Earth:Archaeology|Archaeology]] *+[[Astronomy:Astronomy|Astronomy]] *+[[Earth:Geology|Geology]] *+[[History:History|History]] **+[[Biology:Big+History|Big+History]] *+[[Biology:Paleontology|Paleontology]] *+[[Philosophy:Time|Time]]

* [[History:Periodization|Period]]s
* [[Physics:Era|Era]]s
* [[Epoch+(reference+date)|Epoch]]s

[[History:Calendar+era|Calendar+era]]s *+[[Earth:Holocene+calendar|Human+Era]] *+''[[History:Ab+urbe+condita|Ab+urbe+condita]]'' *+[[Religion:Anno+Domini|Anno+Domini]] / [[Philosophy:Common+Era|Common+Era]] *+[[History:Anno+Mundi|Anno+Mundi]] *+[[Byzantine+calendar|Byzantine+era]] *+[[History:Seleucid+era|Seleucid+era]] *+[[History:Spanish+era|Spanish+era]] *+[[Earth:Before+Present|Before+Present]] *+[[Engineering:Islamic+calendar|Hijri]] *+[[History:Egyptian+chronology|Egyptian]] *+[[Physics:Sothic+cycle|Sothic+cycle]] *+[[Hindu+units+of+time]]+([[Physics:Yuga|Yuga]]) *+[[Mesoamerican+calendars|Mesoamerican]] **+[[History:Mesoamerican+Long+Count+calendar|Long+Count]] **+[[Astronomy:Maya+calendar#Short+Count|Short+Count]] **+[[Tzolk'in]] **+[[Haab']]

[[History:Regnal+year|Regnal+year]] *+[[Astronomy:Canon+of+Kings|Canon+of+Kings]] *+[[:Category:King+lists|Lists+of+kings]] *+[[History:Limmu|Limmu]]

[[History:Regnal+year|Era+name]]s *+[[History:Chinese+era+name|Chinese]] *+[[History:Japanese+era+name|Japanese]] *+[[History:Korean+era+name|Korean]] *+[[History:Vietnamese+era+name|Vietnamese]]

[[Physics:Calendar|Calendar]]s

Pre-Julian / Julian *+[[Roman+calendar|Pre-Julian+Roman]] *+[[Julian+calendar|Original+Julian]] *+[[Proleptic+Julian+calendar|Proleptic+Julian]] *+[[Revised+Julian+calendar|Revised+Julian]]

Gregorian *+[[Gregorian+calendar|Gregorian]] *+[[Proleptic+Gregorian+calendar|Proleptic+Gregorian]] *+[[Old+Style+and+New+Style+dates]] *+[[Adoption+of+the+Gregorian+calendar]] *+[[Dual+dating]]

Astronomical *+[[Astronomy:Lunisolar+calendar|Lunisolar]] *+[[Solar+calendar|Solar]] *+[[Lunar+calendar|Lunar]] *+[[Astronomy:Astronomical+year+numbering|Astronomical+year+numbering]]

Others *+[[Physics:Sexagenary+cycle|Chinese+sexagenary+cycle]] *+[[Astronomy:Geologic+Calendar|Geologic+Calendar]] *+[[History:Hebrew+calendar|Hebrew]] *+[[Iranian+calendars|Iranian]] *+[[Engineering:Islamic+calendar|Islamic]] *+[[ISO+week+date]] *+[[Mesoamerican+calendars|Mesoamerican]] **+[[Astronomy:Maya+calendar|Maya]] **+[[Aztec+calendar|Aztec]] *+[[Winter+count]]+(Plains+Indians)

[[Astronomy:Astronomical+chronology|Astronomic+time]] *+[[Astronomy:Cosmic+Calendar|Cosmic+Calendar]] *+[[Astronomy:Ephemeris|Ephemeris]] *+[[Astronomy:Galactic+year|Galactic+year]] *+[[Astronomy:Metonic+cycle|Metonic+cycle]] *+[[Earth:Milankovitch+cycles|Milankovitch+cycles]]

[[Earth:Geologic+time+scale|Geologic+time]]

Concepts *+[[Physics:Deep+time|Deep+time]] *+[[Earth:Geological+history+of+Earth|Geological+history+of+Earth]] *+[[Earth:Geologic+time+scale#Terminology|Geological+time+units]]

Standards *+[[Physics:Global+Standard+Stratigraphic+Age|Global+Standard+Stratigraphic+Age+(GSSA)]] *+[[Physics:Global+Boundary+Stratotype+Section+and+Point|Global+Boundary+Stratotype+Section+and+Point+(GSSP)]]

Methods *+[[Earth:Chronostratigraphy|Chronostratigraphy]] *+[[Physics:Geochronology|Geochronology]] *+[[Chemistry:Isotope+geochemistry|Isotope+geochemistry]] *+[[Physics:Law+of+superposition|Law+of+superposition]] *+[[Physics:Luminescence+dating|Luminescence+dating]] *+[[Physics:Samarium–neodymium+dating|Samarium–neodymium+dating]]

[[Physics:Chronological+dating|Chronological
dating]]

[[Physics:Absolute+dating|Absolute+dating]] *+[[Physics:Amino+acid+dating|Amino+acid+racemisation]] *+[[Earth:Archaeomagnetic+dating|Archaeomagnetic+dating]] *+[[Physics:Dendrochronology|Dendrochronology]] *+[[Earth:Ice+core|Ice+core]] *+[[Incremental+dating]] *+[[Biology:Lichenometry|Lichenometry]] *+[[Earth:Paleomagnetism|Paleomagnetism]] *+[[Physics:Radiometric+dating|Radiometric+dating]] **+[[Physics:Radiocarbon+dating|Radiocarbon]] **+[[Physics:Uranium–lead+dating|Uranium–lead]] **+[[Physics:K–Ar+dating|Potassium–argon]] *+[[Chemistry:Tephrochronology|Tephrochronology]] *+[[Physics:Luminescence+dating|Luminescence+dating]] *+[[Physics:Thermoluminescence+dating|Thermoluminescence+dating]]

[[Physics:Relative+dating|Relative+dating]] *+[[Fluorine+absorption+dating|Fluorine+absorption]] *+[[Chemistry:Nitrogen+dating|Nitrogen+dating]] *+[[Chemistry:Obsidian+hydration+dating|Obsidian+hydration]] *+[[Social:Seriation+(archaeology)|Seriation]] *+[[Social:Stratigraphy+(archaeology)|Stratigraphy]]

Genetic+methods *+[[Biology:Molecular+clock|Molecular+clock]]

Linguistic+methods *+[[Glottochronology]]

Related+topics *+[[Chronicle]] *+[[Unsolved:New+Chronology+(Fomenko)|New+Chronology]] *+[[Synchronoptic+view]] *+[[Timeline]] *+[[Astronomy:Year+zero|Year+zero]] *+[[Social:Circa|Circa]] *+[[Floruit]] *+[[Physics:Terminus+post+quem|Terminus+post+quem]] *+[[History:ASPRO+chronology|ASPRO+chronology]]

[[Category:Genealogy]]
+ –2016&rft.jtitle=[[History:Scandinavian+Journal+of+History|Scandinavian+Journal+of+History]]&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Niklas+Thode&rft.au=Jensen, Niklas+Thode&rft.au=Simonsen, Gunvor&rft.date=2016&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4–5&rft.pages=475–494&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Social:Colonialism">

* LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier: Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2-213-62316-3
* Lindqvist, Sven: Exterminate All The Brutes, 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), ISBN 978-1-56584-359-2
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
* Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (2 vol 2015), 1456 pp
* Nuzzo, Luigi: Colonial Law, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: 17 December 2012.
* Osterhammel, Jürgen: Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.
* Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol 2003)
* Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006), ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0.
* Prashad, Vijay: The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World, The New Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56584-785-9
* Resendez, Andres (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 448. ISBN 978-0544602670. https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&q=Reséndez, Andrés. 2017. The other slavery: the uncovered story of indian enslavement in America.&pg=PP1.
* Rönnbäck, K. & Broberg, O. (2019) Capital and Colonialism. The Return on British Investments in Africa 1869–1969 (Palgrave Studies in Economic History)
* Schill, Pierre: Réveiller l'archive d'une guerre coloniale. Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912), Créaphis, 480 p., 2018 (ISBN 978-2-35428-141-0). Awaken the archive of a colonial war. Photographs and writings of a French war correspondent during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya (1911–1912). With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher, critic Smaranda Olcèse, writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz.
* Stuchtey, Benedikt: Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450–1950, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 13 July 2011.
* Townsend, Mary Evelyn. European colonial expansion since 1871 (1941).
* U.S. Tariff Commission. Colonial tariff policies (1922), worldwide; 922pp survey online
* Wendt, Reinhard: European Overseas Rule, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 13 June 2012.

### Primary sources

* Conrad, Joseph, Heart of Darkness, 1899
* Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth, Preface by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. London: Penguin Book, 2001
* Las Casas, Bartolomé de, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1542, published in 1552).

## External links

* Kohn, Margaret. "Colonialism". in Zalta, Edward N.. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/.

* v
* t
* e

Colonization, decolonization, and neocolonialism

Earth|

| Exploration|

* Americas
* Africa
* Asia
* Oceania
* Antarctica — World oceans

|

Colonization|

* Americas
* Africa
* Asia
* Southeast Asia
* Oceania
* Antarctica

* World oceans
* Subterranea

Decolonization|

* Americas
* Africa
* Asia
* Oceania

General
topics|

| Exploration|

* Maritime history (European)
* Age of Discovery
* Solar System discovery

|

Colonization|

* Antiquity — Imperialism
* Chartered companies
* Interventionism
* Colonialism
* chronology
* history
* empires
* detribalization
* settler colonialism
* wars
* Current: Non-Self-Governing
* Dependent
* Space Station — Space Militarization
* Commercial use of space

Colonial empires
in Modern era|

* Overseas, major: British
* Dutch
* French
* German
* Italian
* Portuguese
* Spanish

* Overseas, minor: American
* Australian
* Austro-Hungarian
* Belgian
* Couronian (Polish-Lithuanian)
* Danish
* New Zealand
* Norwegian
* Swedish

* Mostly contiguous: American
* Chinese
* Japanese
* Ottoman
* Russian
* South African

Decolonization|

* Wars of national liberation — Predecessors of sovereign states
* in Europe
* in South America
* Independence referendum
* Sovereign states formation dates

Postcolonialism|

* Independence
* Internal colonialism
* Nation-building
* Neo-colonialism
* Postcolonialism (international relations)

* Terra nullius
* Indigenous peoples
* Uncontacted peoples

Outer space|

| Exploration|

* Mercury
* Venus
* Moon
* Lagrangian points
* Mars
* Phobos
* Ceres
* Asteroids
* Outer Solar System: Jupiter
* Europa
* Callisto
* Saturn
* Titan
* Uranus
* Neptune
* trans-Neptunian objects
* Pluto

|

Colonization|

* Mercury
* Venus
* Moon
* Lagrangian points
* Mars
* Phobos
* Asteroids
* Outer Solar System: Jupiter
* Europa
* Callisto
* Saturn
* Titan
* Uranus
* Neptune
* trans-Neptunian objects
* Pluto

* v
* t
* e

Political philosophy

Terms|

* Authority
* Citizenship‎
* Duty
* Elite
* Emancipation
* Freedom
* Government
* Hegemony
* Hierarchy
* Justice
* Law
* Legitimacy
* Liberty
* Monopoly
* Nation
* Obedience
* Peace
* People
* Pluralism
* Power
* Progress
* Propaganda
* Property
* Regime
* Revolution
* Rights
* Ruling class
* Society
* Sovereignty‎
* State
* Utopia
* War

Government|

* Aristocracy
* Oligarchy
* Autocracy
* Bureaucracy
* Dictatorship
* Democracy
* Ochlocracy
* Gerontocracy
* Meritocracy
* Monarchy
* Tyranny
* Plutocracy
* Republic
* Technocracy
* Theocracy

Ideologies|

* Agrarianism
* Anarchism
* Capitalism
* Christian democracy
* Colonialism
* Communism
* Communitarianism
* Confucianism
* Conservatism
* Corporatism
* Distributism
* Environmentalism
* Fascism
* Feminism
* Feudalism
* Hindutva
* Imperialism
* Islamism
* Liberalism
* Libertarianism
* Localism
* Marxism
* Monarchism
* Multiculturalism
* Nationalism
* Nazism
* Populism
* Republicanism
* Social Darwinism
* Social democracy
* Socialism
* Third Way

Concepts|

* Balance of power
* Bellum omnium contra omnes
* Body politic
* Clash of civilizations
* Common good
* Consent of the governed
* Divine right of kings
* Family as a model for the state
* Monopoly on violence
* Natural law
* Negative and positive rights
* Night-watchman state
* Noble lie
* Noblesse oblige
* Open society
* Ordered liberty
* Original position
* Overton window
* Separation of powers
* Social contract
* State of nature
* Statolatry
* Supermajority
* Tyranny of the majority

Philosophers|

| Antiquity|

* Aristotle
* Chanakya
* Cicero
* Confucius
* Han Fei
* Lactantius
* Mencius
* Mozi
* Plato
* political philosophy
* Polybius
* Shang
* Sun Tzu
* Thucydides
* Xenophon

|

Middle Ages|

* Al-Farabi
* Aquinas
* Averroes
* Bruni
* Dante
* Gelasius
* al-Ghazali
* Ibn Khaldun
* Marsilius
* Muhammad
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Ockham
* Plethon
* Wang

Early modern
period|

* Boétie
* Bodin
* Bossuet
* Calvin
* Campanella
* Filmer
* Grotius
* Guicciardini
* Hobbes
* political philosophy
* James
* Leibniz
* Locke
* Luther
* Machiavelli
* Milton
* More
* Müntzer
* Pufendorf
* Spinoza
* Suárez

18th and 19th
centuries|

* Al-Afghani
* Bakunin
* Bastiat
* Beccaria
* Bentham
* Bolingbroke
* Bonald
* Burke
* Carlyle
* Comte
* Condorcet
* Constant
* Cortés
* Engels
* Fichte
* Fourier
* Franklin
* Godwin
* Haller
* Hegel
* Herder
* Hume
* Iqbal
* Jefferson
* Kant
* political philosophy
* Le Bon
* Le Play
* Madison
* Maistre
* Marx
* Mazzini
* Mill
* Montesquieu
* Nietzsche
* Owen
* Paine
* Renan
* Rousseau
* Sade
* Saint-Simon
* Smith
* Spencer
* de Staël
* Stirner
* Taine
* Thoreau
* Tocqueville
* Tucker
* Voltaire

20th and 21st
centuries|

* Agamben
* Ambedkar
* Apo
* Arendt
* Aron
* Badiou
* Bauman
* Benoist
* Berlin
* Bernstein
* Burnham
* Chomsky
* Dmowski
* Du Bois
* Dugin
* Dworkin
* Evola
* Fanon
* Fisher
* Foucault
* Fromm
* Fukuyama
* Gandhi
* Gentile
* Gramsci
* Guénon
* Habermas
* Hayek
* Hoppe
* Huntington
* Kautsky
* Khomeini
* Kirk
* Kropotkin
* Laclau
* Lenin
* Luxemburg
* Mansfield
* Mao
* Marcuse
* Maurras
* Michels
* Mises
* Mosca
* Mouffe
* Negri
* Nozick
* Nursi
* Nussbaum
* Oakeshott
* Ortega
* Pareto
* Popper
* Qutb
* Rand
* Rawls
* Röpke
* Rothbard
* Russell
* Sartre
* Savarkar
* Schmitt
* Scruton
* Shariati
* Sorel
* Spann
* Spengler
* Strauss
* Sun
* Taylor
* Voegelin
* Walzer
* Weber

Works|

* Republic (c.375 BCE)
* Politics (c.350 BCE)
* Analects of Confucius (c.475 BCE-1279 CE)
* On the Republic (51 BCE)
* Siyasatnama (11th century)
* Treatise on Law (c. 1274)
* Monarchy (1313)
* Muqaddimah (1337)
* The Prince (1532)
* Leviathan (1651)
* Two Treatises of Government (1689)
* The Spirit of Law (1748)
* The Social Contract (1762)
* Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
* Rights of Man (1791)
* Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)
* Democracy in America (1835–1840)
* The Communist Manifesto (1848)
* On Liberty (1859)
* The Revolt of the Masses (1929)
* The Road to Serfdom (1944)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
* The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
* The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
* A Theory of Justice (1971)
* The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

Related|

* Authoritarianism
* Collectivism and individualism
* Conflict theories
* Contractualism
* Critique of political economy
* Egalitarianism
* Elite theory
* Elitism
* History of political thought
* Institutional discrimination
* Jurisprudence
* Justification for the state
* Political ethics
* Political spectrum
* Left-wing politics
* Centrism
* Right-wing politics
* Religion in politics
* Christianity
* Islam
* Judaism
* Secular state
* Separation of church and state
* State atheism
* Political violence
* Separatism
* Social justice
* Statism
* Totalitarianism

* Category:Political philosophy

* v
* t
* e

International Indigenous and minority rights

Rights|

* Ancestral domain
* Free, prior and informed consent
* Intellectual property
* Land rights
* Language
* Self-determination
* in Australia
* in Canada
* in the United States
* Traditional knowledge
* ecological
* medical
* Treaty rights

Governmental
organizations|

* African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights
* Arctic Council
* Bureau of Indian Affairs
* Council of Indigenous Peoples Taiwan)
* Fundação Nacional do Índio
* Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada
* National Institute of Indigenous Peoples (Mexico)
* National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (Philippines)
* Te Puni Kōkiri (New Zealand)
* United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues

Non-governmental and
political organizations|

* Amazon Watch
* Assembly of First Nations
* Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador
* Congress of Aboriginal Peoples
* Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin
* Cultural Survival
* Indigenous Environmental Network
* Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism
* International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs
* National Indigenous Organization of Colombia
* Native American Rights Fund
* Survival International
* Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
* Zapatista Army of National Liberation
* (more ...)

Issues|

* Civilizing mission
* Colonialism
* Internal colonialism
* Settler colonialism
* Cultural appropriation
* Sports mascots
* Redface
* Dakota Access Pipeline protests
* Discovery doctrine
* Homeland
* Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples
* Bantustan
* Autonomous okrugs
* American Indian reservation
* Indian colony
* Indian reserve
* Ranchería
* Rancherie
* Urban Indian reserve
* Manifest destiny
* Plastic shaman
* Rainbow Warriors
* Two-Spirit

Legal representation|

* Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989
* Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007

Historical cases|

* 2009 Peruvian political crisis
* Alta controversy
* Chiapas conflict
* Depopulation of Diego Garcia
* High Arctic relocation
* Indian removal
* Mapuche conflict
* Oka Crisis
* Residential schools
* Canada
* New Zealand
* South Africa
* United States
* Rubber boom
* San controversy
* Stolen Generations

* Indigenous rights • Minority rights

Template:International relations

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