Community health

Short description: Field of public health

File:Field Training Programs Save Lives.webm Community health refers to non-treatment based health services that are delivered outside hospitals and clinics. Community health is a subset of public health that is taught to and practiced by clinicians as part of their normal duties. Community health volunteers and community health workers work with primary care providers to facilitate entry into, exit from and utilization of the formal health system by community members as well as providing supplementary services such as support groups or wellness events that are not offered by medical institutions.[1]

Community health is a major field of study within the medical and clinical sciences which focuses on the maintenance, protection, and improvement of the health status of population groups and communities, in particular those who are a part of disadvantaged communities. It is a distinct field of study that may be taught within a separate school of public health or preventive healthcare. The World Health Organization defines community health as:

> Environmental, Social, and Economic resources to sustain emotional and physical well being among people in ways that advance their aspirations and satisfy their needs in their unique environment.[2]

Commissioning of Nko health center by the Cross River State commissioner for health: A form of medical intervention

Medical interventions that occur in communities can be classified as three categories: Primary care, Secondary care, and Tertiary care.[3] Each category focuses on a different level and approach towards the community or population group. In the United States, Community health is rooted within Primary healthcare achievements. Primary healthcare programs aim to reduce risk factors and increase health promotion and prevention. Secondary healthcare is related to "hospital care" where acute care is administered in a hospital department setting. Tertiary healthcare refers to highly specialized care usually involving disease or disability management.

Community health services are classified into categories including:

1. Preventive health services such as chemoprophylaxis for tuberculosis, cancer screening and treatment of diabetes and hypertension.
2. Promotive health services such as health education,  family planning, vaccination and nutritional supplementation
3. Curative health services such as treatment of jiggers, lice infestation, malaria and pneumonia.
4. Rehabilitative health services such as provision of prosthetics, social work, occupational therapy, physical therapy, counseling and other mental health services.

## Contents

* 1 Community health workers and volunteers
* 2 Measuring Community health
* 3 Categories of Community Health
* 3.1 Primary Healthcare and Primary Prevention
* 3.2 Secondary Healthcare and Secondary Prevention
* 3.3 Tertiary Healthcare
* 4 Challenges and difficulties in community health
* 5 Community health resolutions
* 6 Community health in the Global South
* 6.1 Kenya
* 7 Academic resources
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links

## Community health workers and volunteers

Community health workers (also known as community health assistants and community health officers) are local public health workers with a deep understanding of their community's health needs and challenges. They serve as a bridge between their community and local health systems to ensure high quality and culturally competent service delivery.[4] They have vocational, professional or academic qualifications which enable them to provide training, supervisory, administrative, teaching and research services in community health departments.[5]

A team of community health volunteers

Community health volunteers are members of a local community who have experience and training on the health problems prevalent in their community and care services available, in order to identify and link those in need with local providers. Community health volunteers may be referred to by different titles depending on their local health system; these titles can included lay health workers, health volunteers, village health agents, non-specialist healthcare providers, and village health agents.[6]

Community health organizations are non-profit and non government organization which administers and coordinates the delivery of health care services to people living in a designated community or neighborhood. It helps people understand their status of health or social conditions. Providing advocacy for those who need it and holding groups and individual meetings with people in the community. The vital role is advocating for the rights and interests of their community members. They raise awareness about issues affecting their community by research, dialogues and lobby for policies and programs that address those issues.

## Measuring Community health

Community health is generally measured by geographical information systems (GIS) and demographic data. Geographic Information Systems can be used to define sub-communities when neighborhood location data is not enough.[7] Traditionally Community health has been measured using sampling data which was then compared to well-known data sets, like the National Health Interview Survey or National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.[8] With technological development, information systems could store more data for small-scale communities, cities, and towns; as opposed to census data that only generalize information about small populations based on the overall population. GIS can give more precise information about community resources, even at neighborhood levels.[9] The ease of use of GIS, advances in multilevel statistics, and spatial analysis methods make it easier for researchers to procure and generate data related to the built environment.[10]

Social media can also play a big role in health information analytics.[11] Studies have found social media being capable of influencing people to change their unhealthy behaviors and encourage interventions capable of improving health status.[11] Social media statistics combined with GIS may provide researchers with a more complete image of community standards for health and well being.[12][13]

## Categories of Community Health

### Primary Healthcare and Primary Prevention

Mothers registering their children during immunization at primary health center in Masaka, Uganda

Community-based health promotion emphasizes Primary Prevention and population-based perspective (traditional prevention).[14] It is the goal of Community Health to have individuals in a certain community improve their lifestyle or seek medical attention. Primary Healthcare is provided by health professionals, specifically the ones a patient sees first that may refer them to Secondary or Tertiary care. Primary prevention refers to the early avoidance and identification of risk factors that may lead to certain diseases and disabilities. Community-focused efforts including immunizations, classroom teaching, and awareness campaigns are all good examples of how primary prevention techniques are utilized by communities to change certain health behaviors. Prevention programs, if carefully designed and drafted, can effectively prevent problems that children and adolescents face as they grow up.[15] This finding also applies to all groups and classes of people. Prevention programs are one of the most effective tools health professionals can use to significantly impact individual, population, and community health.[15]

### Secondary Healthcare and Secondary Prevention

Community health can also be improved with improvements in individuals' environments. Community health status is determined by the environmental characteristics, behavioral characteristics, social cohesion in the environment of that community.[16] Appropriate modifications in the environment can help to prevent unhealthy behaviors and negative health outcomes.[17]

Secondary prevention refers to improvements made in a patient's lifestyle or environment after the onset of disease or disability. This sort of prevention works to make life easier for the patient since it is too late to prevent them from their current disease or disability. An example of secondary prevention is when those with occupational low back pain are provided with strategies to stop their health status from worsening; the prospects of secondary prevention may even hold more promise than primary prevention in this case.[18]

### Tertiary Healthcare

In Tertiary healthcare, community health can only be affected with professional medical care involving the entire population. Patients need to be referred to specialists and undergo advanced medical treatment. In some countries, there are more sub-specialties of medical professions than there are primary care specialists.[16] Health inequalities are directly related to social advantage and social resources.[16]

Aspects That Distinguish Conventional Health-Care Versus People-Centered Primary Care[19] Conventional Ambulatory Medical Care In Clinics or Outpatient Departments  | Disease Control Programs  | People-Centered Primary Care

|
|

Focus on illness and cure  | Focus on priority diseases  | Focus on health needs
Relationship limited to the moment of consultation  | Relationship limited to program implementation  | Enduring personal relationship
Episodic curative care  | Program-defined disease control interventions  | Comprehensive, continuous and personcentred care
Responsibility limited to effective and safe advice to the patient at the moment of consultation  | Responsibility for disease-control targets among the target population  | Responsibility for the health of all in the community along the life cycle; responsibility for tackling determinants of ill-health
Users are consumers of the care they purchase  | Population groups are targets of disease-control interventions  | People are partners in managing their own health and that of their community

## Challenges and difficulties in community health

The complexity of community health and its various problems can make it difficult for researchers to assess and identify solutions.[20] Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) is a unique alternative that combines community participation, inquiry, and action.[21] Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) helps researchers address community issues with a broader lens and also works with the people in the community to find culturally sensitive, valid, and reliable methods and approaches.[21]

Community health also requires clear communication to properly address health issues, disparities, and complications. Health communication is the concept that applies communication evidence, strategy, theory, and creativity to promote behaviors, policies, and practices that advance the health and well-being of people and populations. Communicating health care can be limited by a few factors, which are important to recognize to best apply community health practices. To better understand and provide community health from a provider and consumer perspective, limitations in concepts such as scientific complexity or uncertainty. When using an example such as environmental health, scientific complexity can be summarized with environmental health risks that often involve complex scientific concepts that can be difficult to understand for someone without the technical knowledge gained from specialized training or education. The use of plain language and visual aids helps to simplify complex information and increase accessibility. Uncertainty in community health exists when the scientific understanding of environmental health risks may be incomplete or uncertain. Knowing details about how communities work, specific to the individual, can also play a role in a better understanding as well as offering complete transparency about the limitations of knowledge and ongoing research efforts. Preventative actions must be taken to prevent misinformation in the face of uncertainty as it can cause grave circumstances as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic.[22] Scientific complexity and uncertainty are concepts that can make it difficult to understand the environment and limits coherent communication about population health. Examples of successful community health initiatives can include projects addressing the issues that complicate the subject. For example, promotions for understanding, as well as initiatives working towards already acknowledged health issues in each community.

Patients with limited-English proficiency especially struggle to access health and turn to community health centers. Community health carries the burden of serving such patients.[23] There is a need to invest more in the interpreter workforce (in both quantity and quality), letting those with limited-English proficiency know more about their rights currently available to them, potential legal avenues to take if said rights are not being provided, and increased awareness for non-verbal communication. Executive Order 13166 (2000), titled Improving Access to Services for Persons with Limited English Proficiency, offered continuing education for health professionals, certification of healthcare interpreters, and reimbursement for language services for Medicaid/ State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) enrollees in order to address the institutional issues regarding language barriers in our current healthcare system.[24] Another avenue that has been taken is local governments partnering with community-based organizations, such as the collaboration between Alameda County and the Korean Community Center of the East Bay (KCCEB) to create RICE, the Refugee and Immigrant Collaborative for Empowerment, a coalition mobilized by various multiethnic and multilingual organizations.[25] They partnered in 2020 during the height of the pandemic in order to support COVID-19 testing and increase vaccine awareness and accessibility across 16 language groups.

Other issues involve access and cost of medical care. A great majority of the world does not have adequate health insurance.[26] In low-income countries, less than 40% of total health expenditures are paid for by the governments.[26]

In the United States, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) changed the way community health centers operate and the policies that were in place, greatly influencing community health.[27] The ACA directly affected community health centers by increasing funding, expanding insurance coverage for Medicaid, reforming the Medicaid payment system, appropriating $1.5 billion to increase the workforce and promote training.[27] The impact, importance, and success of the Affordable Care Act is still being studied and will have a large impact on how ensuring health can affect community standards on health and also individual health.[28]

Ethnic disparities in health statuses among different communities are also a cause of concern. Community coalition-driven interventions may bring benefits to this segment of society.[29] This also relates to language usage, where results from a 2019 systematic review found that patients with limited English proficiency who received care from physicians who communicate in the patient's own preferred language generally had improved health outcomes.[30]

## Community health resolutions

Each community is different and should create its own Community Health Improvement Process (CHIP).[31] CHIP consists of problem identification and prioritization cycle along with an analysis and implementation cycle. Five strategies that assist the CHIP process are improving community health and well-being; community involvement, political commitment; healthy public policy; multi-sectoral collaboration; and asset-based community development. An asset-based approach involves empowering individuals and communities by focusing on community strengths along with the skills of the individuals.[31][32]

The CDC states that "Individuals who are in good physical shape, have proper vaccination, have access to clinical services and medications, and know where to get critical health and emergency alert information create a better community than those who have poor health and don't understand where to get proper treatment and medicine."[33]

The Problem, Identification, and Prioritization cycle have three phases that help benefit the community, which is forming a health coalition, collecting and analyzing data for health profile, and identifying critical health issues. The information that is gathered is also distributed to the community to help with important decision-making.[31]

The Analysis and Implementation cycle which helps resolve community health problems by analyzing the health issue, establishing resources, creating a health improvement strategy with the resources, and allocating responsibility throughout the community.[31] Multiple issues are analyzed in conjunction to determine which is most important. Lastly, the authority to act is implemented, sufficient funds are allocated and access to data is released in order for the members of the community to review and move accordingly.[31]

## Community health in the Global South

Access to community health in the Global South is influenced by geographic accessibility (physical distance from the service delivery point to the user), availability (proper type of care, service provider, and materials), financial accessibility (willingness and ability of users to purchase services), and acceptability (responsiveness of providers to social and cultural norms of users and their communities).[34] While the Epidemiological transition is shifting the disease burden from communicable to noncommunicable conditions in developing countries, this transition is still in an early stage in parts of the Global South such as South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa.[35] Two phenomena in developing countries have created a "medical poverty trap" for underserved communities in the Global South — the introduction of user fees for public healthcare services and the growth of out-of-pocket expenses for private services.[36] The private healthcare sector is being increasingly utilized by low and middle income communities in the Global South for conditions such as malaria, tuberculosis, and sexually transmitted infections.[37] Private care is characterized by more flexible access, shorter waiting times, and greater choice. Private providers that serve low-income communities are often unqualified and untrained. Some policymakers recommend that governments in developing countries harness private providers to remove state responsibility from service provision.[37]

Community development is frequently used as a public health intervention to empower communities to obtain self-reliance and control over the factors that affect their health.[38] Community health workers are able to draw on their firsthand experience, or local knowledge, to complement the information that scientists and policy makers use when designing health interventions.[39] Interventions with community health workers have been shown to improve access to primary healthcare and quality of care in developing countries through reduced malnutrition rates, improved maternal and child health and prevention and management of HIV/AIDS.[40] Community health workers have also been shown to promote chronic disease management by improving the clinical outcomes of patients with diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.[40]

Slum-dwellers in the Global South face threats of infectious disease, non-communicable conditions, and injuries due to violence and road traffic accidents.[41] Participatory, multi-objective slum upgrading in the urban sphere significantly improves social determinants that shape health outcomes such as safe housing, food access, political and gender rights, education, and employment status. Efforts have been made to involve the urban poor in project and policy design and implementation. Through slum upgrading, states recognize and acknowledge the rights of the urban poor and the need to deliver basic services. Upgrading can vary from small-scale sector-specific projects (i.e. water taps, paved roads) to comprehensive housing and infrastructure projects (i.e. piped water, sewers). Other projects combine environmental interactions with social programs and political empowerment. Recently, slum upgrading projects have been incremental to prevent the displacement of residents during improvements and attentive to emerging concerns regarding climate change adaptation. By legitimizing slum-dwellers and their right to remain, slum upgrading is an alternative to slum removal and a process that in itself may address the structural determinants of population health.[41]

### Kenya

Community health refers to the first level of health services provision in Kenya that comprises;

1. Interventions focusing on building demand for existing health and related services, by improving community awareness and health seeking behavior and 2. Taking defined interventions and services as defined in (Kenya Health Sector Strategic and investment plan KHSSP) close to the community and households.

The current registered association for community Health professionals in Kenya is The Society of Community Health Caregivers.[42] It was registered in the year 2020 to act as an umbrella body for the community health professionals.

## Academic resources

* Journal of Urban Health, Springer. ISSN 1468-2869 (electronic) ISSN 1099-3460 (paper).
* International Quarterly of Community Health Education, Sage Publications. ISSN 1541-3519 (electronic), ISSN 0272-684X (paper).
* Global Public Health, Informa Healthcare. ISSN 1744-1692 (paper).
* Journal of Community Health, Springer. ISSN 1573-3610.
* Family and Community Health, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISSN 0160-6379 (electronic).
* Health Promotion Practice, Sage Publications. ISSN 1552-6372 (electronic) ISSN 1524-8399 (paper).
* Journal of Health Services Research and Policy, Sage Publications. ISSN 1758-1060 (electronic) ISSN 1355-8196 (paper).
* BMC Health Sciences Research, Biomed Central. ISSN 1472-6963 (electronic).
* Health Services Research, Wiley-Blackwell. ISSN 1475-6773 (electronic).
* Health Communication and Literacy: An Annotated Bibliography, Centre for Literacy of Quebec. ISBN 0968103456.

## See also

* Community health agent
* Community health center
* Community mental health service
* Online health communities
* Population health
* Prison reform
* University of Community Health, Magway

## References

1. ↑ Schaaf, Marta; Warthin, Caitlin; Freedman, Lynn; Topp, Stephanie M (June 2020). "The community health worker as service extender, cultural broker and social change agent: a critical interpretive synthesis of roles, intent and accountability" (in en). BMJ Global Health 5 (6). doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002296. ISSN 2059-7908. PMID 32546585.
2. ↑ Lasker, Roz D.; Weiss, Elisa S. (2003-03-01). "Broadening participation in community problem solving: A multidisciplinary model to support collaborative practice and research" (in en). Journal of Urban Health 80 (1): 14–47. doi:10.1093/jurban/jtg014. ISSN 1468-2869. PMID 12612096.
3. ↑ Baumann, Linda C.; Ylinen, Alyssa (2020), Gellman, Marc D., ed. (in en), Prevention: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1738–1740, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39903-0_135, ISBN 978-3-030-39903-0
4. ↑ "Community Health Worker Resources | CDC". 2023-03-01. https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/center/community-health-worker-resources.html.
5. ↑ Rosenthal, E. Lee; Brownstein, J. Nell; Rush, Carl H.; Hirsch, Gail R.; Willaert, Anne M.; Scott, Jacqueline R.; Holderby, Lisa R.; Fox, Durrell J. (July 2010). "Community Health Workers: Part Of The Solution". Health Affairs 29 (7): 1338–1342. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0081. ISSN 0278-2715. PMID 20606185. http://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0081.
6. ↑ Woldie, Mirkuzie; Feyissa, Garumma Tolu; Admasu, Bitiya; Hassen, Kalkidan; Mitchell, Kirstin; Mayhew, Susannah; McKee, Martin; Balabanova, Dina (2018-12-01). "Community health volunteers could help improve access to and use of essential health services by communities in LMICs: an umbrella review". Health Policy and Planning 33 (10): 1128–1143. doi:10.1093/heapol/czy094. ISSN 0268-1080. PMID 30590543. PMC 6415721. https://academic.oup.com/heapol/article/33/10/1128/5259361.
7. ↑ Elias Mpofu, PhD (2014-12-08). Community-oriented health services: practices across disciplines. Mpofu, Elias. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-8261-9818-1. OCLC 897378689.
8. ↑ "Chapter 36. Introduction to Evaluation | Community Tool Box". https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/evaluate/evaluation.
9. ↑ "Neighbourhoods and health: a GIS approach to measuring community resource accessibility". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 60 (5): 389–95. May 2006. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.043281. PMID 16614327.
10. ↑ "Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess the role of the built environment in influencing obesity: a glossary". The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 8: 71. July 2011. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-8-71. PMID 21722367.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Harnessing social media for health promotion and behavior change". Health Promotion Practice 14 (1): 15–23. January 2013. doi:10.1177/1524839911405850. PMID 21558472.
12. ↑ Stefanidis, Anthony; Crooks, Andrew; Radzikowski, Jacek (2013-04-01). "Harvesting ambient geospatial information from social media feeds". GeoJournal 78 (2): 319–338. doi:10.1007/s10708-011-9438-2. ISSN 0343-2521. Bibcode: 2013GeoJo..78..319S.
13. ↑ "What are we 'tweeting' about obesity? Mapping tweets with Topic Modeling and Geographic Information System". Cartography and Geographic Information Science 40 (2): 90–102. 2013. doi:10.1080/15230406.2013.776210. PMID 25126022. Bibcode: 2013CGISc..40...90G.
14. ↑ "Reconsidering community-based health promotion: promise, performance, and potential". American Journal of Public Health 93 (4): 557–74. April 2003. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.4.557. PMID 12660197.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "What works in prevention. Principles of effective prevention programs". The American Psychologist 58 (6–7): 449–56. 2003. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.6-7.449. PMID 12971191.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Barbara., Starfield (1998). Primary care: balancing health needs, services, and technology (Rev. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512543-6. OCLC 38216563.
17. ↑ Gan, Daniel R. Y.; Cheng, Grand H.-L.; Ng, Tze Pin; Gwee, Xinyi; Soh, Chang Yuan; Fung, John Chye; Cho, Im Sik (2022-03-20). "Neighborhood Makes or Breaks Active Ageing? Findings from Cross-Sectional Path Analysis" (in en). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19 (6): 3695. doi:10.3390/ijerph19063695. ISSN 1660-4601. PMID 35329380.
18. ↑ "Disability resulting from occupational low back pain. Part II: What do we know about secondary prevention? A review of the scientific evidence on prevention after disability begins". Spine 21 (24): 2918–29. December 1996. doi:10.1097/00007632-199612150-00025. PMID 9112717.
19. ↑ "Chapter 3: Primary care: putting people first". https://www.who.int/whr/2008/chapter3/en/.
20. ↑ Hohmann, Ann A.; Shear, M. Katherine (2002-02-01). "Community-Based Intervention Research: Coping With the "Noise" of Real Life in Study Design". American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (2): 201–207. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.2.201. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 11823259.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Community-based research partnerships: challenges and opportunities". Journal of Urban Health 82 (2 Suppl 2): ii3-12. June 2005. doi:10.1093/jurban/jti034. PMID 15888635.
22. ↑ Cuan-Baltazar, Jose Yunam; Muñoz-Perez, Maria José; Robledo-Vega, Carolina; Pérez-Zepeda, Maria Fernanda; Soto-Vega, Elena (2020-04-09). "Misinformation of COVID-19 on the Internet: Infodemiology Study" (in EN). JMIR Public Health and Surveillance 6 (2). doi:10.2196/18444. PMID 32250960. PMC 7147328. https://publichealth.jmir.org/2020/2/e18444.
23. ↑ Goodman, Richard A.; Bunnell, Rebecca; Posner, Samuel F. (October 2014). "What is "community health"? Examining the meaning of an evolving field in public health" (in en). Preventive Medicine 67 (Suppl 1): S58–S61. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.07.028. PMID 25069043.
24. ↑ Chieh Li, EdD; Noora Son, BA Abdulkerim; Cara A. Jordan, B. S.; Christine Ga Eun Son, B. A. (2017-07-31). "Overcoming Communication Barriers to Healthcare for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Patients" (in en). North American Journal of Medicine and Science 10 (3). ISSN 2156-2342. https://najms.com/index.php/najms/article/view/357.
25. ↑ Kurlander, Dana; Lam, Amy G.; Dawson-Hahn, Elizabeth; de Acosta, Diego (2023-10-17). "Advocating for language equity: a community-public health partnership". Frontiers in Public Health 11. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1245849. ISSN 2296-2565. PMID 37915815. Bibcode: 2023FrPH...1145849K.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Organization, World Health (2016-06-08). World health statistics. 2016, Monitoring health for the SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals.. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. ISBN 978-92-4-156526-4. OCLC 968482612.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Community Health Centers: Opportunities and Challenges of Health Reform". Health Sciences Research Commons. 2010. https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs_policy_facpubs/199/.
28. ↑ "Role of Community Health Workers, NHLBI, NIH". https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/education/heart-truth/CHW.
29. ↑ Anderson LM, Adeney KL, Shinn C, Safranek S, Buckner-Brown J, Krause LK (15 June 2015). "Community coalition-driven interventions to reduce health disparities among racial and ethnic minority populations". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015 (6). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009905.pub2. PMID 26075988.
30. ↑ Diamond, Lisa; Izquierdo, Karen; Canfield, Dana; Matsoukas, Konstantina; Gany, Francesca (2019). "A Systematic Review of the Impact of Patient–Physician Non-English Language Concordance on Quality of Care and Outcomes". Journal of General Internal Medicine 34 (8): 1591–1606. doi:10.1007/s11606-019-04847-5. ISSN 0884-8734. PMID 31147980.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Health, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Using Performance Monitoring to Improve Community; Durch, Jane S.; Bailey, Linda A.; Stoto, Michael A. (1997). A Community Health Improvement Process. National Academies Press (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK233012/.
32. ↑ "How to build healthy communities? | PlanH". https://planh.ca/big-picture/how-build-healthy-communities#:~:text=How to build healthy communities? 1 Community Involvement.,Public Policy. ... 5 Asset-Based Community Development..
33. ↑ "A Healthy Community is a Prepared Community | Blogs | CDC". 18 September 2015. https://blogs.cdc.gov/publichealthmatters/2015/09/a-healthy-community-is-a-prepared-community/.
34. ↑ "Poverty and access to health care in developing countries". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1136 (1): 161–71. 2008-07-25. doi:10.1196/annals.1425.011. PMID 17954679. Bibcode: 2008NYASA1136..161P.
35. ↑ Orach, Christopher (October 2009). "Health equity: challenges in low income countries". African Health Sciences 9 (Suppl 2): 549–551. PMID 20589106.
36. ↑ "Equity and health sector reforms: can low-income countries escape the medical poverty trap?". Lancet 358 (9284): 833–6. September 2001. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05975-X. PMID 11564510. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(01)05975-X/abstract.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Private health care in developing countries". BMJ 323 (7311): 463–4. September 2001. doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7311.463. PMID 11532823.
38. ↑ "Community development and its impact on health: South Asian experience". BMJ 328 (7443): 830–3. April 2004. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7443.830. PMID 15070644.
39. ↑ Corburn, Jason. (2005). Street science: community knowledge and environmental health justice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-27080-9. OCLC 62896609.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Community Health Worker Programs to Improve Healthcare Access and Equity: Are They Only Relevant to Low- and Middle-Income Countries?". International Journal of Health Policy and Management 7 (10): 943–954. July 2018. doi:10.15171/ijhpm.2018.53. PMID 30316247.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Slum Upgrading and Health Equity". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14 (4): 342. March 2017. doi:10.3390/ijerph14040342. PMID 28338613.
42. ↑ "Society of Community Health Care Givers". https://www.societyofcommunityhealth.org/.

## Further reading

* Agafonow, Alejandro (2018). "Setting the bar of social enterprise research high. Learning from medical science". Social Science & Medicine 214: 49–56. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.020. PMID 30149199.
* Easterly, William (2006). The White Man's Burden: Why the West's efforts to aid the rest have done so much ill and so little good. Penguin.
* John Sanbourne Bockoven (1963). Moral Treatment in American Psychiatry, New York: Springer Publishing Co.[ISBN missing]

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* Quarantine
* Sexually transmitted infection
* Tropical disease
* Vaccine trial

Food hygiene and
safety management|

* Food
* Additive
* Chemistry
* Engineering
* Microbiology
* Processing
* Safety
* Safety scandals
* Genetically modified food
* Good agricultural practice
* Good manufacturing practice
* HACCP
* ISO 22000

Health behavioral
sciences|

* Diffusion of innovations
* Health belief model
* Health communication
* Health psychology
* Positive deviance
* PRECEDE-PROCEED model
* Social cognitive theory
* Social norms approach
* Theory of planned behavior
* Transtheoretical model

Organizations,
education
and history|

| Organizations|

* Europe
* Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
* Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
* India
* Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
* U.S.
* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
* City and county health departments
* Council on Education for Public Health
* Public Health Service
* World Health Organization
* World Toilet Organization

|

Education|

* Health education
* Higher education
* Bachelor of Science in Public Health
* Doctor of Public Health
* Professional degrees of public health
* Schools of public health

History|

* Sara Josephine Baker
* Samuel Jay Crumbine
* Carl Rogers Darnall
* Joseph Lister
* Margaret Sanger
* John Snow
* Typhoid Mary
* Germ theory of disease
* Social hygiene movement

* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community health. Read more

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