Dagur language

Short description: Mongolic language

Dagur

Dagur, Daghur, Dahur, or Daur language
Даор Усуву

Template:ManchuSibeUnicode
Daor Usuwu (Hailar)
Template:ManchuSibeUnicode

Dagur Kel (Qiqihar)
Pronunciation| [daɔr usuɣu]
Native to| China , Mongolia
Region| China : Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang Province, Xinjiang
Ethnicity| Daur

Native speakers

| (China : 91,000 cited 1999)[1]

Language family

Mongolic

Writing system

| Latin script, Mongol script (Historically)
and Cyrillic script. [citation needed]
Language codes
ISO 639-3| `dta`
Glottolog| `daur1238`[2]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Dagur, Daghur, Dahur, or Daur language, is a Mongolic language, as well as a distinct branch of the Mongolic language family,[3] and is primarily spoken by members of the Dagur ethnic group.

There is no written standard in use, although a Pinyin-based orthography has been devised; instead the Dagur make use of Mongolian or Chinese, as most speakers know these languages as well.[4] During the time of the Qing dynasty, Dagur was written with the Manchu alphabet.[5]

## Contents

* 1 Distribution
* 2 Phonology
* 2.1 Vowels
* 2.2 Consonants
* 3 Writing system
* 4 Grammar
* 4.1 Grammatical case suffix table
* 4.2 Personal Reflexive Relationship Suffix Table
* 4.3 Table of Imperative Verb Suffixes
* 4.4 Table of Declarative Verb Suffixes
* 4.5 Table of pronouns verb suffix
* 4.5.1 Present future tensse
* 4.5.2 Past tense
* 4.6 Table of adverb suffix
* 4.7 Table of personal pronouns
* 5 Lexicon
* 5.1 Middle Mongol words
* 5.2 Numerals
* 6 References
* 7 Bibliography
* 8 External links

## Distribution

Dagur is a Mongolic language consisting of five dialects:[6]

* Amur Dagur in the vicinity of Heihe (original homeland). About 400 people.
* Nonni Dagur on the west side of the Nonni River from south of Qiqihar up to Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner. Speakers of Nonni Dagur are usually grouped into the following 4 dialects:
* Morin Daba Dagur, in Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner (Moli Daba) of Hulun Buir League, Inner Mongolia
* Butha (Buteha) (Northern)[7] Dagur, immediately south of Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner
* Tsitsikar (Southern)[7] Dagur, in Tsitsikar (Qiqihar) City and surrounding areas
* Mergen Dagur or Nenjiang Dagur, in Nenjiang County (formerly Mergen County) of Heilongjiang Province
* Hailar Dagur to the south-east of Hailar in Ewenki Autonomous Banner
* Sinkiang Dagur in Xinjiang in the vicinity of Tacheng

## Phonology

Dagur phonology is peculiar in that some of its dialects have developed a set of labialized consonants (e.g. /sʷar/ 'flea' vs. /sar/ 'moon'),[8] while it shares palatalized consonants[9] with most Mongolian dialects that have not been developed in the other Mongolic languages. It also has /f/, which is, however, limited to loan words.[10] Word-final short vowels were lost[11] and historically short vowels in non-initial syllables have lost phoneme status.[12] Dagur is the only Mongolic language to share this development with Mongolian (i.e. Mongolian proper, Oirat, Buryat). Due to the merger of /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ with /o/ and /u/, vowel harmony was lost.[13] According to Tsumagari (2003), vowel harmony is still a productive synchronic phonotactic aspect of Dagur in which initial syllable long vowels are divided into "masculine" (back), "feminine" (front), and neutral groups. Likewise, suffixal long vowels must agree in harmonic group with the root.

### Vowels

Dagur vowels (Chuluu 1994)  | Front  | Central  | Back

|
|
|

short  | long  | short  | long  | short  | long
Close  | i | iː |  |  | u | uː
Mid  | e | eː | ə | əː | ɔ | ɔː
Open  |  |  |  |  | a | aː

### Consonants

Dagur consonants (Chuluu 1994)  | Labial  | Alveolar  | Postalveolar  | Velar

|
|
|
|

plain | lab. | pal. | plain | lab. | pal. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | pal.
Stop/
Affricate  | voiceless | p |  |  | t | tʷ | tʲ | tʃ | tʃʷ | k | kʷ | kʲ
voiced | b |  | bʲ | d | dʷ | dʲ | dʒ | dʒʷ | ɡ |  | ɡʲ
Fricative  | f  |  |  | s | sʷ |  | ʃ |  | x | xʷ | xʲ
Nasal  | m | mʷ | mʲ | n |  | nʲ |  |  | ŋ |  |
Trill  |  |  |  | r |  | rʲ |  |  |  |  |
Lateral  |  |  |  | l |  | lʲ |  |  |  |  |
Semivowel  |  |  |  |  |  | j |  |  |  | w |

## Writing system

Letters  | Contextual forms  | Transliteration  | International Phonetic Alphabet

|
|
|

Initial  | Medial  | Final  | Latin  | Cyrillic
ᠠ | ᠠ‍ | ‍ᠠ‍ | ‍ᠠ

‍ᠠTemplate:Fvs

| a | а | /a/
ᠡ | ᠡ‍ | ‍ᠡ‍ | ‍ᠡ

‍ᠡTemplate:Fvs

| e | э | /ə/
ᠢ | ᠢ‍ | ‍ᠢ‍ | ‍ᠢ | i | и | /i/
ᠣ | ᠣ‍ | ‍ᠣ‍ | ‍ᠣ | o | о | /ɔ/
ᠦ | ᡠ‍ | ‍ᡠ᠊Template:Fvs‍ | ‍᠊ᡠ | u | у | /u/
ᠨ | ᠨ‍ | ‍ᠨ‍

‍ᠨTemplate:Fvs‍

| ‍ᠨ

‍ᠨTemplate:Mvs

| n | н | /n/
ᠩ | —  | ‍ᠩ‍ | ‍ᠩ | ng | нг | /ŋ/
ᠪ | ᠪ‍ | ‍ᠪ‍ | ‍ᠪ | b | б | /b/
ᡦ᠊ | ᡦ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡦ᠊‍ | —  | p | п | /p/
ᡥ᠊ | ᡥ᠊‍

‍ᡭ᠊Template:Mvs

| ‍᠊ᡥ᠊

‍᠊ᡭ᠊Template:Mvs

| —  | h | х | /x/
ᠬ | ᠬ

‍ᠺ᠊Template:Mvs

| ‍ᠬ‍

‍᠊ᠺ᠊Template:Mvs

| ‍ᠬ | k | к | /k/
ᡤ᠊ | ᡤ᠊

‍ᡬ᠊Template:Fvs‍

| ‍ᡤ᠊‍

‍᠊ᡬ᠊Template:Fvs‍

| ‍‍ᠭ᠎ | g | г | /g/
ᠮ | ᠮ‍ | ‍ᠮ‍ | ‍ᠮ | m | м | /m/
ᠯ | ᠯ‍ | ‍ᠯ‍ | ‍ᠯ | l | л | /l/
ᠰ | ᠰ‍ | ‍ᠰ‍ | ‍ᠰ | s | с | /s/
ᡧ᠊ | ᡧ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡧ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡧ | x | ш | /ʃ/
ᠲ | ᠲ‍ | ‍ᠲ‍ | ‍ᠲ | t | т | /t/
ᡩ᠊ | ᡩ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡩ᠊‍ | ‍ᡩ᠊ | d | д | /d/
ᠴ | ᠴ‍ | ‍ᠴ‍ | ‍‍ᠴ | q | ч | /t͡ʃ/
ᠵ | ᠵ‍ | ‍ᠵ‍ | ‍‍‍ᠵ | j | ж | /d͡ʒ/
ᠶ | ᠶ‍ | ‍ᠶ‍ | ‍ᠶ | y | й | /j/
ᠸ | ᠸ‍ | ‍᠊ᠸ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᠸ | w | в | /w/
ᠷ | ᠷ‍ | ‍ᠷ‍ | ‍ᠷ | r | р | /r/

## Grammar

Dagur has a pronominal system that distinguishes between first person plural inclusive /bed/ and exclusive /baː/ and, even more archaic, it distinguishes between third person singular /iːn/ and plural /aːn/.[14] While the phoneme /t͡ʃ/ (< *t͡ʃʰ) has been retained, the second person singular pronoun has become /ʃiː/ nevertheless,[15] resembling a more thorough sound change in Khorchin Mongolian. The second person plural is retained as /taː/.[15] The genitive and accusative have fused in some variants, becoming –ji, and the ablative may assume the form of the instrumental case. The old comitative has been lost, while the innovated comitative is the same as in Mongolian.[16] In addition, several other cases have been innovated that are not shared by Mongolian, including a new allative, -maji.[17]

Dagur has a fairly simple tense-aspect system consisting of the nonpast markers -/bəi/ and (marginally) -/n/ and the past forms -/sən/ and (marginally) /la/ and the non-finite imperfective marker -/d͡ʒa/-. These may be inflected for person. The attributive particle forms are limited to –/ɡʷ/ (< Written Mongolian -γ-a) for imperfective aspect and future tense, -sən (< -γsan) for perfective aspect, -/ɡat͡ʃ/ (< -gči) for habituality (instead of -daγ which used to fulfil this function) and -/mar/ for potential and probable actions. It has acquired a highly complex converbal system containing several innovations. Notably, -mar which is a participle in Mongolian serves as a converb as well.[18]

### Grammatical case suffix table

[19]

Case  | Marker  | Note  | Example  | Meaning (Chinese and Cyrillic)

|
|
|
|

Genitive  | -ei | Added to words ending in a consonant (except j, q, x)  | biteg + ei → bitegei  | битегей

heleg + ei → helegei  | хелегей

adus + ei → adusei  | адусей

牲口的

aol + ei → aolei  | аолэй

-ii | Added to words ending in j, q, x  | kaiq + ii → kaiqii  | кайчий

orj + ii → orjii  | оржий

tulx + ii → tulxii  | тульший

牲口的

-i | Added to words ending in a short vowel  | mori + i → morii  | морий

nowu + i → nowui  | новуй

danga + i → dangai  | дангай

-yi | Appended to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs  | akaa + yi → akaayi  | акааий

哥哥的

kasoo + yi → kasooyi  | касооий

dao + yi → daoyi  | даоий

Locative  | -d | Added to the stem (if ending in a consonant d, t, k, s, j, q, x add an appropriate vowel before -d)  | xiree + d → xireed  | ширээд

于桌子

horwu + d → horwud  | хорвуд

于柜子

tos + d → tosod  | тосод

Accusative  | Same as genitive case
Sociative  | -aar, -eer, -oor | Added to words ending in consonants (except j, q, x) according to vowel harmony  | sarp + aar → sarpaar  | сарпаар

用筷子

lek + eer → lekeer  | лэкээр

用磨石

topoor + oor → topooroor  | топоор用斧子
-ier | Added to words ending in j, q, x  | onq + ier → onqier  | онкиэр用刀子
orj + ier → orjier  | оржиэр

用奶嘴

-ar, -er, -or | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in short vowels  | danga + ar → dangaar  | дангаар

gali + er → galier  | галиэр

mori + er → morier  | мориэр

nowu + or → nowuor  | новуор

-yaar, -yeer | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs  | qoloo + yaar → qolooyaar  | чолоояар

kasoo + yaar → kasooyaar  | касоояар

用奶嘴

Ablative  | Same as sociative case  | The ablative form is sometimes -aas, -ees, -oos, -ies, -as, -es, -os, -yaas, -yees.
和同格  | -tii | Added to the word stem  | akaa + tii → akaatii  | акаатий

同哥哥一起

ewee + tii → eweetii  | эвээтий

同妈妈一起

程度格  | -qaar, -qeer | Added to the word stem according to vowel harmony  | soo + qaar → sooqaar  | соочаар

到腋下

sak + qaar → sakqaar  | сакчаар

到踝骨处

### Personal Reflexive Relationship Suffix Table

Pronoun  | Number  | Marker  | Example  | Meaning (Chinese)

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | mini | жакмини

jakmini

| 我的东西
хороомини

horoomini

| 我的手指头
Plural (exclusive)  | -maani | себмаани

sebmaani

| 我们的老师
Plural (inclusive)  | -naani | себнаани

sebnaani

| 咱们的老师
2nd  | Singular  | -xini | васкалшини

waskalxini

| 你的衣服
Plural  | -taani | гэритаани

geritaani

| 你们的房子
3rd  | Singular  | -ini | агини

agini

| 我的东西
-yini | экээйини

ekeeyini

| 我的手指头
Plural  | -inaani | этэвуйнаани

eteewuinaani

| 他们的祖母
-yinaani | ачайинаани

aqaayinaani

| 他们的父亲

### Table of Imperative Verb Suffixes

Pronoun  | Number  | 希望式  | 命令式  | 推迟式

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | \- яа

\- yaa

|  | \- гаан, -гээн

gaan, geen

-гаамини

gaamini

-гэмини

ġeemini

Plural (exclusive)  | -гаамани

gaamaani

-гээмани

geemaani

Plural (inclusive)  | -гааннаани

gaannaani

-гээннаани

geennaani

2nd  | Singular  | -гаание

gaanie

| (word stem)  | -гааншини

gaanxini

-геение

geenie

| -гээншини

geenxini

Plural  | -гаантие

gaantie

| -ту

| -гаантаани

gaantaani

-геентие

geentie

| -геентаани

geentaani

3rd  | Singular & Plural  |  | -тгай

tgai

| -гаанини

gaanini

-гээнини

geenini

### Table of Declarative Verb Suffixes

Time  | Suffix  | Example  | Meaning (Chinese)

|
|
|

Present future tense  | -bei | идбей

idbei (iden)

| 要吃
-n | яобей (Явун)

yaobei (yawun)

| 要走
Past tense  | -sen | идсен

idsen

| 吃了
Яосен

yaosen

| 走了

### Table of pronouns verb suffix

#### Present future tensse

Pronoun  | Number  | Marker  | Example  | Meaning (Chinese)

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | -wei(-w) | би харивей

Bi hariwei(hariw).

| 我回去。
-nbi | би харинби

Bi harinbi.

| 我回去。
Plural (exclusive)  | -waa | баа хариваа

Baa hariwaa.

| 我们回去。
-nbaa | баа харинбаа

Baa harinbaa.

| 我们回去。
Plural (inclusive)  | -wdaa | бид харивдаа

Bid hariwdaa.

| 咱们回去。
-ndaa | бид хариндаа

Bid harindaa.

| 咱们回去。
2nd  | Singular  | -beixi(-bxi) | ши харибейши

Xi haribeixi.

| 你回去。
-nxi | ши харинши

Xi harinxi.

| 你回去。
Plural  | -beitaa (-btaa) | таа харибейтаа

Taa haribeitaa (haribtaa).

| 你们回去。
-ntaa | таа харинтаа

Taa harintaa.

| 你们回去。

#### Past tense

Pronoun  | Number  | Marker  | Example  | Meaning (Chinese)

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | -senbi | би харисенби

Bi harisenbi.

| 我回去了。
Plural (exclusive)  | -senbaa | баа харисенбаа

Baa harisenbaa.

| 我们回去了。
Plural (inclusive)  | -sendaa | баа харисэндаа

Bid harisendaa.

| 咱们回去了。
2nd  | Singular  | -senxi | ши харисенши

Xi harisenxi.

| 你回去了。
Plural  | -sentaa | таа харисентаа

Taa harisentaa.

| 你们回去了。

### Table of adverb suffix

[20]

Suffix  | Notes  | Example  | Meaning (Chinese)

|
|
|

-j | 表示并列  | Ийчиж ужсенби

iiqij ujsenbi.

| 我去看了。
-jie (dii) | Indicates that two actions are performed simultaneously  | Саожие усвулжьжабей

Saojie (dii) uswuljjabei

| 坐着说话着呢。
-aar, -eer, -oor | Indicates that the behavior occurred successively  | Гараар ирсэн

Garaar irsen.

| 出来了。
Энкуер яосэн

Enkuer yaosen.

| 咬着走了。
-jii | Signifies the end of the act  | Ужьжий яосэн

Ujjii yaosen.

| 看完走的。
Иджий яо!

Idjii yao!

| 吃完走吧!
-n ...-n | Indicates behaviors that occur together  | Гуйн кариен яосэн

Guin karien yaosen.

| 连蹦带跳地走了。
-mkii,-mklii | Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately  | Мадемький (мэдемький) ичсэн

Medemkii(medemklii) iqsen.

| 一知道就去了。
-mder | Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately  | Медемдерь (меднмкьлий) ичсэн

Medemder (medemklii) iqsen.

| 一知道就去了。
-wueter | Indicates readiness  | Елвуетерь медсен

Elwueter medsen.

| 一说就知道了。
-aajaar, -eejeer (-eejaar), -oojaar | Indicates simultaneous act  | Бариежаараа алдсэнх

Bariejaaraa aldsen.

| 抓着抓着放掉了。
-rsaar, rseer | Indicates continuation and recurrence of behavior  | Элерсеерь араан

Elerseer araan bolsen.

| 说了多少遍才成了。
-aas, -ees, -oos | Express the condition of the behavior  | Элеесшини укубей

Eleesxini ukubei.

| 如果你说了会给的。
-tgai q | Indicates concessive act  | Учийкэн аатгай чукаатий.

Uqiiken aatgai qukaatii.

| 虽小但有智。
-worg, -wuar | Indicates the act to follow  | Хийвуерь тортсен

Hiiwuer tortsen.

| 决定做了。
-gaanie, -geenie | Expresses purpose  | Уйгеени игсен

Uigeenie igsen.

| 去看去了。
-tel | Indicates behavioral boundaries  | Яотельмини аасен

Yaotelmini aasen.

| 直到我走还在。
-tlaa(-tlaanie), tlee(-tleenie) | Expresses choice  | Элтлеение хиисехдь уль денген.

Eltleenie hiisehd ul dengen.

| 说倒不如去做。
-maak(-maaken), meek(-meken) | Indicates the proximity and proximity of behavior  | Ванамаак (ванамаакен)

Wanamaak (wanamaaken) bolsen.

| 快要倒。

### Table of personal pronouns

[21] | 1st Person  | 2nd Person  | 3rd Person

|
|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural  | singular | plural
exclusive  | inclusive
Nominative  | бий

bii

| биэде

biede

| баа

baa

| ший

šii

| таа

taa

| инг

ing

| аанг

aang

Genitive  | миний

minii

| биэдний

biednii

| мааний

(maanii)

| шиний

šinii

| тааний

taanii

| иний

inii

| ааний

aanii

Dative  | намд

namd

| биэдендэ

biedende

| маандэ

maande

| шамд

šamd

| таандэ

taande

| я́мд

yamd (ind)

| аандэ

aande

Accusative  | намий

namii

| биэдний

biednii

| мааний

(maanii)

| шамий

šamii

| Тааний

Taanii

| я́мий

yamii

| ааний

aanii

Ablative  | намаасэ

namaase

| биэденаас

biedenaas

| маанаас

maanaas

| шамаасэ

šamaase

| Таанаас

taanaas

| я́маас

yamaas

| аанаас

aanaas

Instrumental  | намаарэ

namaare

| биэдэнаар

biedenaar

| маанаар

maanaar

| шамаарэ

šamaare

| таанаар

taanaar

| я́маар

yamaar

| аанаар

aanaar

Comitative  | намтий

namtii

| биэдентий

biedentii

| маантий

maantii

| шамтий

šamtii

| таантий

taantii

| я́мтий

yamtii

| аантий

aantii

## Lexicon

It is estimated that out of Dagur's entire language vocabulary, over half is Mongolic in origin.[22] Additionally, while Dagur has over 50% common Mongolic vocabulary, it has borrowed 5[23] to 10% of its words from Chinese, as well as 10% of its words from Manchu, and a small number vocabulary borrowed from Evenki[24] and Russian – leaving about 20% vocabulary that is specific to Dagur only.[25]

### Middle Mongol words

Dagur retains quite a few archaic Mongolic words, and although they are not commonly found in the modern Mongolic languages, they do appear in Middle Mongol sources, like the Hua-Yi yiyu and the ‘Secret History’. These words include:[26]

* tergul ~ terwul (тэргул ~ тервул) ‘road’ (in Mongol *jam)
* najir (нажийр) ‘summer’ (Mongol *jun)
* xeky (хэкый) ‘head’ (Mongol *tologai)
* sorby (сорбый) ‘staff’ (Mongol *tayag)
* kasoo (касоо) ‘iron’
* saur (саур) ‘spade’
* ogw (огв) ‘brain’
* basert (басерть) ‘kidney’
* twalcig (твалциг) ‘knee’
* kataa (катаа) ‘salt’
* warkel (варкэль) ‘clothes’
* el- (эл-) ‘to say’ (cf. Mongol *kele-)

### Numerals

All basic numerals are of Mongolic origin.

| English | Classical Mongolian | Dagur (Hailar) | Dagur (Qiqihar) | IPA

|
|
|
|
|

1 | One | Nigen | Нэкэн
Neken | Neke | nəkən
2 | Two | Qoyar | Хойир
Hoir | Hoyir | hɔir
3 | Three | Ghurban | Гуарбан
Guarban | Guarbe | guarban
4 | Four | Dorben | Дурубун
Durbun | Durbu | durubun
5 | Five | Tabun | Таавун
Taawun | Taawu | taːwun
6 | Six | Jirghughan | Жиргөө
Jirwoo | Jirgoo | d͡ʒirwɔː
7 | Seven | Dologhan | Долөөн
Doloon | Doloo | dɔlɔːn
8 | Eight | Naiman | Найман
Naiman | Naime | naiman
9 | Nine | Yisun | Йсэн
Isen | Yise | isən
10 | Ten | Arban | Харбан
Harban | Harbe | harban

## References

1. ↑ Dagur at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
zby/ {{{ld4}}} at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
2. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Dagur". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/daur1238.
3. ↑ Janhunen, Juha A. (2012) (in en). Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-3820-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=SAlwcg9ioPMC&pg=PA4.
4. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 129
5. ↑ Engkebatu 2001
6. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 129, Sengge 2004: 616
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. On page 129, Janhunen writes: 'The Nonni Dagur are normally divided into speakers of the Butha (northern) and Tsitsikar (southern) dialects'. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ&q=mongolic+book+juha.
8. ↑ Chuluu 1994: 5, but for example not the Tacheng dialect, see Yu et al. 2008: 25-26
9. ↑ Sengge 2004a, Tsumagari 2003: 133
10. ↑ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 66-67, cp. Tsumagari 2003: 131
11. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 131
12. ↑ cp. Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 84
13. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 131 basically in agreement with Sengge 2004a; in contrast, Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 37 give a pretty standard Mongolian vowel harmony system with the pharyngeal vowels /ɑ/, /ɔ/, /ʊ/ contrasting with the non-pharyngeal vowels /ə/, /o/, /u/, while /i/ is neutral.
14. ↑ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 211-126, cp. Tsumagari 2003: 141
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Sengge 2004c: 621
16. ↑ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 110-121, Sengge 619-620
17. ↑ Sengge 2004c: 620
18. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 144-148 supplemented with Sengge 2004c. The exact form of the plosive in -/ɡat͡ʃ/ is unclear as these two sources and Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983 give different phones.
19. ↑ 恩和巴图 (1983). 达汉小词典. 内蒙古人民出版社. p. 243.
20. ↑ 恩和巴图 (1983). 达汉小词典. 内蒙古人民出版社. p. 247.
21. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 141
22. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. Page 151, under 'Lexicon', Janhunen writes: "It has been estimated that, roughly speaking, more than half of the entire vocabulary of Dagur is Mongolic in origin, including both inherited items and reintroduced borrowings.". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ&q=mongolic+book+juha.
23. ↑ Sengge 2004b
24. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. Page 151, Janhunen writes: " Borrowings from Manchu amount to c.10 per cent, while borrowings from Chinese cover another 10 per cent of the lexicon. A smaller number of items has been borrowed from Ewenki. This means that a significant proportion, over 20 per cent, of all vocabulary items are specific only to Dagur". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ.
25. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 151-152
26. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. In pages 151 and 152: "Due to its peripheral position, Dagur retains a considerable number of archaic Mongolic words, which are not commonly found in the modern Mongolic languages, but which are attested in Middle Mongol sources, such as the Hua-Yi yiyu and the ‘Secret History’. Such words include: tergul ~ terwul ‘road’ (Mongol *jam), najir ‘summer’ (Mo. *jun), xeky ‘head’ (Mongol *tologai), sorby ‘staff’ (Mongol *tayag). Other more or less idiosyncratic words include several basic items, such as: kasoo ‘iron’, saur‘spade’, ogw ‘brain’, basert ‘kidney’, twalcig ‘knee’, kataa ‘salt’, warkel ‘clothes’, el- ‘to say’ (cf. Mongol *kele-).". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ.

## Bibliography

* Chuluu, Üjiyediin (1994), Introduction, Grammar, and Sample Sentences for Dagur, Sino-Platonic Papers, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp056_dagur_language.pdf
* Engkebatu (2001): Cing ulus-un üy-e-dü dagur kele-ber bicigdegsen jokiyal-ud-un sudulul. Kökeqota: Öbür monggol-un yeke surgaguli-yin keblel-ün qoriy-a.
* Namcarai; Qaserdeni (1983), Daγur kele ba mongγul kelen-ü qaričaγulul, Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a, OCLC 45024952
* Oyunčimeg, ed. (2004), Mongγul sudulul-un nebterkei toli, Kökeqota: Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a, ISBN 978-7-204-07745-8, OCLC 67279589
* Sengge (2004): Daγur kele. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 616-617.
* Sengge (2004a): Daγur kelen-ü abiy-a. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 618.
* Sengge (2004b): Daγur kelen-ü üges. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 619.
* Sengge (2004c): Daγur kelen-ü kele ǰüi. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 618-622.
* Tsumagari, Toshiro (2003): Dagur. In: Janhunen, Juha (ed.) (2003): The Mongolic languages. London: Routledge: 129-153.
* Yu, Wonsoo, Jae-il Kwon, Moon-Jeong Choi, Yong-kwon Shin, Borjigin Bayarmend, Luvsandorj[in] Bold (2008): A study of the Tacheng dialect of the Dagur language. Seoul: Seoul National University Press

## External links

* Unicode Manchu/Sibe/Dagur Fonts and Keyboards
* Learning Dagur (in Chinese)

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