Father absence

Short description: Lack of a male parent in raising a child

Father absence occurs when parents separate and the father no longer lives with his children and provides no parental investment. Parental separation has been proven to affect a child's development and behavior. Early parental divorce (during primary school) has been associated with greater internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the child,[1][2] while divorce later in childhood or adolescence may dampen academic performance.

Whilst father's absence mainly results from parental divorce and separation,[3][4] including parental alienation, other factors such as family poverty and developmental difficulties have been associated with father absence,[5][6][7][8][9] the effects of which have been explained by various theoretical approaches.

## Contents

* 1 Difficulties associated with father absence
* 1.1 General problems
* 1.2 Effect on children of an absent parent following divorce
* 1.3 Behavioural and mental health difficulties
* 2 Theoretical approaches
* 2.1 Evolutionary approach
* 2.2 Psychodynamic approach
* 2.3 Biological approach
* 3 Sex differences
* 3.1 Psychological impact on men
* 3.2 Psychological impact on women
* 3.2.1 Five-factors approach
* 4 Statistics
* 4.1 United States
* 5 Specific negative impacts
* 5.1 Menarche
* 5.2 Sexual behavior
* 6 Mechanisms to balance father absence
* 6.1 Matrilineal support
* 6.2 Presence of a stepfather
* 6.3 No agreement upon effective client treatment
* 7 See also
* 8 References

## Difficulties associated with father absence

### General problems

Despite limited agreement among researchers regarding the exact significance of fathering,[5] fathers are traditionally deemed a provider of protection and support for the child's development.[10] Through a number of pathways, father absence may influence child behavior, especially in early and middle childhood.[6][7] Father absence often results in a decline in household income, and ineffective parenting arising from continued conflicts between parents and psychological distress in the aftermath of the separation.

### Effect on children of an absent parent following divorce

Research has shown that children who have experienced parental separation in early life often face developmental and behavioural difficulties through their childhood.[11] For example, the separation of parents/guardians impacts children's relationship with their parents, their education, their health, and their well being.[3] Many of the studies that have shown the negative effects of a father's absence on children have not taken into account other factors that potentially contribute such as the child's characteristics and relationship with the parents before the separation, the child's gender, and the family environment before the separation.[1]

### Behavioural and mental health difficulties

In regard to the effects of father absence, a recent British study[1] assessed child problem behaviour in over 15,000 families using the clinical cut-offs of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), controlling for household factors such as resources, parental mental health and inter-parental relationship.[12][13] The study found that father absence at a given age, similar to poverty and parental psychological distress, predicted a high probability of the child scoring above the cut-off score for total difficulties two years later. Likewise, the father's absence predicted several specific difficulties including borderline personality disorder, severe hyperactivity, and abnormal emotional problems.[1] Reciprocally, a child's severe externalizing and social during their preschool years were also associated with a greater probability of the father being absent two years later. The authors concluded that the father's absence seemed to be more of a cause than a consequence of the child's problem behavior.[1]

Through direct interaction, fathers' involvement in children's development has a positive influence on their social, behavioral, and psychological outcomes. In general, the engagement of a fatherly figure reduces the frequency of behavioral problems and delinquency in sons and psychological problems in daughters, all the while facilitating children's cognitive development.[8][9]

## Theoretical approaches

### Evolutionary approach

Evolutionary life-history theory postulates that women may invest more in their offspring than men due to a slower rate of reproduction in females.[14] Some theorists add that the assured maternal relatedness to one's offspring may also make women invest more than men.[15][16] This is because some men may have variable paternity confidence that the child is his offspring.

### Psychodynamic approach

The psychodynamic approach posits that behavior is motivated by basic needs and drives and is sometimes shaped by unconscious childhood experiences. The psychodynamic approach suggests that for a child to develop a "normal" gender identity, they will have to be raised in a conventional family where there is a father and a mother. Some psychoanalysts believed that being parented by a single mother could confuse the child's identity or lead them to become homosexual.[17][18] Some psychoanalysts believe father absence may hinder the son's acquisition of the traditional masculine role, as he is not able to model his own behavior and attitude on his fathers'. Along similar lines, sons with absent fathers could have confused gender identities – if the son was separated from his father by age four, he would be less assertive, less involved in sport, less masculine than other boys and more dependent on his peers.[19]Template:Independent source inline Nevertheless, findings of certain empirical studies on psychosexual gender identification have been deemed contradictory and inconclusive.[20] A number of studies have highlighted such negative consequences of the two-parent heterosexual household on children. Contrarily, others have pointed out that being reared in lesbian and single-parent households where the father was absent did not affect the psychosexual development of children, despite higher aggressiveness and submissiveness and lower assertiveness.[21][non-primary source needed]

### Biological approach

Genes and hormones may account for the tendency of fathers to be absent. Certain DNA patterns have been shown to affect an individual's degree of fidelity and investment in their offspring. In particular, a study in prairie voles indicates that the gene AVPR1A affects the activity of vasopressin receptors in brain regions and thus predicts less cheating on their partners.[22] Similar to oxytocin, the hormone vasopressin can facilitate trust, empathy and social bonding. Injection of vasopressin in polygamous montane voles significantly increased their likelihood of becoming monogamous.[22] This may, in turn, decrease their likelihood of being an absent father.

A meta-analysis[23] based on 56 twin and adoption studies totaling over 200,000 families has revealed that genetic makeup significantly affects the individual's parenting behavior. Genes in the father's reliability predict up to 40% of his positive or negative emotions toward his children. In this sense, genes contribute to a father's liking or repulsion for his children, the latter of which may result in the father's absence. However, genes are not the sole predictors of whether a father will like or dislike his child.

## Sex differences

There is mixed empirical evidence on the relative impact of a father's absence on the development of male and female offspring. A recent study in rural Ethiopia, where a father's absence could mean a significant decrease in household income, revealed a considerable difference between the well-being of male and female offspring.[24] In particular, the author found that a male infant's risk of dying per month was doubled if the biological father was absent – a 30% greater risk than that for females. For female infants, father absence (as opposed to presence) was associated with a lower risk of dying, as well as higher nutritional status. That is to say, father absence was only a statistical predictor of infant death only for male infants. Such a sex difference has been observed despite a strong cultural preference for sons in the area. On the other hand, in developed countries such as the United Kingdom, where father absence may not inflict as much harm on the family's income, the effects of father absence are not noticeably different between the sexes of their offspring.[1] This suggests that other factors, such as household income and cultural norms, are significant in the well-being and development of a child.

### Psychological impact on men

When a young man matures without his biological male role model, this can result in violent reactions to stress and emotions, resistance and hate towards authority, aggression, early rates of sexual encounters, transferences of the mother's negative talk about the father, and pressured ideologies to become the breadwinner.[25]

### Psychological impact on women

Commonly agreed across authors within the literature on Fatherhood is the idea that "[a] girl's relationship with her father serves as the model for all her relationships with men in her life, romantic and otherwise".[26] Many studies conducted produce the same result: that the absence of a father in a daughter's life can lead to increased promiscuity and sexualized activity. Ellis conducted one such study et al., "Does Father Absence Place Daughters at Special Risk for Early Sexual Activity and Teenage Pregnancy?" Ellis provides a greater focus on the timing of the father's absence in their daughter's life but still the results of promiscuity prove contingent on the father being present.[27] From here, researchers have identified a commonality of 5 factors that work to explain how fatherlessness affects development in women, psychologically.

#### Five-factors approach

* "Un-Factor," which is the development of the ideas of being "unworthy," "unlovable," and similar concepts in young women. When young women begin to believe these ideas, it creates a self-fulfilled prophecy where they only accept and attract love from men who affirm their feelings of being unlovable, unworthy, or other "un-factor" ideas.[25]
* "Triple Fears Factor," also known as abandoned child syndrome, is where the three commonly identified fears (fear of rejection, fear of abandonment, and fear of commitment) express themselves. Each fear can be initially identifiable in the early stages of life without a father. The fatherless woman can adopt these fears due to the difficulty, trauma, or other pain created by the absence of her father. Furthermore, an absent father can leave a woman feeling abandoned, "not good enough," bereaved, and uncertain about what it means to be committed and received versus disloyal or rejected.[25] Being rejected can create contradictory emotions due to the familiarity and predictability of the situation versus the feelings of betrayal and the fear of being abandoned.[28] Generally, "what these people will do is to play it safe to protect themselves; they will not put themselves in situations that are going to be intimate. They will be highly social, sexual, intellectual, but not intimate."[29]
* "Sexual Healing Factor," which is most commonly identified across women of multiple age ranges and cultures for sexual expression, tends to serve as the primary indication of fatherlessness in a woman.[25] The Sexual Healing Factor in girls and women is attributed primarily to control. This sexual behavior exists on a spectrum, ranging from hypersexuality to complete avoidance of intimacy and asexuality. In both extremes, the girl is able to maintain a sense of control, deciding exactly what sex will look like for themselves.[25]
* "Over Factor," is more explicitly defined as overeating or overachieving to compensate for the absent father. The intensity of these behaviors can reach levels comparable to obsession and/or addiction.[25]
* "RAD Factor," is most commonly expressed as rage, anger, and depression (RAD). These emotions can express themselves as a drive for previous factors (such as fueling overachievement or hypersexuality) and create increased impulsivity or criminal behavior, among other factors.[25]

## Statistics

### United States

Based on the 2018 U.S. Census Bureau:[30] out of 11 million single parent households, 80% of them are fatherless, breaking down to 1 in every 4 children born; totaling to a percentage of 81.5%. Out of that 81.5% who were raised by single mothers, 34% were poor,[31] 26.8% were jobless the entire year,[31] and 30.3% had food insecurity;[31] ​2⁄3 of these families were white,[32] ​1⁄3 were black, and ​1⁄3 were Hispanic-defined.[32] It did not take into account the 53% of American-Indian and Alaskan-Native as well as the 17% Asian-American and Pacific-Islander children recorded within these single-parent homes.[32]

In 2005, the United States Department of Health and Human Services reported that the average experience of the American teenager includes living in the absence of their father.[33] This leads to multiple negative impacts on youth in which 85% are reported to have behavioral issues (Center for Disease Control);[34] 71% of high school dropouts and teen moms come from fatherless homes, which is 9 times the national average (National Principals Association Report);[34] 85% of all children who show behaviour disorders come from fatherless homes, which is 20 times the national average (Center for Disease Control);[34] 85% of youth in prison come from fatherless homes, which is 20 times the national average; (Fulton County, Georgia, Texas Department of Correction),[34] and 63% of youth suicides are of children who come from fatherless homes, which is 5 times the national average (US Department of Health/Census).[34]

## Specific negative impacts

Early pubertal timing, or precocious puberty, is associated with negative outcomes in both genders. Early maturing girls have been found to be at risk for teenage pregnancy,[35] drinking[36] and weight problems,[37][38] and giving birth to low birth weight infants.[39] Early maturing boys are at risk for sexual promiscuity and delinquency[40] and testicular[41] and prostate cancer.[42] Individual difference in pubertal timing may be influenced by weight, physical activity, and genetics.[43]

### Menarche

Menarche, a central event of female puberty, is associated with the father's absence.[44][45][46][47][48][49] According to the evolutionary explanation, an unstable home environment (e.g. father absence) discourages a long-term mating life history, leading girls to adopt a short-term reproductive strategy, such as early menarche.[50] This is because they perceive resources they have as scarce and, possibly, their lifespan to be shorter, under the influence of father absence. Early menarche can increase the chance of fertility, while other short-term reproductive strategies can diversify the genes inherited in offspring. These could lift up a higher success rate of rearing children to adolescence. Moreover, the stress of father absence prompts girls to develop a variety of internalizing disorders, such as bulimia and depression, which may lower the person's metabolism leading to excessive weight gain which precipitates early menarche.[38][51] A study shows that there are fewer monitored meals in the father-absent household.[52]

Having meals in the family is arguably more beneficial to children than eating alone (i.e. solitary eating), as the former lowers the chance of obesity. It has been disputed whether the environmental stress of a father's absence stimulates weight gain, and thus accelerates early puberty.[53][54] Likewise, the stress arising from the absence of mother has been shown to have little influence on the child's body weight. Since mother absence does not predict weight gain in children, it seems that the increase in the child's body weight observed is due to the isolated genetic influence of an absent father, rather than the global environmental stress caused by the absence of either parent.[55] This is possible because in ancestral times the survival rate of children with mother being absent was extremely low. A specialized mechanism to deal with a mother's absence has never been developed.

In addition, recent findings seem to regard genes, rather than the environment, as the mechanism underlying the positive correlation between high body mass index and earlier first menarche onset.[56][55][57] Androgen receptor gene may predispose a father to impulsive and externalising behaviours (e.g. family abandonment) and his offspring to early puberty.[2] The essentialness of androgen receptors to female fertility and ovary development has been proven by rodent studies.

### Sexual behavior

Father absence in a household can result in children (of both sexes) having earlier average ages of first sexual intercourse than those raised in father-present households. There is also the effect of increased rates of teenage pregnancy[58]. Some evolutionary theories propose that early childhood is vital for encoding information that shapes future reproductive strategies[59] in regulating physical and motivational pathways of sexual behavior. Conflicting and stressful parental relationships can lead children to believe that resources are limited, people are untrustworthy, and relationships are opportunistic. As they replicate their parents' mating-oriented reproductive behavior, they tend to have multiple sexual partners and broken relationships. Children implicitly and explicitly model their sexual attitudes and behaviors on their parents, and see engagement in non-marital sex as normative.[59] Father's absence can be a byproduct of initial social and economic strain within the household, as violence, lack of educational opportunities, and cumulative life exposure to poverty can increase the likelihood of early sexual endeavors and pregnancy. The timing of first intercourse can be heritable; shorter alleles of the X-linked androgen receptor (AR) gene has been associated with aggression, impulsivity, a high number of sexual partners, divorce in males, and earlier ages of physical maturation in females.[2]

## Mechanisms to balance father absence

### Matrilineal support

A study in Ethiopia in 2008 found that despite being poorer overall, widowed and divorced women are on average 2.4 kg heavier than women whose children's fathers are present.[24] Widowed and divorced mothers as well as their daughters are reported to have substantially improved nutritional status which could be explained by them having greater access to the mother's relatives (matrilateral kin). Furthermore, proximity to a mother's relatives can dramatically improve female children's height for age, an indicator of good nutrition.[60] Women who return to their village of birth following marital dissolution are seen to benefit from extra matrilateral kin support.[61]

### Presence of a stepfather

In light of certain research, father absence can be disadvantageous; certain evidence suggests stepfather presence does not reduce these disadvantages but in fact, has a worsening effect on such issues.[62] For example, the Cinderella effect, which refers to the observation that stepchildren are at a dramatically increased risk of physical abuse and homicide than children living with their biological parents.[63][64] Although researchers have found a negative relationship between stepmothers and food expenditure, this effect is not observed with stepfathers and their stepchildren.[65] Ellis and Garber (2000) and Ellis (2004) suggest that stepfather presence is a better predictor of age of menarche than father absence, as it indicates lower quality paternal investment. According to their findings, girls raised in families with stepfathers exhibit a significantly earlier age of menarche than girls raised without stepfathers.[46]

Relative to other groups, children with a constantly absent biological father but a stepfather present reported more frequent incidences of sexual intercourse, as well as an earlier onset of sexual behavior. The mean age of children with their biological father absent or partially absent is approximately 15.[66] A higher percentage of children with a constantly absent biological father reported having sexual intercourse than those in the partially absent group. Those with a stepfather present and those with a biological father always absent have the earliest first-time experiences of sexual intercourse at on average 15.11 years old, whereas children without a stepfather or their biological father partially absent at the age of 15.38 experience their first encounter of sexual intercourse.[67] The effect of having a partially absent biological father with a stepfather absence and the effect of both stepfather or biological father's absence is the same. This study indicated that the presence of a stepfather is not compensating for the disadvantages of a biological father being absent. In some situations, it can cause an even bigger negative effect on children.[68]

### No agreement upon effective client treatment

Choice of effective treatment can be greatly varied and thus can be affected by many factors such as age, one's ability to understand and deal with emotionally heavy material, family member involvement, and the family and child's priorities and needs.[69] In treating some of the negative effects that young girls may have, transference to a male therapist could help facilitate the opportunity to fill any emotional void created through father absence.[70] On the other hand, simply through the existence of a connection with a consistent and empathetic adult can provide some paternal function, regardless of gender.[71]

## See also

* Deadbeat parent
* Child neglect
* Father complex

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Flouri, Eirini; Narayanan, Martina K.; Midouhas, Emily (2015-11-01). "The cross-lagged relationship between father absence and child problem behavior in the early years" (in en). Child: Care, Health and Development 41 (6): 1090–1097. doi:10.1111/cch.12236. ISSN 1365-2214. OCLC 5995052590. PMID 25708874.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Comings, David E.; Muhleman, Donn; Johnson, James P.; MacMurray, James P. (2002-01-01). "Parent-Daughter Transmission of the Androgen Receptor Gene as an Explanation of the Effect of Father Absence on Age of Menarche". Child Development 73 (4): 1046–1051. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00456. PMID 12146732.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Amato, Paul R. (2010-06-01). "Research on Divorce: Continuing Trends and New Developments" (in en). Journal of Marriage and Family 72 (3): 650–666. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00723.x. ISSN 1741-3737. OCLC 6894960542. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00723.x.
4. ↑ McLanahan, Sara; Tach, Laura; Schneider, Daniel (2013-01-01). "The Causal Effects of Father Absence". Annual Review of Sociology 39 (1): 399–427. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145704. ISSN 0360-0572. OCLC 7973262495. PMID 24489431.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Sear, Rebecca; Mace, Ruth (2008). "Who keeps children alive? A review of the effects of kin on child survival". Evolution and Human Behavior 29 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.10.001. ISSN 1090-5138. OCLC 5902459343. Bibcode: 2008EHumB..29....1S. http://dro.dur.ac.uk/7614/1/7614.pdf.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Panico, Lidia; Bartley, Mel; Kelly, Yvonne; McMunn, Anne; Sacker, Amanda (2010-01-01). "Changes in family structure in early childhood in the Millennium Cohort Study". Population Trends 142 (1): 75–89. doi:10.1057/pt.2010.32. ISSN 0307-4463. OCLC 704742284. PMID 21187854.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Pearce, Anna; Lewis, Hannah; Law, Catherine (2012-08-09). "The role of poverty in explaining health variations in 7-year-old children from different family structures: findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study" (in en). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 67 (2): jech–2012–200970. doi:10.1136/jech-2012-200970. ISSN 1470-2738. OCLC 5856044497. PMID 22879638. http://jech.bmj.com/content/early/2012/08/08/jech-2012-200970.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Sarkadi, Anna; Kristiansson, Robert; Oberklaid, Frank; Bremberg, Sven (2008-02-01). "Fathers' involvement and children's developmental outcomes: a systematic review of longitudinal studies". Acta Paediatrica 97 (2): 153–158. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00572.x. ISSN 0803-5253. OCLC 263991910. PMID 18052995.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 East, Leah; Jackson, Debra; O'Brien, Louise (2006-12-01). "Father absence and adolescent development: a review of the literature" (in en). Journal of Child Health Care 10 (4): 283–295. doi:10.1177/1367493506067869. ISSN 1367-4935. OCLC 110080119. PMID 17101621.
10. ↑ Draper, Patricia; Harpending, Henry (1982-01-01). "Father Absence and Reproductive Strategy: An Evolutionary Perspective". Journal of Anthropological Research 38 (3): 255–273. doi:10.1086/jar.38.3.3629848. ISSN 0091-7710. OCLC 5546692515. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=anthropologyfacpub.
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12. ↑ Fomby, Paula; Osborne, Cynthia (2010-11-01). "The influence of union instability and union quality on children's aggressive behavior". Social Science Research 39 (6): 912–924. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.02.006. ISSN 0049-089X. OCLC 5901458134. PMID 22423167.
13. ↑ Goldberg, Julia S.; Carlson, Marcia J. (2014-08-01). "Parents' Relationship Quality and Children's Behavior in Stable Married and Cohabiting Families" (in en). Journal of Marriage and Family 76 (4): 762–777. doi:10.1111/jomf.12120. ISSN 1741-3737. OCLC 8512538061. PMID 25125703.
14. ↑ Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection . In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man (pp. 136-179). London: Heinemann.
15. ↑ Alexander, Richard D. (1974-01-01). "The Evolution of Social Behavior". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5 (1): 325–383. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001545. ISSN 0066-4162. Bibcode: 1974AnRES...5..325A. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001545.
16. ↑ Anderson, Kermyt G.; Kaplan, Hillard; Lancaster, Jane B. (2007). "Confidence of paternity, divorce, and investment in children by Albuquerque men". Evolution and Human Behavior 28 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.06.004. ISSN 1090-5138. OCLC 5900403537. Bibcode: 2007EHumB..28....1A. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513806000705.
17. ↑ Kenneth, Lewes (1988). The psychoanalytic theory of male homosexuality. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0671623913. OCLC 18350887. https://archive.org/details/psychoanalyticth00lewe.
18. ↑ Bailey, J. Michael; Vasey, Paul L.; Diamond, Lisa M.; Breedlove, S. Marc; Vilain, Eric; Epprecht, Marc (2016-09-01). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science" (in EN). Psychological Science in the Public Interest 17 (2): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. ISSN 1529-1006. PMID 27113562.
19. ↑ Hetherington, E. Mavis; Deur, Jan L. (1971-01-01). "The Effects of Father Absence on Child Development". Young Children 26 (4): 233–248.
20. ↑ Golombok, Susan; Rust, Jennifer (1986-12-01). "The Warnock Report and single women: what about the Children?". Journal of Medical Ethics 12 (4): 182–186. doi:10.1136/jme.12.4.182. ISSN 0306-6800. PMID 3806629.
21. ↑ Golombok, Susan; Spencer, Ann; Rutter, Michael (1983-10-01). "Children in Lesbian and Single-Parent Households: Psychosexual and Psychiatric Appraisal" (in en). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 24 (4): 551–572. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1983.tb00132.x. ISSN 1469-7610. OCLC 115487925. PMID 6630329.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Okhovat, Mariam; Berrio, Alejandro; Wallace, Gerard; Ophir, Alexander G.; Phelps, Steven M. (2015-12-11). "Sexual fidelity trade-offs promote regulatory variation in the prairie vole brain" (in en). Science 350 (6266): 1371–1374. doi:10.1126/science.aac5791. ISSN 0036-8075. OCLC 5982016598. PMID 26659055. Bibcode: 2015Sci...350.1371O.
23. ↑ Klahr, Ashlea M.; Burt, Sybil Alexandra (2014). "Elucidating the etiology of individual differences in parenting: A meta-analysis of behavioral genetic research.". Psychological Bulletin 140 (2): 544–586. doi:10.1037/a0034205. ISSN 0033-2909. OCLC 5538168735. PMID 24016230.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Gibson, Mhairi A. (2008-07-22). "Does Investment in the Sexes Differ When Fathers Are Absent?" (in en). Human Nature 19 (3): 263–276. doi:10.1007/s12110-008-9044-2. ISSN 1045-6767. OCLC 5660289599. PMID 26181617.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 Evans, Cornelius (December 2003) (in en). Anger in the Bosom of Our Children: The Effects of Fatherlessness on Anger in Middle School Children. iUniverse. ISBN 978-0-595-30328-1. OCLC 55619484. https://books.google.com/books?id=4mjTy92cxSoC&pg=PA17.
26. ↑ Thomas, Pamela (2009-08-18) (in en). Fatherless Daughters: Turning the Pain of Loss Into the Power of Forgiveness (1st Simon & Schuster hardcover ed.). Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-0557-3. OCLC 1149057066. https://books.google.com/books?id=PlbVUF_hPSsC&pg=PR9.
27. ↑ Ellis, Bruce John; Bates, John E.; Dodge, Kenneth A.; Fergusson, David Murray; Horwood, L. John; Pettit, Gregory S.; Woodward, Lianne (2003). "Does Father Absence Place Daughters at Special Risk for Early Sexual Activity and Teenage Pregnancy?". Child Development 74 (3): 801–821. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00569. ISSN 0009-3920. OCLC 111123415. PMID 12795391.
28. ↑ Erickson, Beth. (2010). Longing for Dad: Father Loss and Its Impact.. Health Communications, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-7573-9716-5. OCLC 1097983214.
29. ↑ Jackson, LaToya Marie (2010-01-01). Where's My Daddy? Effects of Fatherlessness on Women's Relational Communication (Master of Arts thesis). San Jose, CA, USA: San Jose State University. doi:10.31979/etd.xy86-vnm6. OCLC 648202312.
30. ↑ "America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2018" (in EN-US). https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2018/demo/families/cps-2018.html.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 "Household Income: HINC-04" (in EN-US). https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/cps-hinc/hinc-04.html.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 "Children in single-parent families by race | KIDS COUNT Data Center" (in en). https://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/107-children-in-single-parent-families-by.
33. ↑ In Brief. 2005. doi:10.1037/e477152006-013.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 "Go here to find statistics about children at risk without a father" (in en). http://www.operation-redemption.org/statistics/.
35. ↑ Udry, J. Richard; Cliquet, R. L. (1982-02-01). "A cross-cultural examination of the relationship between ages at menarche, marriage, and first birth" (in en). Demography 19 (1): 53–63. doi:10.2307/2061128. ISSN 0070-3370. PMID 7067870.
36. ↑ Mezzich, Ada Castillo; Tarter, Ralph E.; Giancola, Peter R.; Kirisci, Levent; Parks, Sydney E.; Lu, Sandy (1997). "Substance use and risky sexual behavior in female adolescents". Drug and Alcohol Dependence 44 (2–3): 157–166. doi:10.1016/s0376-8716(96)01333-6. ISSN 0376-8716. OCLC 4932735379. PMID 9088788.
37. ↑ Ness, Roberta (1991-01-01). "Adiposity and age of menarche in Hispanic women" (in en). American Journal of Human Biology 3 (1): 41–47. doi:10.1002/ajhb.1310030108. ISSN 1520-6300. OCLC 5152220355. PMID 28520315.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Wellens, Rita; Malina, Robert M.; Roche, Alex F.; Chumlea, William Cameron; Guo, Shumei; Siervogel, Roger M. (1992-01-01). "Body size and fatness in young adults in relation to age at menarche" (in en). American Journal of Human Biology 4 (6): 783–787. doi:10.1002/ajhb.1310040610. ISSN 1520-6300. OCLC 7040651171. PMID 28524629.
39. ↑ Scholl, Theresa; Hediger, Mary; Vasilenko, Peter; Ances, Isadore; Smith, Woolcott; Salmon, Ruth (1989-01-01). "Effects of early maturation on fetal growth". Annals of Human Biology 16 (4): 335–345. doi:10.1080/03014468900000462. ISSN 0301-4460. PMID 2782851.
40. ↑ Cota-Robles, Sonia; Neiss, Michelle; Rowe, David C. (2002-07-01). "The Role of Puberty in Violent and Nonviolent Delinquency among Anglo American, Mexican American, and African American Boys" (in en). Journal of Adolescent Research 17 (4): 364–376. doi:10.1177/07458402017004003. ISSN 0743-5584. OCLC 425483135. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/07458402017004003.
41. ↑ Weir, Hannah K.; Kreiger, Nancy; Marrett, Loraine D. (1998-05-01). "Age at Puberty and Risk of Testicular Germ Cell Cancer (Ontario, Canada)" (in en). Cancer Causes & Control 9 (3): 253–258. doi:10.1023/A:1008864902104. ISSN 0957-5243. OCLC 364204193. PMID 9684705.
42. ↑ Giles, Graham G.; Severi, Gianluca; English, Dallas R.; McCredie, Margaret R.E.; MacInnis, Robert; Boyle, Peter; Hopper, John L. (2003-01-10). "Early growth, adult body size and prostate cancer risk." (in en). International Journal of Cancer 103 (2): 241–245. doi:10.1002/ijc.10810. ISSN 1097-0215. OCLC 5153307503. PMID 12455039. "In attempting to explain how divorce will affect children, it is necessary for research to first examine and categorize children in groups which will make it easy to carry out the study. This is because children will be affected differently by divorce depending on the age factor. It becomes even wise for a researcher to adopt the following groups: pre-schoolers (nine years and below), adolescents (9-13 years), and youths/young adults (14-25 years). The research will become more attainable if carried out using learning institutions which will include pre-schools, secondary schools, and colleges. Therefore, a city within a state is selected where the research will be conducted and a preschool, one secondary school, and one college are selected within the city where respondents (children) are found. Objectives become necessary for the study. This will allow researchers to focus on certain areas and completely address the matter at hand without leaving gaps in the area of research. In addressing the topic, 'The effect on children of an absent parent following divorce,' the following research objectives can be used".
43. ↑ Underwood, L. E.; Van Wyk, J. J. (1992). Normal and aberrant growth. In Williams Textbook of Endocrinology (8th edition). Edited by Wilson, J. D. & Foster, D. W.. Philadelphia: Saunders. pp. 1079–1138. ISBN 9780721695143.
44. ↑ Hetherington, E. Mavis (1972). "Effects of father absence on personality development in adolescent daughters." (in en-US). Developmental Psychology 7 (3): 313–326. doi:10.1037/h0033339. ISSN 1939-0599. OCLC 4642890299. http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0033339.
45. ↑ Kim, Kenneth; Smith, Peter K. (1998-12-01). "Retrospective Survey of Parental Marital Relations and Child Reproductive Development" (in en). International Journal of Behavioral Development 22 (4): 729–751. doi:10.1080/016502598384144. ISSN 0165-0254. OCLC 438004323. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1080/016502598384144.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Ellis, Bruce Joel; Garber, Judy (2000-03-01). "Psychosocial Antecedents of Variation in Girls' Pubertal Timing: Maternal Depression, Stepfather Presence, and Marital and Family Stress" (in en). Child Development 71 (2): 485–501. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00159. ISSN 1467-8624. OCLC 425053763. PMID 10834479.
47. ↑ Hoier, Sabine (2003-09-01). "Father absence and age at menarche" (in en). Human Nature 14 (3): 209–233. doi:10.1007/s12110-003-1004-2. ISSN 1045-6767. PMID 26190208.
48. ↑ Quinlan, Robert J. (2003). "Father absence, parental care, and female reproductive development". Evolution and Human Behavior 24 (6): 376–390. doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(03)00039-4. ISSN 1090-5138. OCLC 4933528027. Bibcode: 2003EHumB..24..376Q. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1090-5138(03)00039-4.
49. ↑ Romans, Sarah E.; Martin, Julia M.; Gendall, Kelly; Herbison, G. Peter (2003-07-01). "Age of menarche: the role of some psychosocial factors". Psychological Medicine 33 (5): 933–939. doi:10.1017/S0033291703007530. ISSN 1469-8978. OCLC 111732005. PMID 12877408.
50. ↑ Belsky, Jay; Steinberg, Laurence; Draper, Patricia (1991-01-01). "Childhood Experience, Interpersonal Development, and Reproductive Strategy: An Evolutionary Theory of Socialization". Child Development 62 (4): 647–670. doi:10.2307/1131166. ISSN 0009-3920. OCLC 4648038023. PMID 1935336.
51. ↑ Kaplowitz, Paul B. (2008-02-01). "Link Between Body Fat and the Timing of Puberty" (in en). Pediatrics 121 (Supplement 3): S208–S217. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1813F. ISSN 0031-4005. OCLC 264020388. PMID 18245513. Bibcode: 2008Pedia.121S.208K.
52. ↑ Videon, Tami M; Manning, Carolyn K (May 2003). "Influences on adolescent eating patterns: the importance of family meals". Journal of Adolescent Health 32 (5): 365–373. doi:10.1016/s1054-139x(02)00711-5. ISSN 1054-139X. OCLC 4934080966. PMID 12729986.
53. ↑ Moffitt, Terrie Edith; Caspi, Avshalom; Belsky, Jay; Silva, Phil A. (1992-01-01). "Childhood Experience and the Onset of Menarche: A Test of a Sociobiological Model". Child Development 63 (1): 47–58. doi:10.2307/1130900. ISSN 0009-3920. OCLC 425209683. PMID 1551329.
54. ↑ Bogaert, Anthony Francis (2008-07-01). "Menarche and Father Absence in a National Probability Sample". Journal of Biosocial Science 40 (4): 623–636. doi:10.1017/S0021932007002386. ISSN 1469-7599. OCLC 264389070. PMID 17761007.
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Wang, Wei; Zhao, Lan Juan; Liu, Yao Z.; Recker, Robert R.; Deng, Hong-Wen (2006-03-28). "Genetic and environmental correlations between obesity phenotypes and age at menarche" (in en). International Journal of Obesity 30 (11): 1595–1600. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803322. ISSN 0307-0565. OCLC 8255060846. PMID 16568135.
56. ↑ Surbey, M. K (1990). Family composition, stress, and the timing of human menarche. In Socioendocrinology of primate reproduction. Edited by Toni E. Ziegler and Fred B. Bercovitch.. New York: Wiley-Liss.. pp. 11–32. ISBN 9780471567578.
57. ↑ Mendle, Jane; Turkheimer, Eric; D'Onofrio, Brian M.; Lynch, Stacy K.; Emery, Robert Edgar; Slutske, Wendy Sue; Martin, Nicholas Gordon (2006). "Family structure and age at menarche: A children-of-twins approach.". Developmental Psychology 42 (3): 533–542. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.3.533. ISSN 0012-1649. OCLC 109636858. PMID 16756443.
58. ↑ Ellis, B. J., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., Pettit, G. S., & Woodward, L. (2003). Does Father Absence Place Daughters at Special Risk for Early Sexual Activity and Teenage Pregnancy? Child Development, 74(3), 801–821. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696230
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Belsky, Jay; Steinberg, Laurence D.; Houts, Renate M.; Friedman, Sarah L.; DeHart, Ganie; Cauffman, Elizabeth; Roisman, Glenn I.; Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie L. et al. (2007-08-01). "Family rearing antecedents of pubertal timing". Child Development 78 (4): 1302–1321. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01067.x. ISSN 0009-3920. OCLC 166318326. PMID 17650140.
60. ↑ Gibson, Mhairi A.; Mace, Ruth (2005). "Helpful grandmothers in rural Ethiopia: A study of the effect of kin on child survival and growth". Evolution and Human Behavior 26 (6): 469–482. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.03.004. ISSN 1090-5138. OCLC 4933529343. Bibcode: 2005EHumB..26..469G. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513805000206.
61. ↑ Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff (1998-06-01). "Brothers and sisters: How sibling interactions affect optimal parental allocations" (in en). Human Nature 9 (2): 119–161. doi:10.1007/s12110-998-1001-6. ISSN 1045-6767. OCLC 5652748913. PMID 26197443.
62. ↑ Daly, Martin; Wilson, Margo (1999). The truth about cinderella : a Darwinian view of parental love. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300080292. OCLC 41419567. https://archive.org/details/truthaboutcinder00mart.
63. ↑ Flinn, Mark V. (November 1988). "Step- and genetic parent/offspring relationships in a Caribbean village". Ethology and Sociobiology 9 (6): 335–369. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(88)90026-x. ISSN 0162-3095. OCLC 4929107042. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/016230958890026X.
64. ↑ Tooley, Greg A.; Karakis, Marie; Stokes, Mark; Ozanne-Smith, Joan (May 2006). "Generalising the Cinderella Effect to unintentional childhood fatalities". Evolution and Human Behavior 27 (3): 224–230. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.10.001. ISSN 1090-5138. OCLC 4933529792. Bibcode: 2006EHumB..27..224T. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513805000929.
65. ↑ Case, Anne; Lin, I-Fen; McLanahan, Sara (May 1999). "Household Resource Allocation in Stepfamilies: Darwin Reflects on the Plight of Cinderella". American Economic Review 89 (2): 234–238. doi:10.1257/aer.89.2.234. ISSN 0002-8282. OCLC 5549643641. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.89.2.234.
66. ↑ Hilton, N. Zoe; Harris, Grant T.; Rice, Marnie E. (2015). "The step-father effect in child abuse: Comparing discriminative parental solicitude and antisociality.". Psychology of Violence 5 (1): 8–15. doi:10.1037/a0035189. OCLC 7065812105. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258109928.
67. ↑ Ellis, Bruce Joel (2004-11-01). "Timing of pubertal maturation in girls: an integrated life history approach". Psychological Bulletin 130 (6): 920–958. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.920. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 15535743. Bibcode: 2004PsycB.130..920E.
68. ↑ Mendle, Jane; Harden, Kathryn Paige; Turkheimer, Eric; Van Hulle, Carol A.; D'Onofrio, Brian M.; Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne; Rodgers, Joseph Lee; Emery, Robert Edgar et al. (2009-10-01). "Associations between father absence and age of first sexual intercourse". Child Development 80 (5): 1463–1480. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01345.x. ISSN 1467-8624. OCLC 437423383. PMID 19765012.
69. ↑ Wineburgh, Alan L. (2000-08-01). "Treatment of Children with Absent Fathers" (in en). Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 17 (4): 255–273. doi:10.1023/A:1007593906296. ISSN 0738-0151. OCLC 361179210. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1007593906296.
70. ↑ Tyson, Phyllis (1980-01-01). "The gender of the analyst: in relation to transference and countertransference manifestations in latency children". The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 35: 321–338. doi:10.1080/00797308.1980.11823116. ISSN 0079-7308. OCLC 114977888. PMID 7433586. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00797308.1980.11823116.
71. ↑ Strauss, David (2013-01-01). "Will you leave me too?: The impact of father absence on the treatment of a 10-year-old girl". Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health 25 (2): 119–130. doi:10.2989/17280583.2013.790823. ISSN 1728-0591. PMID 25860418.

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