Health psychology

Short description: Study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare

"Health Psychology" redirects here. For the journal, see Health Psychology (journal).

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Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare.[1] The discipline is concerned with understanding how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness. Psychological factors can affect health directly. For example, chronically occurring environmental stressors affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, cumulatively, can harm health. Behavioral factors can also affect a person's health. For example, certain behaviors can, over time, harm (smoking or consuming excessive amounts of alcohol) or enhance (engaging in exercise) health.[2] Health psychologists take a biopsychosocial approach. In other words, health psychologists understand health to be the product not only of biological processes (e.g., a virus, tumor, etc.) but also of psychological (e.g., thoughts and beliefs), behavioral (e.g., habits), and social processes (e.g., socioeconomic status and ethnicity).[2]

By understanding psychological factors that influence health, and constructively applying that knowledge, health psychologists can improve health by working directly with individual patients or indirectly in large-scale public health programs. In addition, health psychologists can help train other healthcare professionals (e.g., physicians and nurses) to apply the knowledge the discipline has generated, when treating patients. Health psychologists work in a variety of settings: alongside other medical professionals in hospitals and clinics, in public health departments working on large-scale behavior change and health promotion programs, and in universities and medical schools where they teach and conduct research.

Although its early beginnings can be traced to the field of clinical psychology,[3] four different divisions within health psychology[4] and one related field, occupational health psychology (OHP),[5][6][7][8] have developed over time. The four divisions include clinical health psychology, public health psychology, community health psychology, and critical health psychology.[4] Professional organizations for the field of health psychology include Division 38 of the American Psychological Association (APA),[9] the Division of Health Psychology of the British Psychological Society (BPS),[10] the European Health Psychology Society (EHPS),[11] and the College of Health Psychologists of the Australian Psychological Society (APS).[12] Advanced credentialing in the US as a clinical health psychologist is provided through the American Board of Professional Psychology.[13]

## Contents

* 1 Overview
* 1.1 Clinical health psychology (ClHP)
* 1.2 Public health psychology (PHP)
* 1.3 Community health psychology (CoHP)
* 1.4 Critical health psychology (CrHP)
* 1.5 Occupational health psychology
* 2 Origins and development
* 2.1 United States
* 2.2 Europe
* 2.3 United Kingdom
* 2.4 Development
* 3 Objectives
* 3.1 Understanding behavioral and contextual factors
* 3.2 Preventing illness
* 3.3 Illness, disabilities and long-term conditions
* 3.4 Critical analysis of health policy
* 3.5 Conducting research
* 3.6 Teaching and communication
* 4 Applications
* 4.1 Improving doctor–patient communication
* 4.2 Improving adherence to medical advice
* 4.2.1 Ways of measuring adherence
* 4.3 Managing pain
* 5 Current research
* 5.1 MIDUS
* 5.1.1 MIDUS 1: National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States.
* 5.1.2 MIDUS 2
* 5.1.3 MIDUS Refresher
* 5.1.4 MIDUS 3
* 5.1.5 MIDJA: Midlife in Japan
* 5.2 Uses of MIDUS Data
* 6 Health psychologist roles
* 7 Training
* 7.1 United States
* 7.2 United Kingdom
* 7.3 Australia
* 7.4 New Zealand
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 External links
* 10.1 North America
* 10.2 Europe

## Overview

Psychologists who strive to understand how biological, behavioral, and social factors influence health and illness are called health psychologists. Health psychologists use their knowledge of psychology and health to promote general well-being and understand physical illness.[14] They are specially trained to help people deal with the psychological and emotional aspects of health and illness. Health psychologists work with many different health care professionals (e.g., physicians, dentists, nurses, physician's assistants, dietitians, social workers, pharmacists, physical and occupational therapists, and chaplains) to conduct research and provide clinical assessments and treatment services. Many health psychologists focus on prevention research and interventions designed to promote healthier lifestyles and try to find ways to encourage people to improve their health. For example, they may help people to lose weight or stop smoking.[14] Health psychologists also use their skills to try to improve the healthcare system. For example, they may advise doctors about better ways to communicate with their patients.[14] Health psychologists work in many different settings including the UK's National Health Service (NHS), private practice, universities, communities, schools and organizations. While many health psychologists provide clinical services as part of their duties, others function in non-clinical roles, primarily involving teaching and research. Leading journals include Health Psychology, the Journal of Health Psychology, the British Journal of Health Psychology,[15] and Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being.[16] Health psychologists can work with people on a one-to-one basis, in groups, as a family, or at a larger population level.[14]

### Clinical health psychology (ClHP)

### Public health psychology (PHP)

### Community health psychology (CoHP)

CoHP investigates community factors that contribute to the health and well-being of individuals who live in communities. CoHP also develops community-level interventions that are designed to combat disease and promote physical and mental health. The community often serves as the level of analysis, and is frequently sought as a partner in health-related interventions.[17][18] A prominent focus of community health psychology is how to promote and strengthen health systems in communities. By doing so, community health psychologists hope to improve health across generations in a family. This comes with a strong focus in maternal and child care to do so.[19]

### Critical health psychology (CrHP)

CrHP is concerned with the distribution of power and the impact of power differentials on health experience and behavior, health care systems, and health policy. CrHP prioritizes social justice and the universal right to health for people of all races, genders, ages, and socioeconomic positions. A major concern is health inequalities. The critical health psychologist is an agent of change, not simply an analyst or cataloger. A leading organization in this area is the International Society of Critical Health Psychology.[20]

### Occupational health psychology

Occupational health psychology brings together aspects of health psychology and industrial/organizational psychology to protect and improve health and workalike balance. Two of the main focuses are on occupational stress and workplace interventions.[21][22] Pickren and Degni[23] and Sanderson[24] observed that in Europe and North America, occupational health psychology (OHP) emerged as a specialty with its own organizations. The authors noted that OHP owes some of that emergence to health psychology as well as other disciplines (e.g., i/o psychology, occupational medicine). Sanderson underlined examples in which OHP aligns with health psychology. Adkins documented the application of behavioral principles to improve working conditions, mitigate job stress, and improve worker health in a complex organization.[25]

Current occupational health psychology research focuses on different job fields to more effectively determine how to improve organizational health. A job field that has received a lot of focus are nurses. Among nurses, there were two methods to reduce occupational stress. One method was implementing cognitive-behavioral skills training. This type of training focuses on emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, assertiveness, and time management. Another method to reduce occupational stress among nurses was mindfulness based intervention. Mindfulness-based intervention were taught to nurses as a way to stay present and was encourage to use before shifts or during busy shifts when it was chaotic.[26]

## Origins and development

Health psychology developed in different forms in different societies.[27] Psychological factors in health had been studied since the early 20th century by disciplines such as psychosomatic medicine and later behavioral medicine, but these were primarily branches of medicine, not psychology.

### United States

In 1969, William Schofield prepared a report for the APA entitled The Role of Psychology in the Delivery of Health Services.[28] While there were exceptions, he found that the psychological research of the time frequently regarded mental health and physical health as separate, and devoted very little attention to psychology's impact upon physical health. One of the few psychologists working in this area at the time, Schofield proposed new forms of education and training for future psychologists. The APA, responding to his proposal, in 1973 established a task force to consider how psychologists could (a) help people to manage their health-related behaviors, (b) help patients manage their physical health problems, and (c) train healthcare staff to work more effectively with patients.[29]

Health psychology began to emerge as a distinct discipline of psychology in the United States in the 1970s. In the mid-20th century there was a growing understanding in medicine of the effect of behavior on health. For example, the Alameda County Study, which began in the 1960s, showed that people who ate regular meals (e.g., breakfast), maintained a healthy weight, received adequate sleep, did not smoke, drank little alcohol, and exercised regularly were in better health and lived longer.[30] In addition, psychologists and other scientists were discovering relationships between psychological processes and physiological ones.[31] These discoveries include a better understanding of the impact of psychosocial stress on the cardiovascular and immune systems,[31] and the early finding that the functioning of the immune system could be altered by learning.[32]

Led by Joseph Matarazzo, in 1977, APA added a division devoted to health psychology. At the first divisional conference, Matarazzo delivered a speech that played an important role in defining health psychology. He defined the new field in this way, "Health psychology is the aggregate of the specific educational, scientific and professional contributions of the discipline of psychology to the promotion and maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment of illness, the identification of diagnostic and etiologic correlates of health, illness and related dysfunction, and the analysis and improvement of the healthcare system and health policy formation."[33] Similar organizations were established in other countries, including Australia and Japan.[34]

### Europe

In the 1980s there was increasing interest in many European countries in researching psychological aspects of health and illness. In 1986, Stan Maes (1947–2018) of Tilburg University convened a meeting of researchers from Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Spain, the UK and the Netherlands. Out of this meeting emerged the European Health Psychology Society which began to organise regular conferences (e.g. Trier, 1988; Utrecht, 1989; Oxford, 1990; Lausanne, 1991; and Leipzig, 1992)[35] and published proceedings from these meetings.[36] This society also began to develop its own publications.[37]

### United Kingdom

Psychologists have been working in medical settings for many years (in the UK sometimes the field was termed medical psychology). Medical psychology, however, was a relatively small field, primarily aimed at helping patients adjust to illness.[38] The BPS's reconsideration of the role of the Medical Section prompted the emergence of health psychology as a distinct field.[39] Marie Johnston and John Weinman argued in a letter to the BPS Bulletin that there was a great need for a Health Psychology Section. In December 1986 the section was established at the BPS London Conference, with Marie Johnston as chair.[40] Annual conferences began to be held and began to map out the areas of interest.[41] At the Annual BPS Conference in 1993 a review of "Current Trends in Health Psychology" was organized, and a definition of health psychology as "the study of psychological and behavioural processes in health, illness and healthcare" was proposed.[42]

The Health Psychology Section became a Special Group in 1993 and was awarded divisional status within the UK in 1997. The awarding of divisional status meant that the individual training needs and professional practice of health psychologists were recognized, and members were able to obtain chartered status with the BPS. The BPS went on to regulate training and practice in health psychology until the regulation of professional standards and qualifications was taken over by statutory registration with the Health Professions Council in 2010.[40]

### Development

A number of relevant trends coincided with the emergence of health psychology. One of those trends being the addition of behavioral science to medical school curricula, with courses often taught by psychologists.[40] Another trend of the increased knowledge in health psychology is the training of health professionals in communication skills, with the aim of improving patient satisfaction and adherence to medical treatment.[40] Another impact of the emergence and focus on health psychology are the increasing numbers of interventions based on psychological theory (e.g., behavior modification)[40] and an increased understanding of the interaction between psychological and physiological factors leading to the emergence of psychophysiology and psychoneuroimmunology (PNI).[40] The health domain has also become a target of research by social psychologists interested in testing theoretical models linking beliefs, attitudes, and behavior.[43] Another important impact of the focus on health psychology and its research is the increase of and funding of research in the emergence of AIDS/HIV.[40] The emergence of academic /professional bodies to promote research and practice in health psychology was followed by the publication of a series of textbooks which began to lay out the interests of the discipline.[44]

## Objectives

### Understanding behavioral and contextual factors

Health psychologists conduct research to identify behaviors and experiences that promote health, give rise to illness, and influence the effectiveness of health care. They also recommend ways to improve health care policy.[45] Health psychologists have worked on developing ways to reduce smoking[46] in order to promote health and prevent illness. They have also studied the association between illness and individual characteristics. For example, health psychology has found a relation between the personality characteristics of thrill seeking, impulsiveness, hostility/anger, emotional instability, and depression, on one hand, and high-risk driving, on the other.[47]

Health psychology is also concerned with contextual factors, including economic, cultural, community, social, and lifestyle factors that influence health. Physical addiction impedes smoking cessation. Some research suggests that seductive advertising also contributes to psychological dependency on tobacco,[48] although other research has found no relationship between media exposure and smoking in youth.[49] OHP research indicates that people in jobs that combine little decision latitude with a high psychological workload are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease.[50][51] Other research reveals a relation between unemployment and elevations in blood pressure.[52][53] Epidemiologic research documents a relation between social class and cardiovascular disease.[54]

### Preventing illness

Health psychologists promote health through behavioral change, as mentioned above; however, they attempt to prevent illness in other ways as well. Health psychologists try to help people to lead a healthy life by developing and running programmes which can help people to make changes in their lives such as stopping smoking, reducing the amount of alcohol they consume, eating more healthily, and exercising regularly.[14] Campaigns informed by health psychology have targeted tobacco use. Those least able to afford tobacco products consume them most. Tobacco provides individuals with a way of controlling aversive emotional states accompanying daily experiences of stress that characterize the lives of deprived and vulnerable individuals.[55] Practitioners emphasize education and effective communication as a part of illness prevention because many people do not recognize, or minimize, the risk of illness present in their lives. Moreover, many individuals are often unable to apply their knowledge of health practices owing to everyday pressures and stresses. A common example of population-based attempts to motivate the smoking public to reduce its dependence on cigarettes is anti-smoking campaigns.[56]

Health psychologists help to promote health and well-being by preventing illness.[14] Some illnesses can be more effectively treated if caught early. Health psychologists have worked to understand why some people do not seek early screenings or immunizations, and have used that knowledge to develop ways to encourage people to have early health checks for illnesses such as cancer and heart disease.[14] Health psychologists are also finding ways to help people to avoid risky behaviors (e.g., engaging in unprotected sex) and encourage health-enhancing behaviors (e.g., regular tooth brushing or hand washing).[14]

Health psychologists also aim at educating health professionals, including physicians and nurses, in communicating effectively with patients in ways that overcome barriers to understanding, remembering, and implementing effective strategies for reducing exposures to risk factors and making health-enhancing behavior changes.[57]

There is also evidence from OHP that stress-reduction interventions at the workplace can be effective. For example, Kompier and his colleagues[58] have shown that a number of interventions aimed at reducing stress in bus drivers has had beneficial effects for employees and bus companies.

### Illness, disabilities and long-term conditions

Health psychologists investigate how disease affects individuals' psychological well-being. An individual who becomes seriously ill or injured faces many different practical stressors. These stressors include problems meeting medical and other bills, problems obtaining proper care when home from the hospital, obstacles to caring for dependents, the experience of having one's sense of self-reliance compromised, gaining a new, unwanted identity as that of a sick person, and so on. These stressors can lead to depression, reduced self-esteem, etc.[59]

The use of medications can alter the microbiome and potentially impact overall health and the development of diseases. It has been discovered that the metabolites produced by intestinal microorganisms can influence one's health. For instance, antidepressants can modify the composition of the intestinal microbiota, which can then affect the course of the disease through changes in specific metabolites produced by certain intestinal microorganisms. This has significant implications, particularly in the context of depression, as it offers new insights into how to approach and treat the condition at hand.[60]

Health psychology also concerns itself with bettering the lives of individuals with terminal illness. When there is little hope of recovery, health psychologist therapists can work within a multi-disciplinary palliative care team to improve the quality of life of the patient by helping the patient recover at least some of his or her psychological well-being.[61]

A form of therapy shown in recent studies is psychotherapy. It is used as a mode of intervention due to the inconsistency and issues that may arise from pharmacological interventions. It ensures the use of evidence-based practices and helps in facilitating adherence to medication regimens that may be impacted by psychiatric symptoms, such as low motivation or depressive symptoms. When using psychotherapeutic strategies, clinicians can choose from three modes: individual, family/couples, and group psychotherapy.[62]

### Critical analysis of health policy

Critical health psychologists explore how health policy can influence inequities, inequalities and social injustice.[63] These avenues of research expand the scope of health psychology beyond the level of individual health to an examination of the social and economic determinants of health both within and between regions and nations. The individualism of mainstream health psychology has been critiqued and deconstructed by critical health psychologists using qualitative methods that zero in on the health experience.[64]

### Conducting research

Like psychologists in the other main psychology disciplines, health psychologists have advanced knowledge of research methods. Health psychologists apply this knowledge to conduct research on a variety of questions.[65] For example, health psychologists carry out research to answer questions such as:

* What influences healthy eating?
* How is stress linked to heart disease?
* What are the emotional effects of genetic testing?
* How can we change people's health behavior to improve their health?[14]

### Teaching and communication

Main article: Social:Health communication

Health psychologists can also be responsible for training other health professionals on how to deliver interventions to help promote healthy eating, stopping smoking, weight loss, etc. Health psychologists also train other health professionals in communication skills such as how to break bad news or support behavior change for the purpose of improving adherence to treatment.[65]

## Applications

### Improving doctor–patient communication

Health psychologists aid the process of communication between physicians and patients during medical consultations. There are many problems in this process, with patients showing a considerable lack of understanding of many medical terms, particularly anatomical terms (e.g., intestines).[66] One area of research on this topic involves "doctor-centered" or "patient-centered" consultations. Doctor-centered consultations are generally directive, with the patient answering questions and playing less of a role in decision-making. Although this style is preferred by elderly people and others, many people dislike the sense of hierarchy or ignorance that it inspires. They prefer patient-centered consultations, which focus on the patient's needs, involve the doctor listening to the patient completely before making a decision, and involving the patient in the process of choosing treatment and finding a diagnosis.[67]

### Improving adherence to medical advice

Health psychologists engage in research and practice aimed at getting people to follow medical advice and adhere to their treatment regimens. Patients often forget to take their pills or consciously opt not to take their prescribed medications because of side effects. Failing to take prescribed medication is costly and wastes millions of usable medicines that could otherwise help other people. Estimated adherence rates are difficult to measure (see below); there is, however, evidence that adherence could be improved by tailoring treatment programs to individuals' daily lives.[68] Additionally, traditional cognitive-behavioural therapies have been adapted for people with chronic illnesses and comorbid psychological distress to include modules that encourage, support and reinforce adherence to medical advice as part of the larger treatment approach.[69]

#### Ways of measuring adherence

Health psychologists have identified a number of ways of measuring patients' adherence to medical regimens:

* Counting the number of pills in the medicine bottle
* Using self-reports
* Using "Trackcap" bottles, which track the number of times the bottle is opened.[70]

### Managing pain

Health psychology attempts to find treatments to reduce or eliminate pain, as well as understand pain anomalies such as episodic analgesia, causalgia, neuralgia, and phantom limb pain. Although the task of measuring and describing pain has been problematic, the development of the McGill Pain Questionnaire[71] has helped make progress in this area. Treatments for pain involve patient-administered analgesia, acupuncture (found to be effective in reducing pain for osteoarthritis of the knee[72]), biofeedback, and cognitive behavior therapy.

## Current research

### MIDUS

Midlife in the United States, also known as MIDUS, has sent out numerous surveys since its start in 1995. The goal of MIDUS was to collect data on the role of behavioral, social, and psychological factors on age-related outcomes on health and well-being. Since its start, MIDUS has sent out a variety of surveys and done an extensive amount of research pertaining to health psychology. Many researchers often refer back to MIDUS data for their own research as the MIDUS data is extensive and longitudinal.[73]

#### MIDUS 1: National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States.

Done in 1995 to 1996, the MIDUS 1 project surveyed 7,108 individuals ages 25 to 75 years old. This sample also included the national sample of twins and siblings as a large sample of their participants. This survey was done through self-administered questionnaires and phone interviews. Participants were asked to provide information on their physical and mental health as well as insight on their lifestyle choices, demands of their career, substance use, sense of control over their health, and what their decision-making process is.[73]

#### MIDUS 2

MIDUS 2 was completed in 2009 and was a longitudinal follow-up on all of the participants in the MIDUS 1 survey. Within MIDUS 2, there were five projects. Project 1 was a follow up on all of the questions asked in MIDUS 1 pertaining to psychosocial, sociodemographic, and health variables. Project 2 was a follow up of the daily diary in MIDUS 1. Project 3 was a new assessment of cognition in this sample and also included a follow up for the previous cognitive subsample from MIDUS 1. Project 4 was a biomarkers assessment on the participants. Project 5 was a neuroscience assessment on a subsample of those who participated in the biomarker study.[73]

#### MIDUS Refresher

The MIDUS Refresher study was done in 2011 through 2014. This study recruited a new sample of 3,577 adults between the ages of 25-74 and was designed to replenish the original MIDUS 1 sample in order to parallel the original survey. The MIDUS Refresher survey had the same assessments that were done with the existing MIDUS sample, but included additional questions about the effects of the economic recession that took place in 2008 through 2009. The MIDUS Refresher survey also included five projects. Project 1 was a 30-minute phone interview as well as a two 50 page self-administered questionnaires that were mailed to each participant. This was done to analyze the mental and physical effects related to the economic recession. Projects two through five followed the same pattern as the MIDUS 2 survey with daily diary, cognitive, biomarker, and neuroscience assessments respectively.[73]

#### MIDUS 3

A third wave of surveys were sent in 2013 to collect longitudinal data on the MIDUS Refresher participants. This survey followed the same structure as the MIDUS Refresher survey with the addition of questions about optimism and coping, stressful life events, and caregiving.[73]

#### MIDJA: Midlife in Japan

MIDJA looks at 1,027 adults ages 30 to 79 in Japan, specifically the Tokyo metropolitan area, in 2008. This survey collected baseline data on sociodemographic characteristics, psychosocial characteristics, and mental and physical health. In 2009, biomarker data was taken from these cases. This survey and the collection of biomarker data mirrored the longitudinal studies of MIDUS to analyze differences between the United States and Japan. In 2012, a longitudinal follow up was completed on MIDJA participants. This repeated the baseline assessments to further look at the differences between MIDUS and MIDJA data.[73]

### Uses of MIDUS Data

One study used MIDUS 1 through 3 data to complete a longitudinal study. This study was looking at cognitive reappraisal, affective reactivity, and health. From the MIDUS data, they used the cognitive reappraisal, sociodemographics, daily stressors, daily negative affect, mental health scales, reported chronic conditions, and physical health data throughout these studies. What they found was that cognitive reappraisal was significantly associated with future health and well-being outcomes.[74]

Another study looked at daily stressors, positive events, and depression, specifically the difference in affect between groups with and without major depressive disorder. This study used MIDUS 1 and 2 data as well as the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE) which is a subset of the MIDUS data also knows and the daily diary project. The data taken from these surveys were reports of daily affect, daily stressors, daily positive events, and major depressive disorder. What was found was that those who had major depressive disorder and experiences at least one positive event that day reported a greater decrease of positive affect and greater increase of negative affect compared to groups without major depressive disorder.[75]

Another study looked at affective reactivity, heart rate, and marital quality. This study looked at the NSDE, Biomarker Project, and MIDUS 2 and 3 data. Within this, the variables of interest were daily stressors, affective reactivity, marital quality, and resting heart rate. What was found were greater affective reactivity to daily stressors predicted lower marital satisfaction and higher marital risk. In addition to that, resting heart rate moderated these associations. High levels of resting heart rate offset the negative relationship between affective reactivity and marital quality.[76]

MIDUS data is very important to and applicable in health psychology research. Since it looks at such a wide variety of variables, there are many different ways for researchers to analyze the data. It allows for a variety of different combinations of variables to compare, a large amount of longitudinal data, and so much research to build off of. The different variables allow for an intersection of data to present in health psychology because of the variety in physical health and mental health variables.

## Health psychologist roles

Below are some examples of the types of positions held by health psychologists within applied settings such as the UK's NHS and private practice.

Healthcare professionals who treat individuals with mental health conditions prefer medications that provide energy and have fewer side effects. When prescribing psychiatric drugs, it is essential to consider individual needs, safety, and anti-doping policies. Psychologists patients prefer specific medications like escitalopram for anxiety, melatonin for insomnia, lamotrigine for bipolar disorders, and aripiprazole for psychotic disorders. This emphasizes the importance of personalized prescribing individuals.[77]

* Consultant health psychologist: A consultant health psychologist will take a lead for health psychology within public health, including managing tobacco control and smoking cessation services and providing professional leadership in the management of health trainers.[65]
* Principal health psychologist: A principal health psychologist could, for example lead the health psychology service within one of the leading heart and lung hospitals, providing a clinical service to patients and advising all members of the multidisciplinary team.[65]
* Health psychologist: An example of a health psychologist's role would be to provide health psychology input to a center for weight management. Psychological assessment of treatment, development and delivery of a tailored weight management program, and advising on approaches to improve adherence to health advice and medical treatment.[65]
* Research psychologist: Research health psychologists carry out health psychology research, for example, exploring the psychological impact of receiving a diagnosis of dementia, or evaluating ways of providing psychological support for people with burn injuries. Research can also be in the area of health promotion, for example investigating the determinants of healthy eating or physical activity or understanding why people misuse substances.[65]
* Health psychologist in training/assistant health psychologist: As an assistant/in training, a health psychologist will gain experience assessing patients, delivering psychological interventions to change health behaviors, and conducting research, whilst being supervised by a qualified health psychologist.[65]

## Training

### United States

### United Kingdom

The term "health psychologist" is a protected title, with health psychologists required to register with the Health Professions Council (HPC) and have trained to a level to be eligible for full membership of the Division of Health Psychology within the BPS.[78] Registered health psychologists who are chartered with the BPS will have undertaken a minimum of six years of training, with three of those years dedicated to health psychology training.[65] Following the completion of a BPS-accredited undergraduate degree in psychology, aspiring health psychologists must first complete a BPS-accredited masters in health psychology (Stage 1 training). Once the trainee has completed Stage 1 training, they can either choose to complete the BPS' independent Stage 2 training route or sign up to an accredited health psychology doctorate program at a UK university (DHealthPsy). Both training routes require trainees to demonstrate they meet the core competencies of:

* professional skills (including implementing ethical and legal standards, communication, and teamwork),
* research skills (including designing, conducting, and analyzing psychological research in numerous areas),
* consultancy skills (including planning and evaluation),
* teaching and training skills (including knowledge of designing, delivering, and evaluating large and small scale training program),
* intervention skills (including delivery and evaluation of behavior change interventions).[65]

At present, there are limited opportunities for trainees to receive fully funded training. The NHS Education Scotland (NES) Stage 2 program funds several trainee health psychologists each year, providing trainees with fixed-term posts within NHS Boards across Scotland.[79] In 2022, a pilot scheme was launched by Health Education England (HEE) to provide similar opportunities to aspiring health psychologists across England. Once qualified, health psychologists can work in a range of settings, for example the NHS, universities, schools, private healthcare, and research and charitable organizations.[65] A health psychologist in training might be working within applied settings while working towards registration and chartered status.[65] All qualified health psychologists must also engage in and record their continuing professional development (CPD) for psychology each year throughout their career.[78]

### Australia

Health psychologists are registered by the Psychology Board of Australia.[80] The standard pathway to becoming an endorsed health psychologists involves a minimum of six years training and a two-year registrar program.[81] Health psychologists must also undertake continuing professional development (CPD) each year.[82]

### New Zealand

Health psychologists are registered by the New Zealand Psychologists Board within the psychologist scope of practice.[83] The training pathway to becoming a registered health psychologist requires a Masters in Health Psychology and a two-year registration Postgraduate Diploma in Health Psychology at the University of Auckland.[84][85] Outside of clinical work in primary, secondary and tertiary healthcare settings, graduates may choose careers in research and health promotion in universities and private settings.[86] Health psychologists are able to join the Institute of Health Psychology (IHP), an institute of the New Zealand Psychological Society, as a practitioner, academic or student affiliate.[87]

## See also

* Applied psychology
* Behavioral medicine
* Bodymind
* Cardiac psychology
* Chronic stress
* Cognitive epidemiology
* European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology
* Healing environments
* Impact of health on intelligence
* Nutrition psychology
* Occupational health psychology
* Occupational safety and health
* Outline of psychology
* Pediatric psychology
* Perseverative cognition
* Self-concealment
* Society for Occupational Health Psychology
* Workplace stress
* Pain Psychology

## References

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4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Health Psychology. Theory-Research-Practice (7th ed.). Sage. 2024. https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/health-psychology/book283308.
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17. ↑ Campbell, Catherine; Murray, Michael (2004). "Community health psychology: promoting analysis and action for social change". Journal of Health Psychology 9 (2): 187–195.
18. ↑ Murray, Michael; Nelson, Geoff; Poland, Blake; Maticka Tyndale, Eleanor; Ferris, Lorraine (2004). "Assumptions and values in community health psychology". Journal of Health Psychology 9 (2): 315–326.
19. ↑ Black, Robert E; Taylor, Carl E; Arole, Shobha; Bang, Abhay; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A; Chowdhury, A Mushtaque R; Kirkwood, Betty R; Kureshy, Nazo et al. (June 2017). "Comprehensive review of the evidence regarding the effectiveness of community–based primary health care in improving maternal, neonatal and child health: 8. summary and recommendations of the Expert Panel" (in en). Journal of Global Health 7 (1). doi:10.7189/jogh.07.010908. ISSN 2047-2978. PMID 28685046. PMC 5475312. http://jogh.org/documents/issue201701/jogh-07-010908.pdf.
20. ↑ Murray, Michael (2014). Critical Health Psychology, Second edition. London: Red Globe Press. ISBN 978-1-137-28264-4.
21. ↑ Murray, Michael (2007). "). “It's in the blood and you're not going to change it”: Fish harvesters' narrative accounts of injury and disability". WORK 28: 165–174.
22. ↑ Gonçalves, Sónia P.; Vieira Dos Santos, Joana; Figueiredo-Ferraz, Hugo; Gil-Monte, Pedro R.; Carlotto, Mary Sandra (2022). "Editorial: Occupational health psychology: From burnout to well-being at work". Frontiers in Psychology 13. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1069318. ISSN 1664-1078. PMID 36452389.
23. ↑ "A history of the development of health psychology.". The Oxford handbook of the development of health psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2011.
24. ↑ Health psychology: Understanding the mind-body connection (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. 2019.
25. ↑ "Promoting organizational health: The evolving practice of occupational health psychology.". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 30 (2): 129–137. April 1999. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.30.2.129.
26. ↑ Alkhawaldeh, Ja'far Mohammad Aqeel; Soh, Kim Lam; Mukhtar, Firdaus Binti Mamat; Peng, Ooi Cheow; Anshasi, Huda A. (2020). "Stress management interventions for intensive and critical care nurses: A systematic review" (in en). Nursing in Critical Care 25 (2): 84–92. doi:10.1111/nicc.12489. ISSN 1478-5153. PMID 31840391. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nicc.12489.
27. ↑ "Doing Histor{y/ies} of Health Psycholog{y/ies}". Journal of Health Psychology 23 (3): 361–371. March 2018. doi:10.1177/1359105317753627. PMID 29502456. http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/4299/3/murray_psy_Specail issue on history (1).pdf.
28. ↑ "The role of psychology in the delivery of health services". The American Psychologist 24 (6): 565–84. June 1969. doi:10.1037/h0027998. PMID 5784100.
29. ↑ "A healthy contribution.". Psychologist 24 (12): 890–892. December 2011.
30. ↑ "Relationship of physical health status and health practices". Preventive Medicine 1 (3): 409–21. August 1972. doi:10.1016/0091-7435(72)90014-x. PMID 5085007.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 "Biological basis of stress-related mortality". Social Science & Medicine. Part E: Medical Psychology 15 (1): 3–42. February 1981. doi:10.1016/0271-5384(81)90061-2. PMID 7020084.
32. ↑ "Behaviorally conditioned immunosuppression". Psychosomatic Medicine 37 (4): 333–40. 1975. doi:10.1097/00006842-197507000-00007. PMID 1162023.
33. ↑ "Behavioral health and behavioral medicine: frontiers for a new health psychology". The American Psychologist 35 (9): 807–17. September 1980. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.35.9.807. PMID 7416568.
34. ↑ "Health psychology". Handbook of Psychology. History of Psychology. 1. New York: Wiley. 2003.
35. ↑ "Stan Maes: the founder of European Health Psychology". Psychology & Health 33 (11): 1317–1320. November 2018. doi:10.1080/08870446.2018.1546801. PMID 30793979.
36. ↑ Health Psychology: Potential in Diversity. Regensburg: S. Roderer Verlag. 1993. p. 420. ISBN 3-89073-656-4.
37. ↑ "About". https://ehps.net/about/.
38. ↑ "The pre-history of health psychology in the United Kingdom: From natural science and psychoanalysis to social science, social cognition and beyond". Journal of Health Psychology 23 (3): 472–491. March 2018. doi:10.1177/1359105317705879. PMID 28810451.
39. ↑ "Clinical health psychology.". Clinical psychology in Britain: Historical perspectives. Leicester: BPS. 2015. pp. 296–308.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 40.5 40.6 "A healthy Contribution". Health Psychology 24 (12): 890–902. 2011.
41. ↑ Current Developments in Health Psychology. Chur/London: Harwood Academic. 1990. p. 358. ISBN 3-7186-5064-9.
42. ↑ "Health psychology: Current trends.". The Psychologist 7: 114–118. 1994.
43. ↑ Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research.. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 1975.
44. ↑ "Social history of health psychology: context and textbooks". Health Psychology Review 8 (2): 215–37. 2014. doi:10.1080/17437199.2012.701058. PMID 25053134.
45. ↑ "False memories for end-of-life decisions". Health Psychology 27 (2): 291–6. March 2008. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.291. PMID 18377150.
46. ↑ "A meta-analysis of psychoeduational programs for coronary heart disease patients". Health Psychology 18 (5): 506–19. September 1999. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.18.5.506. PMID 10519467.
47. ↑ "Do we really drive as we live? The role of personality factors in road crashes.". Alcohol, Drugs & Driving 9: 129–143. 1993.
48. ↑ "A historical analysis of tobacco marketing and the uptake of smoking by youth in the United States: 1890-1977". Health Psychology 14 (6): 500–8. November 1995. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.14.6.500. PMID 8565924.
49. ↑ "With friends like these...: peer delinquency influences across age cohorts on smoking, alcohol and illegal substance use". European Psychiatry 26 (1): 6–12. January 2011. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.09.002. PMID 21067903.
50. ↑ "Change in job strain and progression of atherosclerosis: The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 16 (1): 139–50. January 2011. doi:10.1037/a0021752. PMID 21280950.
51. ↑ "Long-term psychosocial work environment and cardiovascular mortality among Swedish men". American Journal of Public Health 86 (3): 324–31. March 1996. doi:10.2105/ajph.86.3.324. PMID 8604756.
52. ↑ "Mood, blood pressure, and heart rate at work: an experience-sampling study". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 15 (2): 120–30. April 2010. doi:10.1037/a0018350. PMID 20364910.
53. ↑ "Blood pressure changes in men undergoing job loss: a preliminary report". Psychosomatic Medicine 32 (1): 19–38. 1970. doi:10.1097/00006842-197001000-00002. PMID 5418289.
54. ↑ "Social Class and Cardiovascular Disease: The Contribution of Work". International Journal of Health Services 18 (4): 659–74. 1988. doi:10.2190/KTC1-N5LK-J1PM-9GRQ. PMID 3235250.
55. ↑ "Smoking and moods in adolescents with depressive and aggressive dispositions: evidence from surveys and electronic diaries". Health Psychology 20 (2): 99–111. March 2001. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.20.2.99. PMID 11315734.
56. ↑ "The theory of "truth": how counterindustry campaigns affect smoking behavior among teens". Health Psychology 24 (1): 22–31. January 2005. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.1.22. PMID 15631559.
57. ↑ ""I want more time with my doctor": a quantitative study of time and the consultation". Family Practice 21 (5): 479–83. October 2004. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmh502. PMID 15367468.
58. ↑ "Stress prevention in bus drivers: evaluation of 13 natural experiments". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 5 (1): 11–31. January 2000. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.11. PMID 10658882.
59. ↑ "Psychosocial status in chronic illness. A comparative analysis of six diagnostic groups". The New England Journal of Medicine 311 (8): 506–11. August 1984. doi:10.1056/NEJM198408233110805. PMID 6749208.
60. ↑ "Pharmacomicrobiomics and Drug-Infection Interactions: The Impact of Commensal, Symbiotic and Pathogenic Microorganisms on a Host Response to Drug Therapy". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24 (23). December 2023. doi:10.3390/ijms242317100. PMID 38069427.
61. ↑ "Love medicine for the dying and their caregivers: the body of evidence". Journal of Health Psychology 13 (2): 201–12. March 2008. doi:10.1177/1359105307086700. PMID 18375626.
62. ↑ "Combining pharmacotherapy with psychotherapeutic management for the treatment of psychiatric disorders among athletes". Sports Psychiatry 3 (3): 117–123. 2023-09-15. doi:10.1024/2674-0052/a000056. ISSN 2674-0052.
63. ↑ "The role of social networks in adult health: introduction to the special issue". Health Psychology 33 (6): 501–504. June 2014. doi:10.1037/hea0000103. PMID 24884903.
64. ↑ Health psychology. Theory-research-practice (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage. 2011. http://www.uk.sagepub.com/books/Book233714?contribId=516262&.
65. ↑ 65.00 65.01 65.02 65.03 65.04 65.05 65.06 65.07 65.08 65.09 65.10 "Psychology Board of Australia Home Page". https://www.psychologyboard.gov.au.
66. ↑ "Difference between patients' and doctors' interpretation of some common medical terms". British Medical Journal 2 (5704): 286–9. May 1970. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5704.286. PMID 5420179.
67. ↑ "Communication styles in the cancer consultation: preferences for a patient-centred approach". Psycho-oncology 9 (2): 147–56. 2000. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1611(200003/04)9:2<147::aid-pon443>3.0.co;2-x. PMID 10767752.
68. ↑ "Effects of a tailored lifestyle self-management intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes". British Journal of Health Psychology 9 (Pt 3): 365–79. September 2004. doi:10.1348/1359107041557066. PMID 15296683.
69. ↑ "A randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioral therapy for adherence and depression (CBT-AD) in patients with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes". Diabetes Care 37 (3): 625–33. 2014. doi:10.2337/dc13-0816. PMID 24170758.
70. ↑ Psychology in practice: Health. London, England: Hodder & Stoughton Educational. 2002.
71. ↑ "The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods". Pain 1 (3): 277–299. September 1975. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(75)90044-5. PMID 1235985.
72. ↑ "A randomized trial of acupuncture as an adjunctive therapy in osteoarthritis of the knee". Rheumatology 38 (4): 346–54. April 1999. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/38.4.346. PMID 10378713.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 73.3 73.4 73.5 "History and Overview" (in en-US). https://midus.wisc.edu/?page_id=29.
74. ↑ Maras, Jessica; Leger, Kate A. (2024-04-01). ""Think of the situation in a positive light": A look at cognitive reappraisal, affective reactivity and health☆". Social Science & Medicine 346. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116701. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 38452491. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027795362400145X.
75. ↑ Mukherjee, Dahlia; Lee, Sun Ah; Almeida, David (2023-12-01). "Daily Affective Dynamics in Major Depressive Disorder: The Role of Daily Stressors and Positive Events" (in en). Affective Science 4 (4): 757–769. doi:10.1007/s42761-023-00209-x. ISSN 2662-205X. PMID 38156257.
76. ↑ Ong, Anthony D.; Gardner, Samuel; Urganci, Betul; Gunaydin, Gul; Selcuk, Emre (April 2020). "Affective reactivity, resting heart rate variability, and marital quality: A 10-year longitudinal study of U.S. adults." (in en). Journal of Family Psychology 34 (3): 375–382. doi:10.1037/fam0000591. ISSN 1939-1293. PMID 31464453.
77. ↑ "Pharmacomicrobiomics and Drug-Infection Interactions: The Impact of Commensal, Symbiotic and Pathogenic Microorganisms on a Host Response to Drug Therapy". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24 (23). December 2023. doi:10.3390/ijms242317100. PMID 38069427.
78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 The British Psychological Society. (2011). Health Psychology in applied settings: A guide for employers.
79. ↑ "Applied psychology professional training programmes | NHS Ed". https://www.nes.scot.nhs.uk/our-work/applied-psychology-professional-training-programmes/.
80. ↑ "Psychology Board of Australia". https://www.psychologyboard.gov.au.
81. ↑ "Registrar Program". https://www.psychologyboard.gov.au/Endorsement/Registrar-program.aspx.
82. ↑ "Continuing professional development resources". https://www.psychologyboard.gov.au/Standards-and-Guidelines/FAQ/CPD-resources.aspx.
83. ↑ "New Zealand Psychologists Board". https://psychologistsboard.org.nz.
84. ↑ "Accredited Training Programmes". https://psychologistsboard.org.nz/for-education-providers-and-students/accredited-training-programmes/.
85. ↑ "Postgraduate Diploma in Health Psychology". https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/study/study-options/find-a-study-option/postgraduate-diploma-in-health-psychology-pgdiphealthpsych.html.
86. ↑ "Master of Health Psychology". https://www.careers.govt.nz/qualifications/view/AU5527/7001.
87. ↑ "Institute of Health Psychology (IHP)". https://www.psychology.org.nz/members/networking/institutes/institute-health-psychology-ihp.

## External links

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* "American Psychological Association, Division 38: Health Psychology". http://health-psych.org/.
* "Division 38: Health Psychology". APA.org.. http://www.apa.org/about/division/div38.html.
* "Society for Occupational Health Psychology". http://sohp.psy.uconn.edu/.
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* "European Health Psychology Society". http://www.ehps.net/.
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