Jacksonian democracy

Short description: 19th-century American political ideology

Jacksonian Democrats

The first inauguration of Andrew Jackson

Historical leaders| Andrew Jackson
Martin Van Buren
James K. Polk
Thomas Hart Benton
Stephen A. Douglas[1]
Founded| 1825; 201 years ago (1825)[2]
Dissolved| 1854; 172 years ago (1854)
Split from| Democratic-Republican Party
Preceded by| Jeffersonian Republicans
Old Republicans
Merged into| Democratic Party
Ideology| Agrarianism
Anti-corruption[3]
Anti-elitism
Civic engagement
Classical liberalism[4]
Jeffersonianism
Direct democracy
Majority rule[5]
Manifest destiny
Populism
Spoils system
Strict constructionism
Universal white male suffrage[6]
Utilitarianism[5]
Factions:
Radicalism[7]
Conservatism[8]
Anti-British sentiment
Political position| Big tent[9]
Historical:
Left-wing[n 1]
National affiliation| Democratic Party
(after 1828)
Jacksonian Era

1829–1854

Andrew Jackson

Including| Antebellum South
President(s)| Andrew Jackson
Martin Van Buren
William Henry Harrison
John Tyler
James K. Polk
Key events| Trail of Tears
Indian removal
Nullification crisis
Second Great Awakening
Westward expansion
Mexican–American War
Prelude to the Civil War
| ← Preceded by
Era of Good Feelings  | Followed by →
Greater Reconstruction

|

Template:Periods in US history Jacksonian democracy, also known as Jacksonianism, was a 19th-century political ideology in the United States that restructured a number of federal institutions. Originating with the seventh U.S. president, Andrew Jackson and his supporters, it became the nation's dominant political worldview for a generation. The term itself was in active use by the 1830s.[11]

This era, called the Jacksonian Era or Second Party System by historians and political scientists, lasted roughly from Jackson's 1828 presidential election until the practice of slavery became the dominant issue with the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854 and the political repercussions of the American Civil War dramatically reshaped American politics. It emerged when the long-dominant Democratic-Republican Party became factionalized around the 1824 presidential election. Jackson's supporters began to form the modern Democratic Party. His political rivals John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay created the National Republican Party, which would afterward combine with other anti-Jackson political groups to form the Whig Party.

Broadly speaking, the era was characterized by a democratic spirit. It built upon Jackson's equal political policy, subsequent to ending what he termed a monopoly of government by elites. Even before the Jacksonian era began, suffrage had been extended to a majority of white male adult citizens, a result which the Jacksonians celebrated.[12] Jacksonian democracy also promoted the strength of the presidency and the executive branch at the expense of Congress, while also seeking to broaden the public's participation in government. The Jacksonians demanded elected, not appointed, judges and rewrote many state constitutions to reflect the new values. In national terms, they favored geographical expansionism, justifying it in terms of manifest destiny.

Jackson's expansion of democracy was exclusively limited to white men, as well as voting rights in the nation were extended to adult white males only, and "it is a myth that most obstacles to the suffrage were removed only after the emergence of Andrew Jackson and his party. Well before Jackson's election most states had lifted most restrictions on the suffrage for white male citizens or taxpayers."[13] There was also little to no improvement, and in many cases a reduction of the rights of non-white U.S citizens, during the extensive period of Jacksonian democracy, spanning from 1829 to 1860.[14]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 General principles
* 2.1 Election by the "common man"
* 2.2 Factions
* 2.3 Red, white, and black: Race and power in the formation of Jacksonian-era political alliances
* 3 Founding of the Democratic Party
* 3.1 Jacksonian democracy
* 3.2 Reforms
* 4 Jacksonian presidents
* 5 Jackson as partisan symbol
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 Citations
* 9 Bibliography
* 10 External links

## Etymology

In its earliest usage, the phrase "Jacksonian democracy" had a narrower meaning referring to the Democratic Party, particularly as led by Andrew Jackson, who was president of the United States from 1829 to 1837.[15] American historian James Schouler called Jackson's political alliance "the Jackson Democracy" in his 1889 History of the United States Under the Constitution, and in 1890 future president Theodore Roosevelt called the antebellum Democratic Party "the Jacksonian Democracy".[16] Later historians, including Frederick Jackson Turner and William MacDonald, generalized the phrase "Jacksonian democracy" to describe democracy writ large in the United States and what they saw as the influence of the American frontier on the character of American political culture.[17] In the 1945 book The Age of Jackson, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. influentially reinterpreted "Jacksonian Democracy" as a phenomenon of labor struggle against business power rather than of frontier regional influence.[18]

## General principles

In 1999, Historian Robert V. Remini stated that Jacksonian Democracy involved the belief that the people are sovereign, that their will is absolute and that the majority rules.[19]

William S. Belko, in 2015, summarized "the core concepts underlying Jacksonian Democracy" as:

> equal protection of the laws; an aversion to a moneyed aristocracy, exclusive privileges, and monopolies, and a predilection for the common man; majority rule; and the welfare of the community over the individual.[5]

Historian and social critic Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. argued in 1945 that Jacksonian democracy was built on the following:[20]

Property qualifications for suffrage 1830

* Expanded suffrage – The Jacksonians believed that voting rights should be extended to all white men. By the end of the 1820s, attitudes and state laws had shifted in favor of universal white male suffrage[21] and by 1856 all requirements to own property and nearly all requirements to pay taxes had been dropped.[22][23]
* Manifest destiny – This was the belief that Americans had a destiny to settle the American West and to expand control from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, and that the West should be settled by yeoman farmers. However, the Free Soil movement, originally an offshoot of Jacksonianism, argued for limitations on slavery in the new areas to enable the poor white man to flourish — they split with the main party briefly in 1848 when nominated former President Martin Van Buren . The Whigs generally opposed Manifest Destiny and expansion, saying the nation should build up its cities.[24]
* Patronage – Also known as the spoils system, patronage was the policy of placing political supporters into appointed offices. Many Jacksonians held the view that rotating political appointees in and out of office was not only the right, but also the duty of winners in political contests. Patronage was theorized to be good because it would encourage political participation by the common man and because it would make a politician more accountable for poor government service by his appointees. Jacksonians also held that long tenure in the civil service was corrupting, so civil servants should be rotated out of office at regular intervals. However, patronage often led to the hiring of incompetent and sometimes corrupt officials due to the emphasis on party loyalty above any other qualifications.[25]
* Strict constructionism – Like the Jeffersonians who strongly believed in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, Jacksonians initially favored a federal government of limited powers. Jackson said that he would guard against "all encroachments upon the legitimate sphere of State sovereignty". However, he was not a states' rights extremist—indeed, the nullification crisis would find Jackson fighting against what he perceived as state encroachments on the proper sphere of federal influence. This position was one basis for the Jacksonians' opposition to the Second Bank of the United States. As the Jacksonians consolidated power, they more often advocated expanding federal power, presidential power in particular.[26]
* Laissez-faire – Complementing a strict construction of the Constitution, the Jacksonians generally favored a hands-off approach to the economy as opposed to the Whig program sponsoring modernization, railroads, banking, and economic growth.[27][28] The chief spokesman amongst laissez-faire advocates was William Leggett of the Locofocos in New York City.[29][30] Jackson "placed most of the American economy off limits to government regulation. Only paper money bankers faced whatever (slim) interference his bias against governmental regulation allowed. No inequality of wages, prices, profits, inheritance—of the basic structure of American capitalism—had to fear Jackson's egalitarian scorn."[31]
* Opposition to banking – In particular, the Jacksonians opposed government-granted monopolies to banks, especially the national bank, a central bank known as the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson said: "The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!" and he did so.[32] The Whigs, who strongly supported the Bank, were led by Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and Nicholas Biddle, the bank chairman.[33] Jackson himself was opposed to all banks because he believed they were devices to cheat common people—he and many followers believed that only gold and silver should be used to back currency, rather than the integrity of a bank.

### Election by the "common man"

George Caleb Bingham's The County Election ({{{2}}}) depicts democracy in action in Missouri c. 1852, showing an "all-male polling place where voting would go on for two or three days to allow farmers to come in to the county seat" to cast their non-secret ballots.[34] According to the Saint Louis Art Museum, Bingham's painting uses figures ranging from a newly naturalized citizen to a grizzled veteran to a couple of local drunks to demonstrate "the democratic ideal must be embraced even though uninformed votes could prevail."[35]

An important movement in the period from 1800 to 1830—the era immediately before the election of Jackson—was the gradual expansion of the right to vote from only property owning men to include all white men over 21.[36] Older states with property restrictions dropped them, namely all but Rhode Island, Virginia, and North Carolina by the mid-1820s. No new states had property qualifications although three had adopted tax-paying qualifications—Ohio, Louisiana, and Mississippi, of which only in Louisiana were these significant and long lasting.[37] The process was peaceful and widely supported, except in the state of Rhode Island. In Rhode Island, the Dorr Rebellion of the 1840s demonstrated that the demand for equal suffrage was broad and strong, although the subsequent reform included a significant property requirement for any resident born outside of the United States. However, free black men lost voting rights in several states during this period.[38]

The fact that any man was now legally allowed to vote did not necessarily mean he routinely voted. He had to be pulled to the polls, which became the most important role of the local parties. They systematically sought out potential voters and brought them to the polls. Voter turnout soared during the 1830s, reaching about 80% of adult white male population in the 1840 presidential election.[39] Tax-paying qualifications remained in only five states by 1860—Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Delaware and North Carolina.[40]

One innovative strategy for increasing voter participation and input was developed outside the Jacksonian camp. Prior to the presidential election of 1832, the Anti-Masonic Party conducted the nation's first presidential nominating convention. Held in Baltimore, Maryland, September 26–28, 1831, it transformed the process by which political parties select their presidential and vice-presidential candidates.[41]

### Factions

The period from 1824 to 1832 was politically chaotic. The Federalist Party and the First Party System were dead and with no effective opposition, the old Democratic-Republican Party withered away. Every state had numerous political factions, but they did not cross state lines. Political coalitions formed and dissolved and politicians moved in and out of alliances.[42]

More former Democratic-Republicans supported Jackson, while others such as Henry Clay opposed him. More former Federalists, such as Daniel Webster, opposed Jackson, although some like James Buchanan supported him. In 1828, John Quincy Adams pulled together a network of factions called the National Republicans, but he was defeated by Jackson. By the late 1830s, the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whigs—a fusion of the National Republicans and other anti-Jackson parties—politically battled it out nationally and in every state.[43]

### Red, white, and black: Race and power in the formation of Jacksonian-era political alliances

"Unawed by the influence of the great, the rich, or the noble, the people must be heard, and their rights vindicated" was the motto on the Huntsville, Alabama Democrat newspaper title-band in 1829

According to historian Daniel Walker Howe in What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848, Jacksonianism began with allegiance to Jackson the man.[44] As one history put it, "While the Whigs denied it, their party really had its origin in Tennessee in opposition to Jackson."[45] Jackson was an intensely partisan individual, in the most personal sense: his world was divided into friends to be enriched, and enemies to be extinguished. According to John Williams by way of John Floyd, "he [Jackson] never determined on the ruin of any man that he did not succeed."[46] When Davy Crockett famously said "Since you have chosen a man with a timber toe to succeed me, you may all go to hell, and I will go to Texas," it was because Jackson had successfully sought his electoral defeat and backed his peg-legged opponent Adam Huntsman, using electioneering techniques, alleged Crockett, that were dishonorable if not explicitly corrupt.[47][48] Crockett was targeted—in his words "hunted down like a wild varmint"—in part because he declined to endorse Jackson's inebriate nephew for a government job, and in part because he was the only Representative from Tennessee who voted against Indian Removal.[49][50]

Because of Jackson's inherent tendency to tribalism, it was almost inevitable that he became a central figure in the expansion of the political party system in the United States. He was not only the nexus of the Democrats but played the central role of antagonist in the establishment of the Anti-Jacksonians, the Anti-Masons, and the Whigs. The Whigs were organized circa 1834, at which time "discontent with Jackson's policies and personal activities in relation to Tennessee politics had been steadily increasing, not only among certain outstanding men, but among the people of the state generally."[51] In 1835, when Jackson revealed through a quickly-published private letter to "Indian fighter and war chaplain to chieftan Jackson" James Gwin that he wanted Martin Van Buren to succeed him as president, a Louisville newspaper explained that this signal fire had been lit in response to a Nashville newspaper editorial. The Nashville paper had made a well-intentioned inquiry: would Jackson not prefer to see his old Tennessee acquaintance Hugh Lawson White in the White House? "The poor Editor had unwittingly violated the first principles of Jackson-ism, to wit; unflinching adherence to the party candidate for office."[52][53] And the party was, certainly while he lived, an extension of Jackson's inconsistent personal preferences and interests; Thomas P. Abernethy wrote in 1927, "No historian has ever accused Jackson, the great Democrat, of having had a political philosophy. It is hard to see that he even had any political principles. He was a man of action, and the man of action is likely to be an opportunist."[54] Thus, Jacksonianism began without any given roster of principles other than Jackson's lifelong mission to extend "white supremacy across the North American continent."[44] Jackson promoted political equality for white men, but his vision of social egalitarianism beyond that core constituency was essentially nonexistent;[55] anyone who suggested otherwise was despised as a conniving schemer who was disrupting the natural social order for personal advantage and, surely, financial gain.[31]

This editorial cartoon satirizes Jackson's claims to be a "Great Father" to American Indigenous people; behind him the allegorical Columbia has her foot on the neck of a dead man

The removal of Indians from their ancestral lands, so they could be more profitably replaced by Whites and their Black slaves in what became the Cotton Kingdom, "fixed the character of his political party" such that during the Second Party System "voting on Indian affairs proved to be the most consistent predictor of partisan affiliation."[44] According to political historian Joshua A. Lynn, "Democrats painted the political landscape as a Boschian triptych in which fiendish abolitionists, nativists, and temperance crusaders flayed men of their autonomy, manhood, and whiteness."[56] Per Lynn, the core principles of Jacksonism were white supremacy, the perpetuation of slavery, the ethnic cleansing of unceded Indigenous land claims within the territory of the United States, and mass politics, all guided by the worldview that "white men surrendered their sovereignty in proportion to its exercise by people of color."[57] Thus, argue some historians, the color line was the core value of the Jacksonian Democratic Party, in that whether the voters were "urban workingmen, southern planters and yeomen, or frontier settlers" they were unified by a "racial essentialism" that established whiteness as the basis for a voting bloc that might otherwise share few common interests.[57] There has been a school of thought that conflated the Jacksonian Democratic Party with the progressive mode and the later 19th and 20th American labor movements, but historian Edward Pessen argued that Jackson's claim to the allegiances of working men should not be mistaken for an alliance between Jacksonian Age capital-D Democrats and the working class, stating that "Andrew Jackson was no special friend to labor and...working men whether organized or unorganized were in their turn no champions of the Democracy."[58] Thus, Jackson's great innovation was to popularize a cultural norm wherein by "superintending inequality at home...patriarchs mingled in public as equals."[59] As historian William Freehling put it, Jackson's beliefs "took white men's egalitarian government to its (racial) limits and far beyond the (class) limits of the Founding Fathers' aristocratic republicanism...But his constricted definition...excluded almost all of American social inequality from governmental assault. His limited banking reforms left Northern manufacturers and Southern slaveholders untouched. His racial agenda sanctioned governmental consolidation of reds' and blacks' natural inferiority...This monument to American individualism had slaughtered the Bank, crushed the nullifiers, and impeded the secessionists. But that unacknowledged monster, his unimpeded racist capitalism, would haunt egalitarians for generations."[31]

For his part, Jackson was acutely cognizant of the pro-slavery bent of his followers and saw that as a seat of power for the party. In 1840 he wrote to his nephew and political protégé Andrew Donelson about a campaign event in Madison County, Tennessee: "We had a large meeting to day. Polk and Grundy both spoke, to an attentive audience, and all things look well in this District. I have no fears of the result; the abolition question begins to draw the attention, I may say, the serious attention of the people here."[60] When conceiving of a "start date" for the Jacksonian Era of American history, way back in 1874 Samuel Eliot suggested that 1831 was a key year. By 1831 Jackson had consolidated power (he would run again and win a second term in 1832), but Eliot suggested that the year of the Nat Turner slave rebellion and the launch of The Liberator abolitionist newspaper was the beginning of irreversible bifurcation of the body politic into pro-slavery hotheads and anti-racist radicals, and a consequent, perhaps-inevitable civil war. Certainly by the 1850s, the Democrats had become "the party of unswerving white supremacy," although the party leadership never came to any consensus on how to apply that racist philosophy to practical issues of governance.[61]

As late as the 1950s an uneasy lack of clarity about the definition and goals of Jacksonianism led one political historian to admit that 100 years after the fact, they could only tell with certainty what it was not: "...it is not suggested that any plausible editorial selection could identify Jacksonian Democracy with the rise of abolitionism; or (in an exclusive sense) with the temperance movement, school reform, religious enthusiasm or theological liberalism; or (in any sense) with Utopian community building. Yet the variety of meanings which can command some documentary support is too wide for easy assimilation in a coherent interpretation of Jacksonian Democracy. Here there is, I think, a fair field for the critical examination of the major contending theses and, of greater importance, for a fresh reading of the most obvious Jacksonian sources."[62]

> Democracy is, I know full well, a word of power. I know that it has a charm for the hopeful, the generous, the lowly, and the aspiring, as well as for many darker spirits...I know that to be truly Democratic is of more importance than to win and wear the advantages connected with the name...of that which claims a monopoly of office and honors as the due reward of its devotion to equality, I am content to be adjudged lacking. Of that Democracy which robs the...Mexican of half his broad domains, and regards with a covetous eye the last of Spain's declining valuable possessions—which plants its heel on the neck of the abject and powerless negro, and hurls its axe after the flying form of the plundered, homeless, and desolate Indian.—may it be written on my grave that I never was a follower, and lived and died in nothing its debtor!

— Horace Greeley, "Why I Am a Whig" (1852)[63]

## Founding of the Democratic Party

### Jacksonian democracy

1837 cartoon playing on "Jackson" and "jackass", showing the Democratic Party as a donkey, which has remained its popular symbol into the 21st century

The spirit of Jacksonian democracy animated the party that formed around him, from the early 1830s to the 1850s, shaping the era, with the Whig Party the main opposition.[64] The new Democratic Party was rooted in the ideals of Jeffersonian democracy and was a coalition made up of poor farmers, city-dwelling laborers and Irish Catholics.[65]

The new party was pulled together by Martin Van Buren in 1828 as Jackson crusaded on claims of corruption by President John Quincy Adams. The new party (which did not get the name Democrats until 1834) swept to a landslide. As Mary Beth Norton explains regarding 1828:

> Jacksonians believed the people's will had finally prevailed. Through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president. The Democrats became the nation's first well-organized national party.[66]

The platforms, speeches and editorials were founded upon a broad consensus among Democrats. As Norton et al. explain:

> The Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed a central government as the enemy of individual liberty and they believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special-interest groups and created corporate monopolies that favored the rich. They sought to restore the independence of the individual—the artisan and the ordinary farmer—by ending federal support of banks and corporations and restricting the use of paper currency.[67]

Jackson vetoed more legislation than all previous presidents combined. The long-term effect was to create the modern, strong presidency.[68] Jackson and his supporters also opposed progressive reformation as a movement. Progressive reformers eager to turn their programs into legislation called for a more active government. However, Democrats tended to oppose programs like educational reform and the establishment of a public education system. For instance, they believed that public schools restricted individual liberty by interfering with parental responsibility and undermined freedom of religion by replacing church schools.

According to Francis Paul Prucha in 1969, Jackson looked at the Indian question in terms of military and legal policy, not as a problem due to their race.[69] In 1813, Jackson adopted and treated as his own son Lyncoya Jackson, who had been orphaned by Jackson's orders to John Coffee at the Battle of Tallusahatchee during the Creek War—seeing in him a fellow orphan that was "so much like myself I feel an unusual sympathy for him".[70] Lyncoya was one of three indigenous members of Andrew Jackson's household. Lyncoya's biography was used as a defense against charges that Jackson's Indian policies were inhumane as early as 1815,[71]: 141 continuing and accelerating through the 1824 and 1828 presidential elections. Lyncoya died of tuberculosis during the course of the 1828 campaign, allowing his obituary to serve as a platform for such messages.[72]

Among the leading followers was Stephen A. Douglas, senator from Illinois, who was the key player in the passage of the Compromise of 1850, and was a leading contender for the 1852 Democratic presidential nomination. According to his biographer Robert W. Johanssen:

> Douglas was preeminently a Jacksonian, and his adherence to the tenets of what became known as Jacksonian democracy grew as his own career developed. ... Popular rule, or what he would later call popular sovereignty, lay at the base of his political structure. Like most Jacksonians, Douglas believed that the people spoke through the majority, that the majority will was the expression of the popular will.[1]

### Reforms

A Democratic cartoon from 1833 shows Jackson destroying the Bank with his "Order for the Removal", to the annoyance of Bank President Nicholas Biddle, shown as the Devil himself. Numerous politicians and editors who were given favorable loans from the Bank run for cover as the financial temple crashes down. A famous fictional character, Major Jack Downing (right), cheers: "Hurrah! Gineral!"

Jackson fulfilled his promise of broadening the influence of the citizenry in government, although not without vehement controversy over his methods.[73]

Jacksonian policies included ending the bank of the United States, expanding westward and removing American Indians from the Southeast. Jackson was denounced as a tyrant by opponents on both ends of the political spectrum such as Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. This led to the rise of the Whig Party.

Jackson created a spoils system to clear out elected officials in government of an opposing party and replace them with his supporters as a reward for their electioneering. With Congress controlled by his enemies, Jackson relied heavily on the power of the veto to block their moves.

United States main postal mail roads c. 1834; the funding for the Maysville road would have improved the route from Lexington, Kentucky to the Ohio River at Maysville

One of the most important of these was the Maysville Road veto in 1830. A part of Clay's American System, the bill would have allowed for federal funding of a project to construct a road linking Lexington and the Ohio River, the entirety of which would be in the state of Kentucky, Clay's home state. His primary objection was based on the local nature of the project. He argued it was not the federal government's job to fund projects of such a local nature and/or those lacking a connection to the nation as a whole. The debates in Congress reflected two competing visions of federalism. The Jacksonians saw the union strictly as the cooperative aggregation of the individual states, while the Whigs saw the entire nation as a distinct entity.[74]

Carl Lane argues "securing national debt freedom was a core element of Jacksonian democracy". Paying off the national debt was a high priority which would make a reality of the Jeffersonian vision of America truly free from rich bankers, self-sufficient in world affairs, virtuous at home, and administered by a small government not prone to financial corruption or payoffs.[3]

What became of Jacksonian Democracy, according to Sean Wilentz was diffusion. Many ex-Jacksonians turned their crusade against the Money Power into one against the Slave Power and became Republicans. He points to the struggle over the Wilmot Proviso of 1846, the Free Soil Party revolt of 1848, and the mass defections from the Democrats in 1854 over the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Other Jacksonian leaders such as Chief Justice Roger B. Taney endorsed slaveholding rights through the 1857 Dred Scott ruling. Southern Jacksonians overwhelmingly endorsed secession in 1861, apart from a few opponents led by Andrew Johnson. In the North, Jacksonians Martin Van Buren, Stephen A. Douglas and the War Democrats fiercely opposed secession, while Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan and the Copperheads did not.[75]

## Jacksonian presidents

In addition to Jackson, his second vice president and one of the key organizational leaders of the Jacksonian Democratic Party, Martin Van Buren, handily won the election of 1836. He helped shape modern presidential campaign organizations and methods.[76]

Van Buren was defeated in 1840 by Whig William Henry Harrison in a landslide. Harrison died just one month into his term and his vice president, John Tyler, quickly reached accommodation with the Jacksonians. Tyler was then succeeded by James K. Polk, a Jacksonian who won the election of 1844 with Jackson's endorsement.[77] Polk was so closely aligned with Jackson he was sometimes called "Young Hickory."[78] Franklin Pierce had been a supporter of Jackson as well. James Buchanan served in Jackson's administration as minister to Russia and as Polk's secretary of state, but he did not pursue Jacksonian policies. However during the Panic of 1857, Buchanan acted in accordance with Jacksonian democracy principles, which restricted paper money issuance, and froze federal funds for public works projects, causing resentment among some of the population due to his refusal to implement an economic stimulus program.[79] While the government was "without the power to extend relief",[80] it would continue to pay its debts in specie, and while it would not curtail public works, none would be added. In hopes of reducing paper money supplies and inflation, he urged the states to restrict the banks to a credit level of $3 to $1 of specie and discouraged the use of federal or state bonds as security for bank note issues. The economy recovered in several years, though many Americans suffered as a result of the panic.[81] Buchanan had hoped to reduce the deficit, but by the time he left office the federal budget grew by 15%.[80] Finally, Andrew Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of Jackson, became president following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865, but by then Jacksonian democracy had been pushed off the stage of American politics.[82]

Donald Trump has been described as a "Jacksonian" for his similar upset victory, populist rhetoric, and opportunistic foreign policy.[83][84][85][86] He also maintains a personal affinity toward President Jackson and hung his portrait in the Oval Office during his tenure as president.[87][88]

## Jackson as partisan symbol

Jackson himself was used variously as a signifier of partisan allegiances. It was said that in Mississippi, an overwhelmingly Democratic state, "Jackson's word was 'considered as binding as the Koran, his will a rule of action—his name too sacred to be uttered without a blessing.'"[89]

## See also

* Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign
* History of the Democratic Party (United States)
* Jeffersonian democracy
* Native American genocide
* Populism in the United States
* Voting rights in the United States
* Herrenvolk democracy

## Notes

1. ↑ Jacksonian Democrats championed republicanism, expanded suffrage, and a populist, anti-elitist rhetoric. In the context of 19th-century transatlantic politics, these positions aligned them with the radical left of the era, as they opposed established aristocratic privileges and conservative social hierarchies common in Europe at the time.[10]

## Citations

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Robert Walter Johannsen (1973). Stephen A. Douglas. University of Illinois Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-252-06635-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=pCzhaQTh5SEC&pg=PA137. Retrieved 2018-10-04.
2. ↑ "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives, 1789 to Present" (in en). https://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Carl Lane, "The elimination of the national debt in 2025 and the meaning of Jacksonian democracy." Essays in Economic & Business History 25 (2012) pp. 67-78.
4. ↑ Schlesinger, Arthur (1986). The cycles of American history. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-37887-8.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 William S. Belko, "'A Tax On The Many, To Enrich A Few': Jacksonian Democracy Vs. The Protective Tariff." Journal of the History of Economic Thought 37.2 (2015): 277-289.
6. ↑ "Jacksonian Democracy". History. April 4, 2012. https://www.history.com/topics/19th-century/jacksonian-democracy. "More loosely, it alludes to the entire range of democratic reforms that proceeded alongside the Jacksonians' triumph—from expanding the suffrage to restructuring federal institutions."
7. ↑ Eugenio F. Biagini, ed (2004). Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform: Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860-1880. Cambridge University Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-521-54886-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=_z2JMnBpTqgC&dq=radicalism+Jacksonian+Democracy&pg=PT413. Retrieved 2022-11-03. "... which was one of the recurrent themes in European and in particular American radicalism: Jacksonian democrats were ..."
8. ↑ Bradley, Harold W. (July 30, 2024). "Jacksonian Democracy". https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrew-Jackson/Jacksonian-Democracy. "Not the least remarkable triumph of the Jacksonian organization was its success in picturing its candidate as the embodiment of democracy, despite the fact that Jackson had been aligned with the conservative faction in Tennessee politics for 30 years and that in the financial crisis that swept the West after 1819 he had vigorously opposed legislation for the relief of debtors."
9. ↑ Gerring, John (1998). Party Ideologies in America, 1828–1996. Cambridge University Press. p. 162–165.
10. ↑ Wilentz, Sean (2005). The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 250–255, 390-400.
11. ↑ The Providence (Rhode Island) Patriot 25 Aug 1839 stated: "The state of things in Kentucky ... is quite as favorable to the cause of Jacksonian democracy." cited in "Jacksonian democracy", Oxford English Dictionary (2019)
12. ↑ Engerman, pp. 15, 36. "These figures suggest that by 1820 more than half of adult white males were casting votes, except in those states that still retained property requirements or substantial tax requirements for the franchise – Virginia, Rhode Island (the two states that maintained property restrictions through 1840), and New York as well as Louisiana."
13. ↑ Pessen (1985), p. 150.
14. ↑ Warren, Mark E. (1999). Democracy and Trust. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-0-521-64687-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=KepLD0MXbhYC&pg=PA166.
15. ↑ Howe 2009.
16. ↑ Moss 1975, pp. 147, 147n6.
17. ↑ Moss 1975, pp. 148–149.
18. ↑ Cole 1986, p. 151.
19. ↑ Remini, Robert V. (1999). "The Jacksonian Era". https://www.ushistory.org/us/historians/remini.asp.
20. ↑ Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson (1945)
21. ↑ Engerman, p. 14. "Property- or tax-based qualifications were most strongly entrenched in the original thirteen states, and dramatic political battles took place at a series of prominent state constitutional conventions held during the late 1810s and 1820s."
22. ↑ Engerman, pp. 16, 35. "By 1840, only three states retained a property qualification, North Carolina (for some state-wide offices only), Rhode Island, and Virginia. In 1856 North Carolina was the last state to end the practice. Tax-paying qualifications were also gone in all but a few states by the Civil War, but they survived into the 20th century in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island."
23. ↑ Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (2nd ed. 2009) p 29
24. ↑ David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Manifest Destiny (Greenwood Press, 2003).
25. ↑ M. Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Party System in the United States (1910)
26. ↑ Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002) pp 97-120
27. ↑ William Trimble, "The social philosophy of the Loco-Foco democracy." American Journal of Sociology 26.6 (1921): 705-715. in JSTOR
28. ↑ Louis Hartz, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776–1860 (1948)
29. ↑ Richard Hofstadter, "William Leggett, Spokesman of Jacksonian Democracy." Political Science Quarterly 58.4 (1943): 581-594. in JSTOR .
30. ↑ Lawrence H. White, "William Leggett: Jacksonian editorialist as classical liberal political economist." History of Political Economy 18.2 (1986): 307-324.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Freehling, William W. (2008). "Andrew Jackson, Great President (?)". in Finkelman, Paul (in en-us). Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism: From the Missouri Compromise to the Age of Jackson. Perspectives on the History of Congress, 1801–1877. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. pp. 138, 142, 151. ISBN 978-0-8214-1783-6. OCLC 613401991.
32. ↑ Melvin I. Urofsky (2000). The American Presidents: Critical Essays. Taylor & Francis. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-203-00880-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=DBa6WQ5XCowC&pg=PA106.
33. ↑ Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America, From the Revolution to the Civil War (1957)
34. ↑ Howe (2007), p. unpag. ill..
35. ↑ "The County Election" (in en-US). https://www.slam.org/collection/objects/29775/.
36. ↑ Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (2009) ch 2
37. ↑ Engerman, p. 8–9
38. ↑ Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2012). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People (6th ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-495-90499-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=FGSQOiy6uZUC&pg=PT337. Retrieved 2017-09-01.
39. ↑ William G. Shade, "The Second Party System". in Paul Kleppner, et al. Evolution of American Electoral Systems (1983) pp 77-111
40. ↑ Engerman, p. 35. Table 1
41. ↑ William Preston Vaughn, The Anti-Masonic Party in the United States: 1826–1843 (2009)
42. ↑ Richard P. McCormick, The Second American Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era (1966).
43. ↑ Michael F. Holt, Political Parties and American Political Development: From the Age of Jackson to the Age of Lincoln (1992).
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Howe 2007, pp. 356–357.
45. ↑ Hale, Will T.; Merritt, Dixon L. (in en). A History of Tennessee and Tennesseans. 2. p. 430. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044097947352&seq=180. Retrieved 2025-01-12.
46. ↑ Maiden 1958, p. 43.
47. ↑ Daily National Intelligencer and Washington Express, September 2, 1835, Page  3\. via Newspapers.com (https://www.newspapers.com/article/daily-national-intelligencer-and-washing/165206102/ : accessed April 17, 2025), clip page for To the editors
48. ↑ Williams, Paul (2016) (in en). Jackson, Crockett and Houston on the American Frontier: From Fort Mims to the Alamo, 1813-1836. McFarland. pp. 145. ISBN 978-1-4766-2521-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=zFiiDAAAQBAJ&dq=you+may+go+to+hell+and+i+will+go+to+texas+andrew+jackson&pg=PA145.
49. ↑ Shockley, Megan Taylor (1997). "King of the Wild Frontier vs. King Andrew I Davy Crockett and the Election of 1831". Tennessee Historical Quarterly 56 (3): 158–169. ISSN 0040-3261. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42627359.
50. ↑ Lofaro, Michael A. (March 7, 2018). "David "Davy" Crockett". Tennessee Historical Society. http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entries/davy-crockett/.
51. ↑ Moore 1932, p. 66.
52. ↑ "Ukase of General Jackson to His Followers". The Lafayette Free-Press, and Commercial Advertiser: pp. 2. 1835-04-17. https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-lafayette-free-press-and-commercial/170593868/.
53. ↑ "By a Constable". Mississippi Semi-Weekly Free Trader. July 1843. https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-semi-weekly-mississippi-free-trader/170590448/.
54. ↑ Abernethy (1927), p. 76.
55. ↑ Gunter, Joel (2017-05-01). "Civil War historians take on Trump" (in en-gb). https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39723586.amp.
56. ↑ Lynn (2019), pp. 12–14.
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Lynn (2019), p. 29.
58. ↑ Pessen (1985), p. 353.
59. ↑ Lynn (2019), p. 59.
60. ↑ "Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, edited by John Spencer Bassett... v.6-7." (in en). p. 79. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000028623687&seq=107&q1=Abolition.
61. ↑ Yacovone, Donald (2022). Teaching White Supremacy: America's Democratic Ordeal and the Forging of Our National Identity. New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 53, 132. ISBN 9780593316634. OCLC 1289922588.
62. ↑ Meyers (1953), p. 4.
63. ↑ "The Whig almanac, and politicians' register" (in en). Greeley & McElrath. 1852. p. 26. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3726572&seq=30.
64. ↑ Lee Benson in 1957 dated the era from 1827 to 1853, with 1854 as the start of a new era. Lee Benson (2015). The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case. Princeton University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-4008-6726-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=xk59BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA128. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
65. ↑ Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (2005).
66. ↑ Mary Beth Norton (2014). A People and a Nation, Volume I: to 1877. Cengage Learning. p. 348. ISBN 978-1-285-97467-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=BcaiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA348.
67. ↑ Mary Beth Norton (2007). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, Volume I: To 1877. Cengage Learning. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-618-94716-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=fPPVID_ilN0C&pg=PA327.
68. ↑ John Yoo, "Andrew Jackson and Presidential Power." Charleston Law Review 2 (2007): 521+ online .
69. ↑ Prucha, Francis Paul (1969). "Andrew Jackson's Indian policy: a reassessment". Journal of American History 56 (3): 527–539. doi:10.2307/1904204.
70. ↑ Michael Paul Rogin (1991). Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian. Transaction Publishers. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-4128-2347-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=-I4DTLVXhAEC&pg=PA189.
71. ↑ * Gismondi, Melissa (June 12, 2017). Rachel Jackson and the Search for Zion, 1760s–1830s (PhD, History thesis). Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia. doi:10.18130/v3q364.
72. ↑ Rosenwald, Michael S. (2019-06-15). "Andrew Jackson slaughtered Indians. Then he adopted a baby boy he'd orphaned." (in en-US). Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/06/16/andrew-jackson-slaughtered-indians-then-he-adopted-baby-boy-hed-orphaned/.
73. ↑ Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (1993)
74. ↑ Wulf, Naomi (2001). "'The Greatest General Good': Road Construction, National Interest, and Federal Funding in Jacksonian America". European Contributions to American Studies 47: 53–72.
75. ↑ Sean Wilentz, "Politics, Irony, and the Rise of American Democracy." Journal of The Historical Society 6.4 (2006): 537-553, at p. 538, summarizing his book The rise of American democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (2006).
76. ↑ Mark R. Cheathem, The Coming of Democracy: Presidential Campaigning in the Age of Jackson (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018).
77. ↑ "James K. Polk: Life in Brief". Miller Center of Public Affairs. http://millercenter.org/president/biography/polk-life-in-brief.
78. ↑ Pinheiro, John C. (October 4, 2016). "James K. Polk: Life Before the Presidency". Miller Center of Public Affairs. https://millercenter.org/president/polk/life-before-the-presidency.
79. ↑ Michael A. Morrison, "President James Buchanan, Executive Leadership and the Crisis of the Democracy" in James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War, ed. by John W. Quist and Michael J. Birkner, (2013) pp 151
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 Baker 2004, p. 90.
81. ↑ Klein 1962, pp. 314–315.
82. ↑ Gordon-Reed, Annette (2011). Andrew Johnson. Times Books. pp. 45. ISBN 978-0805069488.
83. ↑ McKee, Ross (November 12, 2016). "Is Donald Trump the modern-day Andrew Jackson?". BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-37928282#:~:text='Larger than life',log cabin to White House".&text=Political historian Dr Eamon Phoenix,to the pinnacle of power"..
84. ↑ Taspinar, Omer (October 11, 2024). "Reviving Jacksonian Realism: Trump's Foreign Policy in Potential Second Term". Emirates Policy Center. https://epc.ae/en/details/featured/reviving-jacksonian-realism-trump-s-foreign-policy-in-potential-second-term.
85. ↑ "Trump's path to victory looks a lot like Andrew Jackson’s in 1828. A politics scholar explains why". PBS News Hour. November 9, 2024. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/trumps-path-to-victory-looks-a-lot-like-andrew-jacksons-in-1828-a-politics-scholar-explains-why#:~:text=Like Jackson, Trump reshaped his,building a powerful grassroots movement..
86. ↑ Fowler, Andrew (December 19, 2024). "Trump's New Jacksonian Era". Claremont Institute. https://americanmind.org/salvo/trumps-new-jacksonian-era/.
87. ↑ Johnson, Jenna (March 15, 2017). "Trump cites Andrew Jackson as his hero — and a reflection of himself". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-cites-andrew-jackson-as-his-hero--and-a-reflection-of-himself/2017/03/15/4da8dc8c-0995-11e7-a15f-a58d4a988474_story.html.
88. ↑ Rosenberg, Eli (November 28, 2017). "Andrew Jackson was called 'Indian killer.' Trump honored Navajos in front of his portrait.". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/11/28/andrew-jackson-was-called-indian-killer-trump-honored-navajos-in-front-of-his-portrait/.
89. ↑ Miles, Edwin A. (1958). "Andrew Jackson and Senator George Poindexter". The Journal of Southern History 24 (1): 51–66. doi:10.2307/2955285. ISSN 0022-4642. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2955285.

## Bibliography

* Abernethy, Thomas P. (1927). "Andrew Jackson and the Rise of South-Western Democracy". American Historical Review 33 (1).
* Adams, Sean Patrick, ed. A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson (2013). table of contents
* Altschuler, Glenn C.; Blumin, Stuart M. (1997). "Limits of Political Engagement in Antebellum America: A New Look at the Golden Age of Participatory Democracy". Journal of American History (Organization of American Historians) 84 (3): 855–885 [p. 878–879]. doi:10.2307/2953083.
* Baker, Jean (1983). Affairs of Party: The Political Culture of Northern Democrats in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Bronx, NY: Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-585-12533-6.
* Baker, Jean H. (2004). James Buchanan. Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6946-4.
* Benson, Lee (1961). The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case. New York: Atheneum. OCLC 21378753.
* Bugg, James L. Jr. (1952). Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Short essays.
* Cave, Alfred A. (1964). Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.
* Cave, Alfred A. "The Jacksonian movement in American historiography" (PhD, U Florida, 1961) online free; 258pp; bibliog pp 240–58
* Cheathem, Mark R. (2011). "Andrew Jackson, Slavery, and Historians". History Compass 9 (4): 326–338. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00763.x. https://mcheathem.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/cheathem-aj-slavery-and-historians.pdf. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
* Cheathem, Mark R. and Terry Corps, eds. Historical Dictionary of the Jacksonian Era and Manifest Destiny (2nd ed. 2016), 544pp
* Cole, Donald B. (March 1986). "The Age of Jackson: After Forty Years". Reviews in American History 14 (1): 149–159. doi:10.2307/2702131.
* Cole, Donald B. (1984). Martin Van Buren And The American Political System. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04715-7. https://archive.org/details/martinvanburenam0000cole.
* Cole, Donald B. (1970). Jacksonian Democracy in New Hampshire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-46990-7. https://archive.org/details/jacksoniandemocr0000cole. Uses quantitative electoral data.
* Engerman, Stanley L.; Sokoloff, Kenneth L. (2005). "The Evolution of Suffrage Institutions in the New World". The Journal of Economic History 65 (4): 891–921. doi:10.1017/S0022050705000343. http://www.nber.org/papers/w8512.pdf.
* Ford, Lacy K. "Wealth, Partisanship, Slavery, and the Debate over White Male Democracy in the Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1845." Journal of the Early Republic 45.3 (2025): 325-361.

* Formisano, Ronald P. (1971). The Birth of Mass Political Parties: Michigan, 1827-1861. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04605-1. https://archive.org/details/birthofmasspolit0000form. Uses quantitative electoral data.
* Formisano, Ronald P. (1983). The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503124-9. https://archive.org/details/transformationof0000form. Uses quantitative electoral data.
* Formisano, Ronald P. (1999). "The 'Party Period' Revisited". Journal of American History (Organization of American Historians) 86 (1): 93–120. doi:10.2307/2567408.
* Formisano, Ronald P. (1969). "Political Character, Antipartyism, and the Second Party System". American Quarterly (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 21 (4): 683–709. doi:10.2307/2711603.
* Formisano, Ronald P. (1974). "Deferential-Participant Politics: The Early Republic's Political Culture, 1789-1840". American Political Science Review (American Political Science Association) 68 (2): 473–487. doi:10.2307/1959497.

* Hammond, Bray (1956). Andrew Jackson's Battle with the "Money Power". American Heritage. https://www.americanheritage.com/content/jackson’s-fight-‘money-power’. Retrieved 2018-04-14. He would go on to develop this essay into his Pulitzer-prize-winning Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (1957).
* Hofstadter, Richard (1948). The American Political Tradition. Chapter on AJ.
* Hofstadter, Richard. "William Leggett: Spokesman of Jacksonian Democracy." Political Science Quarterly 58#4 (December 1943): 581–94. in JSTOR
* Hofstadter, Richard (1969). The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780-1840.
* Holt, Michael F. (1999). The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505544-3.
* Holt, Michael F. (1992). Political Parties and American Political Development: From the Age of Jackson to the Age of Lincoln. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-1728-6.
* Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507894-7. OCLC 122701433.
* Howe, Daniel Walker (May 28, 2009). "Goodbye to the 'Age of Jackson'?". New York Review of Books. ISSN 0028-7504. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2009/05/28/goodbye-to-the-age-of-jackson/.
* Kazin, Michael. What It Took to Win: A History of the Democratic Party. (Picador, 2023) online at Google; also see online review of this book
* Klein, Philip S. (1962). President James Buchanan: A Biography (1995 ed.). American Political Biography Press. ISBN 978-0-945707-11-0.
* Kohl, Lawrence Frederick (1989). The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505374-6. https://archive.org/details/politicsofindivi0000kohl.
* Kruman, Marc W. (1992). "The Second American Party System and the Transformation of Revolutionary Republicanism". Journal of the Early Republic (Society for Historians of the Early American Republic) 12 (4): 509–537. doi:10.2307/3123876.
* Lane, Carl. "The Elimination of the National Debt in 1835 and the Meaning Of Jacksonian Democracy." Essays in Economic & Business History 25 (2007). online
* Lynn, Joshua A. (2019) (in en-us). Preserving the White Man's Republic: Jacksonian Democracy, Race, and the Transformation of American Conservatism. A Nation Divided: Studies in the Civil War Era. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvc16sch. Project MUSE book 63831. ISBN 978-0-8139-4250-6. OCLC 1065821195.
* McCormick, Richard L. (1986). The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503860-6. https://archive.org/details/partyperiodpubl00rich.
* McCormick, Richard P. (1966). The Second American Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
* Maiden, Leota Driver (1958). Tennessee Historical Commission, University of Tennessee. "Colonel John Williams". East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications (Knoxville, Tennessee: East Tennessee Historical Society) 30: 7–46. FHL 1345572. ISSN 0361-6193. OCLC 1137265.
* Marshall, Lynn (1967). "The Strange Stillbirth of the Whig Party". American Historical Review (American Historical Association) 72 (2): 445–468. doi:10.2307/1859236.
* McKnight, Brian D., and James S. Humphreys, eds. The Age of Andrew Jackson: Interpreting American History (Kent State University Press; 2012) 156 pages; historiography
* Mayo, Edward L. (1979). "Republicanism, Antipartyism, and Jacksonian Party Politics: A View from the Nation's Capitol". American Quarterly (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 31 (1): 3–20. doi:10.2307/2712484.
* Meyers, Marvin (Spring 1953). "The Jacksonian Persuasion". American Quarterly (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 5 (1): 3–15. doi:10.2307/3031286. ISSN 0003-0678. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3031286.
* Moore, Powell (1932). "The Political Background of the Revolt against Jackson in Tennessee". East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications IV.
* Moss, Richard J. (Summer 1975). "Jacksonian Democracy: A Note on the Origins and Growth or the Term". Tennessee Historical Quarterly 34 (2): 145–153.
* Myers, Marvin (1957). The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics and Belief. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
* Pessen, Edward (1985). Jacksonian America: Society, Personality, and Politics (Rev. ed.). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-01237-2. OCLC 11783430.
* Pessen, Edward (1977). The Many-Faceted Jacksonian Era: New Interpretations. Important scholarly articles.
* Remini, Robert V. (1998). The Life of Andrew Jackson. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography.
* Remini, Robert V. (1959). Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party.
* Rowland, Thomas J. Franklin B. Pierce: The Twilight of Jacksonian Democracy (Nova Science Publisher's, 2012).
* Sellers, Charles (1991). The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846. Influential reinterpretation

* Shade, William G. "Politics and Parties in Jacksonian America." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 110.4 (1986): 483-507. online

* Shade, William G. (1983). "The Second Party System". in Kleppner, Paul. Evolution of American Electoral Systems. Uses quantitative electoral data.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (1945). The Age of Jackson. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History.
* Sellers, Charles (1958). "Andrew Jackson Versus the Historians". Mississippi Valley Historical Review (Organization of American Historians) 44 (4): 615–634. doi:10.2307/1886599.

* Sharp, James Roger (1970). The Jacksonians Versus the Banks: Politics in the States after the Panic of 1837. Uses quantitative electoral data.
* Silbey, Joel H. (1991). The American Political Nation, 1838-1893.
* Silbey, Joel H. (1973). Political Ideology and Voting Behavior in the Age of Jackson.
* Simeone, James. "Reassessing Jacksonian Political Culture: William Leggett's Egalitarianism." American Political Thought 4#3 (2015): 359–390. in JSTOR
* Syrett, Harold C. (1953). Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition.
* Taylor, George Rogers (1949). Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States. Excerpts from primary and secondary sources.
* Van Deusen, Glyndon G. (1963). The Jacksonian Era: 1828-1848. Standard scholarly survey.
* Wallace, Michael (1968). "Changing Concepts of Party in the United States: New York, 1815-1828". American Historical Review (American Historical Association) 74 (2): 453–491. doi:10.2307/1853673.
* Ward, John William (1962). Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age.
* Wellman, Judith. Grassroots Reform in the Burned-over District of Upstate New York: Religion, Abolitionism, and Democracy (Routledge, 2014).
* Wilentz, Sean (1982). "On Class and Politics in Jacksonian America". Reviews in American History (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 10 (4): 45–63. doi:10.2307/2701818.
* Wilentz, Sean (2005). The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. Highly detailed scholarly synthesis.
* Wilson, Major L. (1974). Space, Time, and Freedom: The Quest for Nationality and the Irrepressible Conflict, 1815-1861. Intellectual history of Whigs and Democrats.

Primary sources

* Blau, Joseph L., ed. Social Theories of Jacksonian Democracy: Representative Writings of the Period 1825–1850 (1954) online edition
* Eaton, Clement ed. The Leaven of Democracy: The Growth of the Democratic Spirit in the Time of Jackson (1963) online edition

## External links

* American Political History Online
* Second Party System 1824–1860 short essays by scholar Michael Holt
* Tales of the Early Republic collection of texts and encyclopedia entries on Jacksonian Era, by Hal Morris
* Register of Debates in Congress, 1824–1837; complete text; searchable
* Daniel Webster
* The works of Daniel Webster... 6 vol, 1853 edition
* Documents on Indian removal 1831–1833
* War with Mexico: links
* Hammond, The history of political parties in the state of New-York(1850) history to 1840 from MOA Michigan
* Triumph of Nationalism 1815–1850 study guides & teaching tools

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