Job rotation

Short description: Technique used by employers

Job rotation is the lateral transfer of employees between jobs in an organization without a change in their hierarchical rank or salary grade. Rotated employees usually do not remain in these jobs permanently and may also not return to former jobs. The frequency and duration of intervals in a job rotation can vary widely from daily to periods of years. The practice serves several functions including staffing, employee motivation, managing employee fatigue, employee orientation and placement, and career development.[1]

Job rotation is used systematically by a large number of companies.[2] This can be through structured job rotation programmes, or informally though the frequent lateral transfers that occur in organizations. Rotations are more common among lower performing staff who don’t generally achieve sizeable performance gains after a rotation. The rotation of higher performing staff is less prevalent, but has been shown to be beneficial for them with sizeable performance increases within two years of a job rotation. Most companies using job rotation have less strict attendance policies due to increased employee engagement and flexibility, while most organizations that implement job rotation focus on productivity and skill development, which can lead to more adaptive workplace policies. Rotation differs from promotion, which refers to an upward movement or rise in rank in an organizational hierarchy, usually indicated by an increase in responsibility and status and change in compensation.[2]

Job rotation contradicts the principles of specialization and the division of labor, which suggest employees specialize in narrowly defined tasks as a way to increase productivity. It also differs from practices such as traditional craft production, where a craftsperson may perform all the tasks to produce a final product, and job enlargement where the scope of a job may be extended.[3]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Benefits
* 2.1 Organisations
* 2.2 Employee
* 3 Drawbacks
* 3.1 Organisations
* 3.2 Employees
* 4 See also
* 5 References

## History

Records show job rotation has been used by communal societies, such as the Shakers since the nineteenth century.[3]

There is evidence that job rotation has been practiced by firms in Japan since the early 1950’s.[3] Toyo Kogyo Company the Japanese firm that now produces Mazda automobiles, has been one such company.[4] Toyo has used job rotation to redeploy staff during economic events, but does exclude some expert areas from their system (e.g. research and development).[4]

Potentially due to the widespread usage of job rotation in Japan and the success of Japanese firms, interest in job rotation increased in the United States of America in the 1980's.[3]

The concept of job rotation has also been used to develop active labor market policies. A scheme introduced in Denmark in the early 1990’s supported unemployed people to rotate into the jobs of employed people, to enable them to participate in further training.[5]

## Benefits

Job rotation offers numerous benefits for both organisations and employees:

### Organisations

* Workforce flexibility: From an organizational perspective, job rotation promotes a more flexible workforce by allowing employees to gain experience across multiple areas.[6][7] Organizations benefit from this cross-functional experience because having a more flexible, multi-skilled workforce enables employees that can be redeployed as needed. Such flexibility minimizes operational disruptions and enables organisations to respond swiftly to shifting organizational demands such as in times of employee absence or organizational change.[8] Moreover, a flexible workforce is better equipped to innovate and solve complex problems, thereby enhancing overall effectiveness and responsiveness.
* Improved performance: Job rotation can significantly enhance both individual and organizational performance. As employees are exposed to different areas, it facilitates knowledge transfer and best practice sharing throughout the organisation which can lead to increased innovation and improved processes. Also, through job rotation, employees gain broader experience and develop new skills, it results in them bringing fresh perspectives and innovative ideas to their roles, which can lead to improved overall job performance and increased value to the organisation.[7][8] * Enhanced public service delivery: In the public sector, job rotation through various departments offers a holistic understanding of public service delivery.[8] When staff members are familiar with multiple roles and departments, they can approach problems with a more comprehensive perspective,[6] leading to more innovative and effective solutions. This holistic understanding allows employees to address public policy issues, ensuring that services are delivered more efficiently and effectively.

### Employee

* Skill development: One of the primary benefits of job rotation is that it helps develop workers’ knowledge and skills within the organisation.[9][6][7] By rotating through various roles, employees are exposed to diverse tasks, responsibilities, and tools which broadens their skill sets and knowledge base. This experience equips employees with transferable skills, making them more adaptable to organizational changes{{citation needed|date=October 2024} x tasks across different departments.
* Increased job satisfaction and motivation: Job rotation significantly contributes to increased job satisfaction and motivation.[10] By introducing of new tasks and responsibilities, it provides new challenges, reduces boredom,[11] helps prevent burnout [6][7] and leads to improved staff morale.[9] This variety helps to foster engagement and a positive work environment, improving overall job satisfaction.
* Broader organizational understanding: Job rotation provides employees with an opportunity to gain insights into the organization's diverse work[9] and how their roles impact overall operations. By working across various roles and departments, employees develop a holistic understanding of the organization's processes, goals, and interdependencies. This broader view enables employees to better understand how their work contributes to the organisation, while also equipping employees to collaborate more effectively across teams, share knowledge, break down silos and improve communication.
* Career growth opportunities: As a tool for training and development, this practice fosters diverse skill-building and better prepares individuals for career advancement.[9] By experiencing various roles, employees gain a deeper understanding of different career paths and organizational functions. This is especially beneficial for those aspiring to management positions. Additionally, exposure to various roles and departments also enhances versatility and adaptability, making employees more competitive for promotions and leadership roles.
* Health and well-being: Incorporating job rotation can have a positive impact on employees' health and well-being. It alleviates physical strain and reduces stress, particularly in roles involving repetitive physical tasks and physically demanding jobs. Similarly, employees in mentally demanding roles can benefit from rotating into different tasks, which helps reduce mental fatigue and stress.[6] By varying tasks and responsibilities, job rotation can help reduce the physical and mental stress that often comes with repetitive work, contributing to a healthier and more engaged workforce.[6]
* Employee retention: Fostering a sense of growth and value among employees can significantly impact retention. Employees who are given the opportunity to rotate through various roles often feel that their organisation is investing in their development, which encourages loyalty and reduces turnover. Providing growth opportunities internally through job rotation can also improve employee retention, as it prevents skilled workers from seeking them externally.[11] The continuous learning opportunities provided through job rotation help maintain employee engagement, further reducing the likelihood of employees leaving the organisation.

## Drawbacks

Job rotation also presents several challenges for organisations and employees:

### Organisations

* Increased training resource costs: Job rotation incurs both direct and indirect costs. Direct expenses include the financial cost for training employees across other roles, while indirect costs arise from the time and resources needed for effective role transitions.[12][13][14] During the learning phase, employees may make more errors, leading to further costs and reduced operational efficiency.[1][14] Given that approximately one-third of U.S. employees and one fifth of Europe employees change jobs within a 12-month period, the costs associated with job rotation may not be justified for some organizations.[15]
* Temporary productivity losses: Job rotation is often associated with an initial temporary reduction in productivity, as employees undergo a learning curve while transitioning into new roles.[12][14] Loss of productivity occurs as employees learn new roles, transfer skills and familiarize themselves with new team dynamics.[16] This productivity loss can affect both the department the employee is leaving and the department receiving the employee.[1][7][17]
* Employees’ resistance to change: Employees may resist job rotation due to unfamiliar roles, anxiety or lack of motivation to learn new tasks.[18][19] Some employees may feel protective of their current role, especially if they have developed expertise and derive personal satisfaction from their position. Additionally, concerns about losing skills, job stability or the perception that increased responsibilities from rotation are not adequately reflected in wages may fuel resistance.[18][19]
* Decreased employee accountability: Frequent job rotations can diminish individual accountability, as employees may feel less responsible for long-term outcomes, reducing efforts and engagement.[14] This can make it challenging for expectations to be met, leading to increased stress.[19][10]
* Organizational resistance to job rotation: Implementing job rotation may face resistance from both leadership and employees. In larger or more complex organizations, where knowledge-sharing systems and job structures are more bureaucratic, the effectiveness of job rotation strategies may diminish. Additionally, resistance may also arise from organizational cultures that are reluctant to share knowledge or adapt to changes brought by job rotation.[14][20]
* Factors limit the implementation of job rotation: In industries requiring highly specialized skills, such as in law or medicine, job rotation may be impractical. Additionally, the growing prevalence of artificial intelligence and automation of repetitive tasks reduces the need for job rotation in certain sectors.[21]

### Employees

* Burnout and exhaustion: Frequent or poorly managed job rotation can lead to employee exhaustion and burnout.[10] Employees might experience mental fatigue or heighten stress from constantly having to adapt to new roles, particularly when there isn’t adequate support.[18][22]
* Increased injury risk: Job rotation is often used to reduce physical strain from repetitive tasks. However evidence on its effectiveness in preventing musculoskeletal complaints is contradictory and open to interpretation.[23] Rotating employees into jobs with a high risk of injury can increase the overall risk of workplace injuries.[24] Insufficient training or rotating unskilled workers into more physical or mentally demanding roles may further elevate the risk of injury.[19]
* Reduced expertise and role clarity: Frequent job rotation can hinder employees from developing deep expertise in one area, creating confusion about employee’s individual roles and responsibilities.[16][7] This reduction in task specialization can lower productivity and reduce product quality.[7][19]
* Increased job dissatisfaction and slowed career growth: Job rotation can make it challenging for managers to assess individual’s long-term contributions and skill developments, potentially limiting recognition and slowing career progression. Employees may feel overlooked, leading to increased job dissatisfaction.[16]

## See also

* Job crafting
* Job enlargement
* Job satisfaction
* Division of labor

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens (1994). "Career-related antecedents and outcomes of job rotation.". Academy of Management Journal 37 (6): 1518–1542.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Kampkötter, Harbring, & Sliwka (2016). "Job rotation and employee performance – evidence from a longitudinal study in the financial services industry.". The International Journal of Human Resource Management 29 (10): 1709–1735. doi:10.1080/09585192.2016.1209227.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Cosgel & Miceli (1998). "On Job Rotation". Economics Working Papers (199802). https://opencommons.uconn.edu/econ_wpapers/199802.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lohr, Steve (12 July 1982). "How job rotation works for Japanese". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/12/business/how-job-rotation-works-for-japanese.html.
5. ↑ Hutchinson, J (1999). "Job Rotation: Linking learning, business growth and unemployment?". Local Economy 14 (2): 175–179. doi:10.1080/02690949908726486. https://doi-org.helicon.vuw.ac.nz/10.1080/02690949908726486.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Ekanem, E. U.; Umeh, I. I.; Okeke, C. O. (2022). "Job rotation and employee performance in public sector: A study of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam". International Journal of Business Systems and Economics 13 (7): 61–83. https://www.arcnjournals.org/images/2726452731374.pdf.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Casad, Scott (2012). "Implications of job rotation literature for performance improvement practitioners" (in en). Performance Improvement Quarterly 25 (2): 27–41. doi:10.1002/piq.21118. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/piq.21118.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Benefits and Implementation of Job Rotation: Recommendations for Kuwaiti Civil Service Commission". Journal of International Business and Management. 2022. doi:10.37227/JIBM-2021-12-3286.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Rasyid, Rosyeni; Wardi, Yunia; Musawir, Musawir (2019). "The effect of job rotation, compensation and organizational citizenship behaviour on employees' performance of PT Pegadaian (Persero)". Proceedings of the 2nd Padang International Conference on Education, Economics, Business and Accounting (PICEEBA-2 2018). doi:10.2991/piceeba2-18.2019.96. ISBN 978-94-6252-703-4.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Foroutan, Taraneh; Safavi, Homayoun Pasha; Bouzari, Mona (2021). "The ugly side of job rotation". International Journal of Hospitality Management 95. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102929. ISSN 0278-4319. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278431921000724.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Arya, Anil; Mittendorf, Brian (2006). "Using Optional Job Rotation Programs to Gauge On-the-Job Learning". Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 162 (3): 505–515. doi:10.1628/093245606778387401.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Dhanraj, Dayanath; Parumasur, Sanjana Brijball (2014). "EMPLOYEE PERCEPTIONS OF JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND CHALLENGES OF JOB ROTATION" (in en). Corporate Ownership and Control. https://virtusinterpress.org/EMPLOYEE-PERCEPTIONS-OF-JOB.html.
13. ↑ Santos, Ronnie E. S.; da Silva, Fabio Q. B.; Baldassarre, Maria Teresa; de Magalhães, Cleyton V. C. (2017). "Benefits and limitations of project-to-project job rotation in software organizations: A synthesis of evidence". Information and Software Technology 89: 78–96. doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2017.04.006. ISSN 0950-5849. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950584917303646.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Thongpapanl, Narongsak; Kaciak, Eugene; Welsh, Dianne H.B. (2018). "Growing and aging of entrepreneurial firms: Implications for job rotation and joint reward". International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 24 (6): 1087–1103. doi:10.1108/IJEBR-03-2018-0135. ISSN 1355-2554. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJEBR-03-2018-0135/full/html.
15. ↑ Cooper-Thomas, Helena; Anderson, Neil Robert; Cash, Melanie (2011). "Investigating organizational socialization: A fresh look at newcomer adjustment strategies". Personnel Review 41 (1): 41–55. doi:10.1108/00483481211189938. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235267962.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Santos, Ronnie E. S.; Da Silva, Fabio Q. B.; De Magalhães, Cleyton V. C.; Monteiro, Cleviton V. F. (2016). "Building a theory of job rotation in software engineering from an instrumental case study" (in en). Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Software Engineering. pp. 971–981. doi:10.1145/2884781.2884837. ISBN 978-1-4503-3900-1.
17. ↑ Santos, Ronnie E. S.; da Silva, Fabio Q. B.; de Magalhães, Cleyton V. C. (2016). "Benefits and limitations of job rotation in software organizations: A systematic literature review". Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering. EASE '16. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1145/2915970.2915988. ISBN 978-1-4503-3691-8. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2915970.2915988.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Richardson, Annette; Douglas, Margaret; Shuttler, Rachel; Hagland, Martin R (2003). "Critical care staff rotation: outcomes of a survey and pilot study" (in en). Nursing in Critical Care 8 (2): 84–89. doi:10.1046/j.1478-5153.2003.00011.x. ISSN 1362-1017. PMID 12737193. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1478-5153.2003.00011.x.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Triggs, Donald. D; King, Phyllis. M (2000). "Job rotation". Professional Safety 45 (2): 32. ProQuest 200413731. https://www.proquest.com/docview/200413731.
20. ↑ Brunold, Julia; Durst, Susanne (2012). "Intellectual capital risks and job rotation". Journal of Intellectual Capital 13 (2): 178–195. doi:10.1108/14691931211225021. ISSN 1469-1930. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/14691931211225021/full/html.
21. ↑ Du, Jiaxing (2024). "AI and Your Job What's Changing and What's Next" (in en). Frontiers in Science and Engineering 4 (7): 116–124. doi:10.54691/0dbksd82. https://discovery.researcher.life/article/ai-and-your-job-what-s-changing-and-what-s-next/a649f5b0f92a32a187bbdea82677d0f8.
22. ↑ Ollo-Lopez, Andrea; Bayo-Moriones, Alberto; Larraza-Kintana, Martin (2010). "The Relationship between New Work Practices and Employee Effort" (in en). Journal of Industrial Relations 52 (2): 219–235. doi:10.1177/0022185609359446. ISSN 0022-1856. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022185609359446.
23. ↑ Leider, Priscilla C.; Boschman, Julitta S.; Frings-Dresen, Monique H. W.; van der Molen, Henk F. (2015). "Effects of job rotation on musculoskeletal complaints and related work exposures: a systematic literature review". Ergonomics 58 (1): 18–32. doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.961566. ISSN 1366-5847. PMID 25267494.
24. ↑ Mehdizadeh, Amir; Vinel, Alexander; Hu, Qiong; Schall, Mark C.; Gallagher, Sean; Sesek, Richard F. (2020). "Job rotation and work-related musculoskeletal disorders: a fatigue-failure perspective". Ergonomics 63 (4): 461–476. doi:10.1080/00140139.2020.1717644. ISSN 1366-5847. PMID 31951779.

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